Practical Research 2nd Quarter Reviewer Validity - refers to the ability of an instrument to measure what it is intended to

measure.
UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA Types of Validity:
Face Validity → Refers to how the instrument “appears” and is perceived by the
Research Instrument respondents
→ Research Instrument in quantitative research is a survey, questionnaire, test, Content Validity → Refers to the extent as to how the instrument covered the
scale, rating, or tool designed to measure the variables, characteristics, or construct or variable it intended to measure.
information of interest, often behavioral or psychological characteristics. Construct Validity → Refers to the ability of an instrument to distinguish
samples who possess a certain construct or characteristic from those who do
Types: not have. Construct validity as two sub-types.
(1) Questionnaires → one of the primary sources of collecting data; can - Convergent Validity - Takes two instruments that measure the same
contain open-ended and close- minded questions depending on the purpose of construct and show that they are related
the study. - Discriminant/Divergent Validity - Refers to how the scores of the
(2) Tests → a quantitative tool used to collect data about the aptitude, learning, respondents are not related to other variables or criteria that are seen
ability, or performance. differently.
(3) Rating Scale → any form of data collection tool that allows samples to give
ratings on the degree to which they think the statements/questions are Reliability - refers to the consistency of the results or outcome given by the
applicable to them. instrument.
(4) Observation Checklist → contains statements that need to be observed Types of Reliability:
during a certain situation; it provides quantitative information if a certain Test-retest Reliability (over time) → To check whether the scores of the
condition is met. sample are consistent over time.
Internal Consistency (across items) → Identify If the responses of the
Design Research Instrument samples are consistent with the items.
- Be clear about your objectives Inter-rater Reliability (across different researchers) → Identify if the
- Adapt an instrument observers are consistent with their judgment.
- If there exists no available instrument for your study, create one.
- Do not forget to include consent forms in your instrument. Data Gathering Procedure
Preparation Stage - includes the steps which the researcher has undergone
Creating a Likert Scale for your Study prior to data collection stage.
1.Define clearly the construct you would want to measure. Administration Stage - actual data collection stage.
2.Decide whether you would like to use statements or questions Data Analysis Stage - includes the necessary steps after collecting data; also
- Use positive or negative statements includes how confidentiality of the data will be ensured and how they will be
- Avoid double negatives stored and analyzed; statistical treatments also have to be specified.
- Ask only one thing at a time STATISTICAL DATA AND TREATMENT ANALYSIS
3. Choose your response items (Even or Odd) Statistics → is the science of collecting, organizing, analyzing, and presenting
4. After writing and deciding on the statements and response items, decide on numerical data.
how you are going to make your instrument valid and reliable
Types of Statistics:
(1) Descriptive Statistics - refers to the brief numerical summaries of data.
● Frequency Distribution - refers to the tally of the number of
individuals or cases in a specific variable.
● Percentage - computed as the ratio of the frequency to the total sample
size.
● Measure of central tendency - mean (average; most reliable measure
of central tendency because it includes all values in the data.), median
(middle score; score where 50% of the data lies below it), and mode
(popular score; score that holds the most frequency).
Mean: is the most frequently used and is considered to be the best
measure of central tendency
Use Median if:
- There are few extreme or outliers in the data
- There are missing values
- There are open-ended choices
- There is data in ordinal scale
Mode: is best used the data is nominal scale.
● Measure of dispersion - also called the measure of variability; used to
determine how the scores are spread in a certain data set.
Range - difference between the highest and lowest scores in the data
sheet.
Standard Deviation - average distance of the scores from the mean.
Variance - average squared distance of the scores from the mean.

(2) Inferential Statistics → Used to draw inferences about the population

based on the samples.
Types of Inferential Statistics:
Parametric Statistics - used in data which are assumed to be normally
distributed and has large sample sizes.
Non-Parametric Statistics - does not assume normality in the data and can be
used to small sample size.
 ● The body contains all the summarized information of the raw data. The
body is usually formatted in the center. The table body may be
single-spaced, one-and-a-half- spaced, or double-spaced.
● In general, center the information in all other cells of the data. However,
left align the information if doing so would improve readability,
particularly when cells contain lots of texts.
● Add a table note, if needed. There are three types of notes that can be
included in a table: general, specific, and probability. For example,
definitions of abbreviations, copyright attribution, explanations of
asterisks used to indicate p values.

PRESENTATION OF DATA: USING TABLES, GRAPHS, AND CHARTS

→ After collecting all the data needed for your research study and performing
statistical treatment, the next thing to do is organize all the results in tables and
graphs. The main aim of using tables and figures is to make it easier for the
readers to understand the collected data.
B. Using Figures
→ A figure is any illustration that is not a table. Examples are graphs, charts,
A. Using Tables
photographs, infographs, etc.
→ Tables usually show numerical values (e.g., frequencies and mean) or textual
→ The following are the guidelines for organizing data, using figures:
information (e.g., categorical values) arranged in columns and rows.
● Figure number - is written above the figure title. The number should be
According to the American Psychological Association (APA) Manual, 7th Edition,
according to how the tables are placed all throughout the research
here are some guidelines to be followed in creating tables:
paper.
● Table number - is written above the table title. The number should be
● Figure title - is written one double space below the figure number. It is
according to how the tables are placed all throughout the research paper.
written in italics. Figure titles provide a brief description of the contents
● Table title - is written on double space below the table number. It is
of the table.
written in italics. Table titles provide a brief description of the contents
● The image portion may contain graphs, charts, photographs, etc. If text
of the table.
is placed in the image of the figure (e.g., axis labels), use sans serif font
● The headings in the table vary depending on the contents of the data.
between 8 to 14 points.
Two common headers are present in tables are column heading and
● A figure legend or key, if present, should be positioned within the
stub heading. Left-align the information on the leftmost columns or
borders of the figure and explain any symbol used in the figure image.
stub column of the table body (but center the heading).
Capitalize words in the figure legend in the title case.
 ● Add a figure note, if needed. There are three types of notes that can be
included in a figure: general, specific, and probability. For example,
definitions of abbreviations, copyright attribution, explanations of
asterisks used to indicate p values.

REPORTING AND SHARING FINDINGS

Discussing Findings
→ The discussion of the summary of findings includes a concise explanation of
the major findings of the study and may also have a restatement of the research
problems, the type of research used, the sample, and the research locale.

Drawing the Conclusions

→ You must always refer back to the findings that address each problem you
have stated. Here, you attempt to directly answer the problems based on your
findings. From the answers you have identified, formulate the overall conclusion
for your study.
→ Note that when you state your conclusion, it would be best that you follow
the order in which you have stated the problems. In this way, it would be easier
for you to compose your conclusion, since they are expected to be direct
answers to your problem. Likewise, in studies where a hypothesis has been
made, you are expected to state whether the null hypothesis has been rejected
or not as you conclude your research.

Formulating Recommendations
→ The recommendations of the study, in simplest terms, are the suggestions
which aim to further improve the study which you have already stated.
→ Express your statements clearly and concisely. Usually, the number of
recommendations would match the number of conclusions which were drawn.
As such, it is important that you have already made sound conclusions before
making any recommendations.