GEOGRAPHY

Physical geography
Basics of Geography
• Geo = Earth and Graph = Study
• The word Geography was coined by Eratosthenes.
• Person who studies Geography is called a Geographer.
• A Region is the basic unit of study in Geography.
• GIS (Geographic Information System), GPS (Global Positioning
System) and Remote sensing are tools that geographers use to
study the world.
Major Contributors in the Field of Geography
• Eratosthenes - Father of Geography
• Alexander von Humboldt - Father of Modern Geography
• James Rennell - Father of Indian Geography
• ■ Eratosthenes was the first person to calculate the circumference of the
Earth and also calculate the tilt of the Earth’s axis.
• ■ Anaximander created the first map of world.
• ■ Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita gave a thorough description of planetary
movements, rainfall, clouds etc.
• ■ Ptolemy first presented India on the world map.
• ■ The History of Mankind was written by Friedrich Ratzel.
Universe

Galaxies Solar System Earth

• Ptolemy • Kepler
• Copernicus • Edwin Hubble
• ● In AD 140, Ptolemy propounded the theory that the Earth was the
centre of the universe and the Sun and the other heavenly bodies
revolved around it.
• ● In 1543, Copernicus said that the Sun and not the Earth is the
centre of universe.
• ● Kepler supported Copernicus but said that the Sun is the centre of
solar system and not the universe.
• ● In 1924, Edwin Hubble first demonstrated existence of galaxies
beyond Milky Way
Universe and Galaxies
• Universe
• Big Bang Explosion
• Galaxies - Galileo
• 3 Types - Spiral, Elliptical, Irregular in shape
• Milky Way or Akash Ganga is our Galaxy
• Andromeda is our nearest Spiral Galaxy
• Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy which is irregular in shape
Evolution Theory
• Big Bang Theory –
Georges Lemaitre
• 13.8 billion years ago
Other Theories
• Pulsating Theory - Arthur Eddington
• Expanding and Contracting
• Steady State Theory - Sir Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold and Sir Fred Hoyle
• Though Universe expands the core remains stable
Stars
• A star is a luminous ball of gas.
• Mostly Hydrogen and Helium
• Nuclear fusion reaction
• The Sun is the closest star to the Earth.
• Closest star to solar system

• ■ Closest star to our solar system is Proxima Centauri (4.2 light years away)
• followed by Alpha Centauri (4.3 light years away) and Barnard’s Star (5.9 light years away).

• Brightest star outside solar system is Sirius, also called as Dog Star.
Stages of Star Formation
1) Proto Star - Helium becomes heavy

2) Red Giant - reddening of stars

3) White Dwarf - cooling and contraction

4) Spinning neutron star called - Pulsars

 Black Holes
• Strong gravity
• Happens when a star is dying
• Spinning neutron star called - Pulsars
• A supernova is an exploding star that blasts part of the
star into space.
• The Sun will never turn into a black hole.
• The Sun is not a big enough star to make a black hole.
• Concept of Black Hole and Chandrashekhar Limit
• ● A renowned Indian Physicist Chandrashekhar had predicted an
upper limit to the mass of stars, which is called as Chandrashekhar
limit. It is 1.44 times the mass of the Sun.
• ● Above the upper limit, two conditions are possible.
1. Explosion of the star to form neutron star.
• 2. Collapse and compaction of the stars to form Black Hole.
• ● The black holes are formed due to collapse and compaction under
gravity, at the end of the life cycle of a star.
Concepts related to Universe
• Light Year
• Unit of distance a light can travel.
• A light year is the distance that light travels in vacuum in one Julian year
(365.25 days).
• 9.461 x 1015 m
• Astronomical Unit (AU)
• Average distance between the Sun and the Earth.
• 1AU = 1.495 x 1011 m
Solar System
The Sun
• Center of the solar system
• Nuclear fusion – energy
• 150 million km from the Earth
• Rotation time - 25 Days
• Time taken by sunlight to reach earth - 8.3 min
• The Sun is rotating in counter-clockwise direction
• Diameter: 13,92,000 km
• Temperature of Core: 20-15 million Celsius Apparent surface temperature: 5778°C
(6000°C approximately)
• Chemical composition: Hydrogen-69.5%, Helium-28%. Carbon, Nitrogen and Oxygen-2%,
Magnesium, Sulphur, Silicon and Iron 0.5%
Structure of the Sun
Solar Eclipse
• New Moon
• Pluto is not a Planet Now
• ● Pluto was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930.
• ● The redefinition of planet by the International Astronomical Union (IAU)
on 24th August, 2006 states that, in the solar system, a planet is a celestial
body that
• ¡ it is in orbit around the Sun.
• ¡ it has sufficient mass so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly
round) shape.
• ¡ it has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.
• ● A non-satellite body fulfilling the first two rule is classified as a Dwarf
planet. So, Pluto was reclassified as a Dwarf planet.
Planets Comparison
Planets Distance from Rotation Orbit Moon
Sun (km)

Mercury 36 mn 59 days 88 days

Venus 67 mn 243 days 225 days

Earth 150mn 24 hrs 365 days

Mars 227 mn 24.4 hrs 697 days

Jupiter 773 mn 10 hrs 11.6 years

Saturn 1427 mn 10.4 hrs 29.46 years

Uranus 2.8 bn 17 hrs 84 years

Neptune 4.4 bn 18-22 hrs 165 years

• 12/20
Overview Diagram
Asteroids
• Smaller in size
• Not spherical
• Revolve around the Sun
• Between Mars and Jupiter
 Meteors
• Collisions between asteroids
• Earth’s atmosphere - Shooting stars
• Geminid - 14th December

• Meteorite craters in India

• Lonar Lake (1.8 km in diameter) in Buldhana
District of Maharashtra
• Dhala crater (14 km in diameter) in Shivpuri
district, Madhya Pradesh and
• Ramgarh crater (3.5 km in diameter) is a
potential meteorite crater in Kota plateau in
Rajasthan.
Comets
• Highly elliptical orbits around the Sun
• Found in Kuiper Belt
• Mostly travels towards the Sun
• Halley’s Comet which appears every 75-76 years
• Last appeared : 1986
• Next appearance : 2061
Moon
• One - quarter that of the Earth
• Tidally locked
• Gravitational pull 1 : 6
• Time taken - 1.3s
• No atmosphere
• Silicon, iron, magnesium
Lunar Eclipse
• Full moon
Types of Moon
• Full moon - Full moon is visible
• New moon - Moon will not be visible
• Super moon - Position of moon will be closer to the earth
• Blue moon - 2nd full moon day of a month
• Black moon - 2nd new moon day of a month

• 19/20
The Earth
The Earth
• Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the densest
• fifth-largest of the eight planets in the solar system.
• largest of the solar system’s four terrestrial planets.
• Earth is also called as Blue Planet.
THE EARTH’S MOVEMENT
• Rotation and Revolution.
(i) It rotates on its own axis from West to East once in every 24 hours.
It causes day and night.
(ii) (ii) It revolves around the Sun in an orbit once in every 365¼ days.
It causes the seasons and the year.
Specifics of the Earth
• Shape - oblate spheroid or geoid
• Rotation - 23 hrs 56 min 4.09 sec west to east
• Revolution - 365 days 5 hrs 48 minutes 45 sec counter clockwise

• 05/17
Rotation of Earth
• ● Spins on its imaginary axis from West to East in 23 hours, 56 minutes and
4.09 seconds.
• ● The rotational speed at equator is maximum (1667 km/hr) and then
decreases towards the poles, where it is zero.
• ● The days and the nights are equal at the equator. The rotation of the
• Earth has the following implications such as:
• ■ Causation of day and night.
• ■ Change in the direction of winds and ocean currents.
• ■ Rise and fall of tides everyday.
• ■ A difference of one hour between the two meridians which are 15° apart.
Revolution of Earth
• It is the Earth’s motion in elliptical orbit around the Sun.
• It takes 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 45.51 seconds. It leads to
one extra day in every fourth year.
• The revolution of the Earth results in
• ■ changes of season.
• ■ variation of the length of the days and nights at different times of
the year.
Latitudes and zones of the Earth
• Tropical zone - hottest
• Temperate zone - moderate
• Polar zone – coldest

• The distance between any two

parallels of latitude is always equal.
• One degree latitude = 111 km
(approx).
• The most important lines of latitudes
are
• Equator (0°), the Tropic of Cancer
(23½°N), the Tropic of Capricorn
(23½°S), the Arctic Circle (66½°N) and
the Antarctic Circle (66½°S).
• 06/17
Longitudes
• 0 Degree is known as Prime Meridian or Greenwich Meridian
• Earth rotates 360° in 24 hours
• 360/24 = 15°
• 15° longitude = 1 hour
Russia has as many as 11 time zones

• International Date Line

• ● It is the 180 degree meridian running over the Pacific Ocean, deviating at Aleutian Island, Fiji,
Samoa and Gilbert Island.
• ● At the International Date Line, the date changes by exactly one day, when it is crossed.
• ● Samoa and Tokelau shifted its position to the West of the date line on 30th December, 2011.

• 07/17
When a ship crosses the International Date Line from west to
east, then its time moves forward by one day.
Axial tilt of the Earth
Movements of the Earth
• Equinoxes
• ● These are the days, when days and nights are equal. Under this situation, the Sun is vertically
overhead at the equator. It happens on two days of the year i.e. 21st March and 23rd September.
• ● 21st March: Vernal Equinox.
• ● 23rd September: Autumnal Equinox.
• Summer Solstice
• ● After the March equinox, the Sun appears to move Northward and is vertically overhead at
the Tropic of Cancer on 21st June. This is known as Summer Solstice.
• ● On 21st June, the Northern hemisphere will have its longest day and shortest night. The
Southern hemisphere will have shortest day and longest night.
• Winter Solstice
• ● On 22nd December, the Sun is overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn. This is the winter solstice,
when the Southern hemisphere will have its longest day and shortest night
Layers Of Earth

• 10/17
Earth’s Composition
• Earth’s Crust
• Earth as a Whole
• Oxygen (O2) - high
• Iron (Fe) - high
• Silicon (Si)
• Oxygen (O2)
• Aluminium (Al)
• Silicon (Si)
• Iron (Fe)
• Magnesium (Mg)
• Calcium (Ca)
• Sulphur (S)
• Sodium (Na)
• Nickel (Ni)
• Potassium (K)
• Calcium (Ca)
• Magnesium (Mg)
• Aluminium (Al) - low
The Crust
• This layer has the least density and its thickness varies about 8 to 40 km
• The mean thickness of oceanic crust is 5 km whereas that of the continental is around 30
km. The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain systems. It is as much
as 70 km thick in the Himalayan region.
• Mohorovicic Discontinuity or Moho, marks the lower limit of the crust
• Thickness of the crust is more in the continents and lesser in the oceans while density of
continental crust is lower than oceanic crust.
• The rocks forming the upper layer of crust of the Earth are rich in lighter minerals like
silica and aluminium. Hence, this layer is also called as SiAl (silica and aluminium).
• The average density of this layer is 2.7 gm/cm3 .
• Due to presence of minerals like silica and magnesium in the lower part of Earth’s crust,
it is also known as SiMa (silica and magnesium).
• ● Sial and Sima together form Earth’s crust
The Mantle
• It is about 2900 km in thickness, composed of minerals in a semisolid
state
• It is divided into further two layer upper mantle and lower mantle.
The upper part of the mantle is called the Asthenosphere, which is
about 250 km thick
• The average density of this layer is about 5.68 gm/cm3 .
The Core
• ● The core is the innermost layer of the Earth and occupies its centre. It is
about 3500 km in radius.
• ● The core is further divided into two layers : outer core and inner core.
• ● The outer part of the core is believed to have the properties of a liquid
and the
• Innermost part of the core (about 1255 km in radius) may be called solid or
crystalline. This layer is also known as NiFe (nickel and iron), because this
layer contain large concentration of iron and nickel.
• ● Temperature of the core is between 2200°C and 2750° C.
• ● Density of this part of the Earth is 13.6 gm/cm3 and is many times
greater than the average density of the Earth (5.53 gm/cm3 )
Theories of the Earth formation

Continental Sea floor Plate tectonic

Drift spreading theory
 Continental Drift Theory - Alfred Wegener
• Land – Pangaea
• Sea - Panthalassa

• Land - Laurasia And Gondwana

• Sea - Tethys
Sea floor spreading
Harry Hess
Plate Tectonics Theory - Alfred Wegener
1.Convergent, where plates move into one another.
2.Divergent, where plates move apart.
3.Transform, where plates move sideways in relation to
each other.
Seven major plates
• African Plate
• Antarctic Plate
• Eurasian Plate
• Indo-Australian Plate
• North American Plate
• South American Plate
• Pacific Plate
• Some important minor plates include:
• Cocos plate: Between Central America and Pacific plate
• Nazca plate: Between South America and Pacific plate
• Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass
• Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate
• Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and Indian plate (North of New
Guinea)
• Fuji plate: North-east of Australia
• Juan De Fuca plate: South-East of North American Plate
 Four Basic Forces of Nature
• Gravitational force - weakest
• The weak nuclear force
• Electromagnetic force
• The strong nuclear force - strongest
These are called the four fundamental forces
of nature.
Earth Movements
Earth Movements

Endogenic Exogenic

Sudden
Diastrophism Weathering Erosion
Movements
Earth Movements
 Earthquake
• Mostly at the lithospheric plate margins (tectonic
plate margins)
• The plate margins are highly unstable
• Cause considerable deformation over a short period

While the Mercalli scale describes the intensity of an

earthquake based on its observed effects, the Richter
scale describes the earthquake's magnitude by
measuring the seismic waves that cause the earthquake.
Earthquake Movements
• Stress in Earth’s interior
• Folding
• Faulting
• Terminologies
• Hypocenter or focus-The place of origin of earthquake
• Epicenter-The place on the ground surface, which is
perpendicular to the focus or hypocenter
• Seismology is the special branch of geology that deals with
the study of earthquake.
• Seismograph
Types of Seismic Waves
• Body waves
• Primary Waves (P-waves)
• Secondary Waves (S-waves)
• Surface waves
Primary Waves (P-waves)
• Longitudinal waves
• Fastest
• High frequency
• Least destructive
• They can travel in all mediums
Secondary Waves (S-waves)
• Transverse waves
• Slightly higher destructive power
• S-waves cannot pass through fluids
Surface Waves
• Long waves
• Moves only along the surface
• Low Frequency
• Most destructive
• The traditional zones of earthquakes are
• ¡ Circum Pacific belt
• ¡ Mid Continental belt
• ¡ Mid Atlantic belt
Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Pacific Ring of Fire
 Indian Seismic Zones
THE EARTHQUAKE ZONES IN INDIA
The Indian plate is moving from South to North at the
speed of 5 cm/year and the Eurasian Plate is static at its
own fixed position, so there is a collision between Indian
Plate and Eurasian Plate.
Due to this collision, the earthquakes occurs in the
Himalayan region of India. The collision also results in the
increase of the height of Himalayas at the speed of 1
cm/year.

● An important earthquake zone is located parallel to

Punjab and Rann of Kachchh. It occurs due to the
movement between the transform boundaries of Eurasian
and Indian Plates.
Volcanoes
• Formed when plates move apart
• Volcano is a vent at surface of the Earth crust
• Interior - magma
• Surface - lava
Intrusive Volcanic Structure
• Batholiths: A large body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth in
the form of a large dome. These are granitic bodies. They sometimes appear on
the earth surface when the denudation processes remove the overlying
materials.
• Laccoliths: Large dome shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and pipe-like
conduit from below. Resembles a composite volcano structure, but beneath the
earth.
• Lapoliths: They are saucer shaped, concave to the sky.
• Sheets/ sills: They are the near horizontal bodies of intrusive igneous rocks.
Thinner ones are called as sheets and while thick horizontal deposits are called
sills.
• Dykes: When the lava comes out through cracks and fissures, they solidify
almost perpendicular to the ground to form wall like structures called dykes.
Types of Volcanoes
• Based on eruption
• Active
• Dormant
• Extinct
Types of Volcanoes
• Based on shape
• Shield Volcanoes
• The Shield volcanoes are the largest of all the volcanoes on the earth, which are not steep.
• These volcanoes are mostly made up of basalt.
• They become explosive if in some way water gets into the vent, otherwise, they are characterized by
low-explosivity.
• The lava that is moving upwards does so in a fountain-form and emanates the cone at the vent’s top
and then develops into a cinder cone.
• Eg: Hawaiian shield volcanoes
• Composite Volcanoes
• Composite Volcanoes are characterized by outbreaks of cooler and more viscous lavas than basalt.
• They are constructed from numerous explosive eruptions.
• Large quantities of pyroclastic material and ashes find their way to the ground along with lava.
• This material gathers near the vent openings resulting in the creation of layers.
• Mayon Volcano in the Philippines, Mount Fuji in Japan, and Mount Rainier in Washington are the major
composite volcanoes in the world.
• The major composite volcano chains are Pacific Rim which is known as the “Rim of Fire”.
• Cinder Cones OR Caldera
• Calderas are known as the most explosive volcanoes of Earth.
• They are generally explosive.
• When they erupt, they incline to collapse on themselves rather than
constructing any structure.
• The collapsed depressions are known as calderas.
• Flood Basalt Provinces Or Lava domes
• Flood Basalt Province volcanoes discharge highly fluid lava that flows for
long distances.
• Many parts of the world are covered by thick basalt lava flows.
 Major Volcanoes
• Volcanic Belts
• ● Circum-Pacific Belt (Fire girdle of the Pacific or the fire ring of the Pacific). It
extends across the Kamchatka Peninsula, Kurile Islands, the Islands of Japan,
Philippines, New Guinea, New Zealand and the Soloman Islands.
• ● Major volcanic peaks in the circumpacific belt includes Mt. Krakatoa, Mt.
Saint Helens, Mt. Ruapehu, Mt. Fuji, Mt. Popo Catepte, Mt. Ojas Del Salado,
Mt. Okmok etc.
• ● Mid-Continental Belt (Volcanic zones of convergent continental plate
Margins). It includes volcanoes of Alpine mountain chain, the Mediterranean
sea and the fault zone of Eastern Africa of Stromboli, Vesuvius, Etna,
Kilimanjaro etc.
• ● Mid-Atlantic Belt, in which the volcanoes are fissure eruption type, e.g.
Iceland, Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Azores etc
 12.278°N Andaman Active since Stratovolcano
Barren Island 354 1161
93.858°E Islands 2017 , Active
Types of Mountains

Fold mountains

Mountains

Block mountains
Important Mountain Ranges
Fold vs Block Mountains
• Fold mountains
• Block mountains
• True mountains • Not true mountains
• Compressive force – folding • Tensile force - faulting
• Due to collision of plates • Diverging plates (Conti)
• (C - C, O - C)
Longest Mountain Ranges
1. The Andes – 7,000 km
2. The Rockies – 4,830 km
3. The Great Dividing Range – 3,500 km
4. The Transantarctic Mountains – 3,500 km
5. The Ural Mountains – 2,500 km
6. The Atlas Mountains – 2,500 km
7. The Appalachian Mountains – 2,414 km
8. The Himalayas – 2,400 km
9. The Altai Mountains – 2,000 km (1,243 mi)
10. The Western Ghats – 1,600 km
11. The Alps – 1,200 km
12. Drakensberg – 1,125 km
13. The Aravalli Range – 800 km
Block Mountains
TENSION
Formation
• Fault - block mountains
• Uplifted part - horst
• Depressed part - Graben
• Horst - block mountains
• Graben - rift valley
Mountain peak Range Location Height mts
Everest Himalayas Nepal/Tibet 8,848.86
K2 (Godwin Karakoram India - Pok 8,611
Austen)
Kanchenjunga Himalayas India/Nepal 8,586
Lhotse I Himalayas Nepal/Tibet 8,516
Makalu I Himalayas Nepal/Tibet 8,463
Cho Oyu Himalayas Nepal/Tibet 8,201
Dhaulagiri Himalayas Nepal 8,167
Manaslu I Himalayas Nepal 8,163
 Plateaus
• Meaning:
• Flat, table land, upland, higher than
surrounding areas.
Formation of plateaus
• Raised land during mountains building process
• Deposition from lava
• Deposition from wind
• Eroded due to glaciers
Types of Plateaus
• Continental plateau
• Intermundane plateau
• Bolivia plateau • Deccan plateau

• Tibetan plateau • Ethiopian highland

• Columbia plateau
Types of Plateaus
• Lava plateau
• Glacial plateau
• Columbia - snake plateau
• Garhwali plateau
(USA)
• Laurentian plateau (Canada)
• Shan plateau (Myanmar)
Major Plateaus
Plains
• Flat areas with low heights
• Best for human habitation
• Most populated areas of the world – Alluvial plains of rivers
Types of Plains
• Depositional plains
• Rivers

• Sea (submerged coast)

• Erosional plains

• Erosion of plateau
Important River Basins of the World
South America
Asia Europe Africa North America

Mississippi –
Indus Danube Nile Amazon
Missouri

Ganga –Brahmaputra Rhine Congo Parana- Paraguay Colorado

Yangtze (China) Rhone Niger St. Lawrence

Hwang He (China) Po Zambezi Yukon

Ob - Irtysh (Russia) Don Orange Mackenzie

Mekong (SE Asia)

Euphrates - Tigris
Rocks
• Rocks are a combination of minerals that are bonded.
• All rocks are made of minerals
• Monomineralic - contain one mineral
• Polymineralic - contain more than one mineral
• Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found in rocks.
• The scientific study of rocks is called petrology.
• Based on the mode of formation three major groups of rocks are defined: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic.
• Igneous Rocks — solidified from magma and lava.
• Sedimentary Rocks — the result of deposition of fragments of rocks.
• Metamorphic Rocks — formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallization.
The Rock Cycle
Igneous Rocks - Formation
• Melting, Cooling, and Crystallization of other rocks
• They are known as the primary rocks as all the other rocks are formed directly or
indirectly from the igneous rocks
• Igneous rocks form as a result of volcanic activity, hot spots, and melting that occurs in
the mantle.
• Granite, gabbro, basalt, are some of the examples of igneous rocks.
Classification of Igneous Rocks
• Intrusive
• Magma
• Hardened slowly deep underground
• Large crystal
• Extrusive
• Lava
• Hardened quickly at or near the surface of the Earth.
• Small or no crystals
Sedimentary Rocks
• Weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction, and cementation
• Sedimentary rocks form in areas where water, wind or gravity deposit sediments.
• Depending upon the mode of formation, sedimentary rocks are classified into:
• mechanically formed — sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess.
• organically formed — geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal.
• chemically formed — limestone, halite, potash
Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamorphic rocks are formed by heat and pressure changing one type of rock into
another type of rock.
• The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’.
Metamorphic Rocks - Examples
• Some common types of metamorphic rock include:
• Gneiss
• Marble
• Quartzite
SOILS
Soil Formation
• Process of Soil Formation
• Soil formation or paedogenesis depends first on weathering.
Soil Composition
Soil Profile
Humus
Decayed Humus
Topsoil

Subsoil

Parent Material

Parent Rock
Major Grasslands

PUSTAZ

SAVANNAH

SELVAS
DOWNS
Groundwater

• 04/16
Groundwater
• Groundwater is simply water under the ground where the soil is completely filled or
saturated with water
• Also called an Aquifer
• Karst topography - region of limestone
• Limestone - organic deposits underground

• 05/16
Karst Topography
• Erosional landforms
• Sink holes
• Dolines
• Uvalas
• Caves

• 06/16
 •Small to medium
sized round to sub-
Swallow Holes
rounded shallow
•Natural karst
depressions
Limestone landform
•Opening more or Pavements consisting of a flat,
less circular at the incised surface.
Sinkholes top and funnel-
shaped towards •Cave formation is
the bottom prominent in areas
where there are
•Uneven grooves
and ridges formed alternating beds of
Caves
when the majority rocks with
Uvala of the limestone's limestones or
surface is removed dolomites in
by the solution
between
process.
Karst Topography
• Depositional Landforms
• Column
• Stalactite
• Stalagmite

• 07/16
 •Hang as icicles of
Stalactites different
diameters
•Rise up from the
Stalagmites
floor of the caves
•Formed
stalagmite and
stalactites
eventually fuse to
Pillars
give rise to
columns and
pillars of different
diameters.
Deserts
• Arid land with usually sparse vegetation
• Deserts cover more than one-fifth of the Earth's land area
• A place that receives less than 10 inches or 25 cm of rain per year is considered
a Desert.

• 08/16
Distribution
• 15 - 30 deg latitudes
• Trade wind belts

• 09/16
Types of Deserts
• Hot
• Semi - arid
• Coastal
• Cold

• 10/16
Landforms
• Erosional
• Inselberg

• Mesa

• Butte

• 12/16
Landforms
• Depositional
• Sand dunes

• Loess

• 13/16
Major Deserts

• 15/16
Important Deserts Type of desert Location Area (sq mi) Area (km²)
Antarctica Polar ice and tundra Antarctica 5500000 14000000
Arctic Polar ice and tundra Northern America (Alaska, Canada and 5400000 13985000
Greenland)
Northern Europe (Finland, Iceland,
Norway and Sweden)
Eastern Europe (European Russia)
North Asia (Siberia)
Sahara Subtropical North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, 3,300,000 9,000,000
Morocco, Sudan and Tunisia)

Australian Desert Subtropical Australia 1000000 2700000

Arabian Desert Subtropical Western Asia (Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, 900000 2,330,000
Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab
Emirates and Yemen)
Gobi Desert Cold Winter East Asia (China and Mongolia) 500000 1295000
Kalahari Desert Subtropical Southern Africa (Botswana, Namibia and 360000 900,000
South Africa)
Middle Africa (Angola)
Patagonian Desert Cold Winter South America (Argentina and Chile) 200000 620000
Syrian Desert Subtropical Western Asia (Iraq, Jordan, and Syria) 200000 520,000
Great Basin Cold Winter United States 190000 492,000
Climatology
Atmosphere
Atmosphere
• Land - Lithosphere
• Water - Hydrosphere
• Air - Atmosphere
• Gaseous Cover of the Earth

• Supports Life form in the Earth

• The Atmosphere regulates the entry of Solar Radiation

• Destroys Celestial Bodies like meteors entering the Earth

• Gases are held by Gravitational Pull of the Earth

• 04/18
Composition of Atmosphere
• Mixture of Gases and

Liquid Particles - Aerosols

• 05/18
Major Gases
• Nitrogen
• 78% of total atmosphere
• Control combustion by diluting oxygen

• Oxygen
• 21% of total atmosphere
• Combine with other elements to form important compounds i.e. Oxides
• Combustion is not possible without oxygen

• 06/18
Major Greenhouse Gases
• Carbon dioxide
• Product of combustion
• Photosynthesis
• Efficient absorber of heat, very important factor in the heat energy budget
• Ozone (O3)
• Type of oxygen molecule consisting of three, instead of two atoms
• Very less amount
• Blocks harmful ultraviolet
• Methane
• One of the most important Greenhouse gases
• Produced from decomposition of animal wastes and biological matter
• 07/18
Water Vapour
• Variable gaseous substances present in atmosphere
• 2% and 4% of the total volume in cold dry and humid tropical climates
• 90% of Moisture content - 6 km from the surface of the Earth
• Significant role in the Insulating action
• Water vapour is the Source of Precipitation and clouds
• After condensation these are responsible for Storms

• 08/18
Solid Particles in Air
• Solid Particles
• Sand particles
• Pollen grains
• Dust particles
• The Upper layers fragments of meteors
• Perform the function of absorbing, reflecting and scattering the radiation
• Particulate Matter (PM)
• Mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets in the air
• Human made pollution
• Naturally occurring i.e. Dust, ash and sea-spray • 09/18
Structure of Atmosphere

• 10/18
Structure based on Composition of Gases
• Homosphere
• Lower part of atmosphere up to 90 km
• No greater variation in the composition of gases
• Higher proportion of heavier gases oxygen, nitrogen
• Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere

• Heterosphere
• Higher part of atmosphere greater than 90 km
• Greater variation in composition of gases
• Lighter gases such as hydrogen and helium and other
• Thermosphere, Exosphere

• 11/18
Troposphere
• 8 km at the poles and 18 km at the equator
• Higher thickness at equator as the heated air rises to greater heights
• Ends with the Tropopause
• Temperature decreases
• At the rate of 5°C per km
• -45°C at the Poles

• -80°C over the Equator

• ● At every 165 m, there is a drop of 1° C (or 6 4. ° C per km). This is called Normal Lapse Rate
of Temperature.

• 12/18
Troposphere
• Convective region of the Earth
• Meteorologically significant - Rainfall, Fog and Hailstorm
• Weather phenomenon - Cyclones, Anticyclones, Storms
• The Troposphere is influenced by seasons and jet streams
• Water vapour is present in this region

• 13/18
Stratosphere

• 18 - 50 km
• Temp - 0°C at 50 km
• Stratopause
• In this layer, the temperature increases with increase in height. This phenomenon
is known as temperature inversion.
• Presence of ozone - ozonosphere. It absorbs ultraviolet radiation, which is
harmful for life forms in the biosphere. ozonosphere.
• Stratosphere is free from dust particles and also from atmospheric turbulence.
Hence, this layer is considered ideal for flying of jet aircrafts.

• 14/18
Mesosphere
• Intermediate layer beyond the ozone
• 50 - 80 km from the Earth’s surface
• Temperature gradually falls to -100°C at 80 km altitude
• Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from the space

• 15/18
Thermosphere / Ionosphere
• 80 - 400 km
• Temperature rises rapidly burns meteors
• Electrically charged layer
• Radio transmission
• Aurora’s are observed
• The upper part of the thermosphere contains only the lighter gases like helium
and hydrogen.
• International Space Station and satellites orbit in this layer

• 16/18
Exosphere
• This is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending beyond the ionosphere
above a height of about 400 km.
• The air is extremely rare and the temperature gradually increases through the layer.
• Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the space from here. This layer
coincides with space.
• The outer part of the exosphere is called Magnetosphere
• Karman line
• 100 km border between atmosphere and outer space

• 17/18
Heating of Atmosphere
• Ways of heating atmosphere
• Radiation - The solar radiation reflected by the Earth’s surface.

• Conduction - Heat energy from the Earth’s surface is transferred to the lower
atmosphere.

• Advection - Horizontal movement of air

• Convection - Vertical heating of the atmosphere

• 04/15
Heat zones of the World
• Sun overhead position
• Tropic of Cancer – June 21

• Equator – Mar 21 & Sep 23

• Tropic of Capricorn – Dec 22

• 05/15
Solar Radiation
• Insolation
• Energy received by incoming solar radiation
• Most of its energy in short wavelengths
• Geoid shape of the Earth
• High - Equator
• Low - Poles
• Pyranometers- Insolation is measured with the help of Pyranometers.
• The amount of insolation depends on following factors:
(i) The area and nature of the surface.
(ii) (ii) The inclination of the rays of the Sun.
(iii) (iii) Distance between the Earth and the Sun.
(iv) (iv) Length of the day.
(v) (v) The transparency of the atmosphere.

• 06/15
Air
• Mixture of several gases
• Moving horizontal air - Wind
• Exerts pressure through its weight
• Expands when heated and compressed when cooled
• Air moves from High pressure to Low pressure, setting the air in motion

• 04/16
 Atmospheric Pressure
• Temperature and atmospheric pressure are
Inversely related
• Barometer - measuring pressure
• Isobars - lines joining equal pressure
• Atmospheric pressure is affected by various
factors such as altitude, temperature and
Earth’s rotation.

• 05/16
Horizontal Distribution
• Thermally Formed
• Low - Equator
• High - Polar
• Dynamically Formed
• High - Sub tropical
• Low - Sub polar

• 07/16
• Equatorial Low Pressure Belt-
• zone extending between 5°N and 5°S
• this belt is known as a belt of calm or doldrums
• Subtropical High Pressure Belt
• It extends between 30° to 35° latitudes in both the hemispheres
• This zone of high pressure is also called Horse Latitude.
• Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt
• It extends between 60° to 65° latitudes in both the hemisphere
• Polar High Pressure Belt
Wind
• Forces affecting the Velocity and Direction of Wind

• Pressure Gradient Force - The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance

• Frictional Force - It affects the speed of the wind

• Coriolis Force - Due to rotation of the Earth

• Ferrel’s Law-The Coriolis force is absent along the equator, but increases progressively towards the pole.

• North - Right

• South - Left

• Coriolis force acts perpendicular to PGF

• Isotach - Line joining constant wind speed

• 08/16
Types of Winds
Primary
Global Winds

Secondary
Surface
Seasonal Winds

Tertiary
Local Winds

• 09/16
Primary Winds
Trade Winds

Primary Winds Westerlies

Polar Easterlies

• 10/16
Distribution of Primary Winds

• 12/16
Meridional Cell System
• Hadley Cell - Trade winds, Equatorial low and sub tropical high pressure belts
• Ferrel Cell - Westerlies, Sub tropical high and Sub polar low pressure belt
• Polar Cell - Polar Easterlies, Sub polar low and Polar high pressure belt

• 11/16
Trade Winds
• Steady currents
• Sub Tropical high to Equatorial low
• Coriolis force
• North east trade winds-North
• South east trade winds-South
• ITCZ – Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
• Trade winds meet
• Doldrums - Windless water
• 13/16
Westerlies
• Sub tropical high to Sub polar low
• Horse Latitudes - Dynamically induced
• North - South West to North East
• South - North west to South East
• Roaring - 40, Furious - 50, Screaming - 60

• 14/16
Polar Winds
• Polar high to sub polar low
• North easterly
• South easterly
• Very high pressure
• Low temperature

• 15/16
Seasonal Winds and Local
Winds
Seasonal Winds
• Patterns of wind change seasonally
• Factors - Maximum heating, pressure, wind belts
• Monsoon and cyclones

• 04/19
Monsoon
• Mausim - Arabic word (seasons)
• Reverses direction - Unequal heating and cooling of water and land
• Every 6 months i.e. Summer, Winter

• 05/19
Mechanism of Monsoon
• High pressure to Low pressure
• Summer - Sea to Land
• Winter - Land to Sea

• 06/19
Local Winds
• Sea breeze and Land breeze

• 15/19
Local Winds around the World

• 17/19
Types of Cyclones
• Cyclones are mainly of two types
• (i) Tropical Cyclone (ii) Temperate Cyclone

• 10/19
Water in Atmosphere
• Condensation and Its Forms
• ● When the relative humidity reaches 100%, the air is completely
saturated. The air temperature is said to be at dew-point.
• ● It is the change of physical state of matter from gaseous phase into
liquid phase and is the reverse of vaporisation.
Other Forms of Water in Air
• Dew point > 0°C
• Dew - Water droplets in cooler surfaces
• Frost - Minute ice crystals
• Haze -water particles that have condensed in the atmosphere
• Fog - Clouds with solid particles
• Smog - Fog mixed with smoke

• 07/14
Clouds
• Tiny water droplets
• Formed due to condensation
• Isonephs - Places having equal cloudiness

• 08/14
Types of Clouds
HIGH >6KM

MIDDLE 2-6 KM

Nimbus

LOW<2KM

• 09/14
Types of Clouds
• Low Clouds
• Stratus - Layered clouds, highly found
• Stratocumulus
• Nimbostratus - Rain clouds,
• Dark grey

• Middle Clouds
• Altocumulus
• Altostratus

• 10/14
 Types of Clouds
• High Clouds
• Cirrus - High altitude, feathery appearance,
always white
• Cirrocumulus
• Cirrostratus
• Clouds with vertical extension
• Cumulus - Cotton wool, flat base
• Cumulonimbus - Lightning thunder, heavy
rainfall

• 11/14
Precipitation
• Product of condensation
• Water drops falls due to gravity
• Rainfall - Droplets 0.5 mm
• Drizzle - Below 0.5 mm
• Sleet - Below 5 mm
• Hail - Crystals 5 - 50 mm
• Snow - Precipitation below freezing point

• 12/14
Types of Precipitation
• Convectional
• Common in Summer
• Equatorial region, Northern hemisphere
• Orographic or Relief rainfall
• Mountain ranges, windward rainfall
• Cyclonic or Frontal rainfall
• Extra tropical cyclones
• Cumulonimbus clouds

• 13/14
Water
• Blue planet
• Hydrosphere
• Surface water - oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers
• Ground water
• Atmospheric water in all forms

• 04/18
Distribution
• Water - 70% & Land - 30%
• Saltwater - 97%
• Oceans
• Saline lakes and Ground water
• Fresh water - 3%
• Rivers, glaciers
• Ice capes

• 05/18
Cryosphere
• Water in frozen state
• Influences the Earth’s climate

• 06/18
Fresh water
• Source
• Glaciers, Icecaps - 68%
• Groundwater - 30%
• Surface water - 2%

• 07/18
Salt water
• Salinity - Weight of dissolved salts per 1000 gms of water
• Expressed as (‰) or Parts Per Thousand (PPT)
• Average salinity in Southern hemisphere is more than that of Northern
hemisphere.
• Iso-halines represent the salinity distribution in the surface of the sea.
• Poles have minimum salinity because of addition of fresh water in the form of
icebergs and excessive snowfall.

• 09/18
Major Oceans

• 14/18
Ocean Terminologies
• Sea - Ocean meets land
• Bay - 3 sides land water 4th side water
• Gulf - Narrow mouth

• 12/18
Ocean Terminologies
• Strait - 2 water bodies
• Channel - 2 land mass

• 13/18
Waves and Ocean Currents
Movements in Ocean
• Horizontal
• Waves
• Ocean currents
• Vertical
• Tides

• 04/16
Waves
• Friction of wind
• Disturbances at the bottom of the Sea
• Crest
• Trough
• Wave height
• Wave length
• Frequency
• Steepness

• 05/16
Tides
• Periodic rise and fall of sea level
• Gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon
• Moon > Sun
• Centrifugal force - counter gravitational force
• Surges - meteorological effects

• 06/16
 Tides Based on Sun Moon Earth
• The periodic rise and fall of the sea level as a
result of the gravitational forces between the
Earth, the Moon and the Sun is called a tide.
The time interval between two tides is 12
hours and 26 minutes.

• 08/16
• Spring Tides
• ● When the Earth, the Moon and the Sun are in a
straight line (SYZYGY) the Sun assists the
gravitational pull of the Moon, creating a
condition of higher high tides and lower low tides
known as spring tides.
• Neap Tides
• ● When the Sun and Moon are at right angles to
the Earth (Quadrature), the Sun partially reduces
the gravitational pull of the Moon, producing
lower high tides known as a Neap tide
Ocean Currents

• 11/16
 Ocean Currents in Indian Ocean
Ocean Currents in Arctic Ocean
Agulhas Current Warm
Ocean Current Cold/Warm
Baffin Island Current Cold Leeuwin Current Warm
Labrador Current Cold Mozambique Current Warm
Ocean Currents in Atlantic Ocean
Angola Current Warm
West Australian Current Cold
Antilles Current Warm Ocean Currents in Pacific Ocean
Benguela Current Cold
Alaska Current Warm
Brazil Current Cold
Cape Horn Current Cold
Humboldt Current Cold
Carribean Current Warm Kamchatka Current Cold
Falkland Current Cold
Kuroshio Current Warm
Florida Current Warm
North Atlantic Current Warm North Pacific Current Warm
South Atlantic Current Cold