CHAPTER ONE : BASICS OF HEAT

TRANSFER

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 I. Introduction :
A transfer phenomenon (also called a transport phenomenon) is an irreversible phenomenon
during which a physical quantity is transported through molecules. This transport phenomenon
is induced by the inhomogeneity of an intensive quantity (a property is "intensive" if its value
is the same at all points in a homogeneous system) : for example, temperature or pressure). It
is the spontaneous tendency of physical and chemical systems to make these quantities uniform
that causes transport.

The most well-known physical quantities transferred are heat (heat transfer), matter (mass
transfer) and momentum.

Heat transfer is the mode of internal energy exchange that occurs naturally between two systems
as soon as there is a temperature difference between them. This transfer of energy takes place
from the hottest system to the coldest system, regardless of the medium that separates the two
systems, even the vacuum. The energy transfer stops when both systems reach thermal
equilibrium where they have the same temperature.

Heat transfers are used in the field of pure science and technological applications such as : heat
exchangers, heat engines, insulation, solar energy, housing...... etc.

II. Thermodynamics and its limits:

The form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a result of a
temperature difference is heat.

The first law of thermodynamics allows us to calculate the amount of heat between two
bodies that undergo processes from one state change to another and is only interested in
equilibrium states and gives us no information about the duration of this process itself.
Thermodynamics allows us to know the temperatures of systems at equilibrium states only
and gives us no information about the temperatures of the systems during transformation
processes.

The second law of thermodynamics, on the other hand, gives us information on the direction
of heat transfer that must take place from the hot body to the cold body.

Heat transfer is the science that proposes to describe quantitatively (in space and time) the
evolution of the characteristic quantities of the system, in particular the temperature, between
the initial equilibrium state and the final equilibrium state.

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III. Forms of energy

Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric,
magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy E of a system.

VI. The conservation of energy principle

A principle is an affirmative or negative assertion or proposition that cannot be demonstrated

but is not contradicted by any experimental fact. It allows us to interpret and evaluate real
phenomena through a series of deductive reasonings.

The principle of conservation of energy, also called the first law of thermodynamics, affirms
the indestructibility of energy, i.e. energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can only change
forms.

The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system during a process is equal
to the difference between the total energy entering and the total energy leaving the system
during that process.

(𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚) − (𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚)
= (𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚)

This relation is often referred to as the energy balance and is applicable to any kind of system
undergoing any kind of process. The successful use of this relation to solve engineering
problems depends on understanding the various forms of energy and recognizing the forms of
energy transfer.

Note that energy is a property, and the value of a property does not change unless the state of
the system changes. Therefore, the energy change of a system is zero if the state of the system
does not change during the process.

Also, energy can exist in numerous forms such as internal (sensible, latent, chemical, and
nuclear), kinetic, potential, electric, and magnetic, and their sum constitutes the total energy E
of a system. In the absence of electric, magnetic, and surface tension effects (i.e., for simple
compressible systems), the change in the total energy of a system during a process is the sum
of the changes in its internal, kinetic, and potential energies and can be expressed as :

∆𝐸 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸 (1)

Where :
∆𝑈 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) (2)

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 1
∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚 (𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) (3)
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∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) (4)
Energy can be transferred to or from a system in three forms: heat, work, and mass flow. Energy
interactions are recognized at the system boundary as they cross it, and they represent the energy
gained or lost by a system during a process. The only two forms of energy interactions
associated with a fixed mass or closed system are heat transfer and work.

1. Heat Transfer, Q Heat transfer to a system (heat gain) increases the energy of the molecules
and thus the internal energy of the system, and heat transfer from a system (heat loss) decreases
it since the energy transferred out as heat comes from the energy of the molecules of the system.

2. Work Transfer, W An energy interaction that is not caused by a temperature difference

between a system and its surroundings is work. A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electrical
wire crossing the system boundaries are all associated with work interactions. Work transfer to
a system (i.e., work done on a system) increases the energy of the system, and work transfer
from a system (i.e., work done by the system) decreases it since the energy transferred out as
work comes from the energy contained in the system. Car engines and hydraulic, steam, or gas
turbines produce work while compressors, pumps, and mixers consume work.

3. Mass Flow, m Mass flow in and out of the system serves as an additional mechanism of
energy transfer. When mass enters a system, the energy of the system increases because mass
carries energy with it (in fact, mass is energy). Likewise, when some mass leaves the system,
the energy contained within the system decreases because the leaving mass takes out some
energy with it. For example, when some hot water is taken out of a water heater and is replaced
by the same amount of cold water, the energy content of the hot-water tank (the control volume)
decreases as a result of this mass interaction.

Thus : 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) + (𝑊𝑖𝑛 − 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) + (𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠,𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠,𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) (5)

VII. The three modes of heat transfer

VII. 1. Thermal conduction

Thermal conduction is the mode of heat transmission caused by the difference in temperature
between two regions of a solid, liquid or gaseous medium or between two media in physical
contact. This mode of energy transfer takes place without apparent displacement of matter.

The fundamental law that describes thermal conduction is Fourier's law :

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 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑇 … … … . . (6)
𝑄⃗ = −𝑘 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑

𝑄⃗ : heat flux density (W/m2)

k: thermal conductivity (W/m.K)
T: Temperature (K)

Figure II. Heat flow through a tube of length x between zones A and B

IV. 2. Thermal convection

The term "convection" is used to describe the transfer of heat between a solid surface and a
fluid in motion relative to that surface. This mode of heat transfer involves the combined effects
of conduction and movement of the fluid. Convective heat transfer is related to the movement
of particles in the fluid medium through which heat propagates. There are two types of
convection : natural or forced.

Natural (free) convection occurs when the fluid moves because of temperature differences that
create differences in density which will create the movement of the fluid.

Convection is forced if the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by external means such as a
fan, pump... etc.

Figure III. The cooling of an egg by forced and natural convection.

The fundamental law of convection is Newton's law, which expresses the flow of heat
exchanged between a fluid and a solid:

𝑄 = ℎ × 𝑆 × ∆𝑇 … … … (7)

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Q: Heat Flux (W)
h: Convection transfer coefficient (W/m2. K)
S: exchange surface between solid and fluid (m2)
∆T: Ts-Tf is the difference between the temperature of the solid and the average temperature
of the fluid (K)
IV.3. Thermal radiation

Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons)
following changes in the electronic configuration of atoms or molecules.

In the study of heat transfers, we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the mechanism by
which heat is transmitted from one body at high temperature to another at low temperature
without the need for a material support (even in a vacuum). All bodies at a temperature above
absolute zero emit thermal radiation (solid, liquid or gaseous). The spectrum of this radiation
extends from the microwave to the ultra-violet domain. In fact, the transfer of energy by
radiation is the fastest (at the speed of light) and it does not undergo any attenuation in a
vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the earth.

The energy radiated per unit of time by the surface of a blackbody is given by the Staphan-
Boltzman equation:

𝑄 = 𝜎𝑆 𝑇 4 (8)

σ: the Stephan-Boltman constant σ =5.670374419...×10−8 W⋅m−2⋅K−4

s: The surface area of the black body (m2)

T: body temperature (K)

Figure IV. Electromagnetic spectrum

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 Figure V. Exemple of thermal radiation
Remark
In real life, all three of these modes of heat transfer occur simultaneously in the same system.
We thus have combined heat transfer modes.

Figures VII. Exemples of combined heat transfert

VI. The permanent and transitient states

The temperature at a point M in a system at a given time depends on the position of this point
in relation to a fixed coordinate system O(x,y,z).

If the temperature of all the points in the system is independent of time, we say that the state is
steady, so we have T (x, y, z). If the temperature depends on time, we say that the state is
transient so T (x, y, z, t).