Cartesian Tensors

Reference: Jeffreys Cartesian Tensors

1 Coordinates and Vectors

z = x3

e3

y = x2

e2

e1

x = x1

Coordinates x i, i = 1, 2, 3

Unit vectors: e i, i = 1, 2, 3

General vector (formal definition to follow) denoted by compo-

nents e.g. u = u i

Summation convention (Einstein) repeated index means summa-

tion:

Cartesian Tensors © Geoffrey V. Bicknell

 3 3

ui vi = ∑u v
i=1
i i u ii = ∑u
i=1
ii (1)

2 Orthogonal Transformations of
Coordinates
x3
x 2′
x 3′
x2

x 1′

x1

x i′ = a ij x j (2)

a ij = Transformation Matrix (3)

Position vector

r = x i e i = x ′j e ′j
⇒ a ji x i e ′j = x i e i
(4)
x i ( a ji e ′j ) = xi ei
⇒ e i = a ji e ′j

i.e. the transformation of coordinates from the unprimed to the

primed frame implies the reverse transformation from the primed to
the unprimed frame for the unit vectors.

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Kronecker Delta
δ ij = 1 if i = j
(5)
= 0 otherwise

2.1 Orthonormal Condition:

Now impose the condition that the primed reference is orthonormal

e i ⋅ e j = δ ij and e i′ ⋅ e ′j = δ ij (6)

Use the transformation

e i ⋅ e j = a ki e k′ ⋅ a lj e l′
= a ki a lj e k′ ⋅ e l′
(7)
= a ki a lj δ kl
= a ki a kj

NB the last operation is an example of the substitution property of

the Kronecker Delta.
Since e i ⋅ e j = δ ij , then the orthonormal condition on a ij is

a ki a kj = δ ij (8)

In matrix notation:

aT a = I (9)
Also have

a ik a jk = aa T = δ ij (10)

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2.2 Reverse transformations
x i′ = a ij x j ⇒ a ik x i′ = a ik a ij x j = δ kj x j = x k
(11)
∴x k = a ik x i′ ⇒ x i = a ji x ′j

i.e. the reverse transformation is simply given by the transpose.

Similarly,

e i′ = a ij e j (12)

2.3 Interpretation of a ij
Since

e i′ = a ij e j (13)

then the a ij are the components of e i′ wrt the unit vectors in the
unprimed system.

3 Scalars, Vectors & Tensors

3.1 Scalar (f):
f ( x ′i ) = f ( xi ) (14)

Example of a scalar is f = r 2 = x i x i. Examples from fluid dynam-

ics are the density and temperature.

3.2 Vector (u):

Prototype vector: x i

General transformation law:

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 x i′ = a ij x j ⇒ u i′ = a ij u j (15)

3.2.1 Gradient operator

Suppose that f is a scalar. Gradient defined by

∂f
( grad f ) i = ( ∇f ) i = (16)
∂ xi
Need to show this is a vector by its transformation properties.

∂f ∂ f ∂x j
= (17)
∂ x i′ ∂ x j ∂ x i′

Since,

x j = a kj x k′ (18)

then

∂x j
= a kj δ ki = a ij
∂ x i′
(19)
∂f ∂f
and = a ij
∂ x i′ ∂x j

Hence the gradient operator satisfies our definition of a vector.

3.2.2 Scalar Product
u ⋅ v = ui vi = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 (20)

is the scalar product of the vectors u i and v i .

Exercise:
Show that u ⋅ v is a scalar.

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3.3 Tensor
Prototype second rank tensor x i x j

General definition:

T ij′ = a ik a jl T kl (21)

Exercise:
Show that u i v j is a second rank tensor if u i and v j are vectors.

Exercise:
∂u i
u i, j = (22)
∂x j

is a second rank tensor. (Introduces the comma notation for partial

derivatives.) In dyadic form this is written as grad u or ∇u .
3.3.1 Divergence
Exercise:
Show that the quantity

∂v i
∇ ⋅ v = div v = (23)
∂ xi
is a scalar.

4 Products and Contractions of Tensors

It is easy to form higher order tensors by multiplication of lower
rank tensors, e.g.T ijk = T ij u k is a third rank tensor if T ij is a second

Cartesian Tensors 6/13

rank tensor and u k is a vector (first rank tensor). It is straightfor-
ward to show that T ijk has the relevant transformation properties.

Similarly, if T ijk is a third rank tensor, then T ijj is a vector. Again

the relevant tr4ansformation properties are easy to prove.

5 Differentiation following the motion

This involves a common operator occurring in fluid dynamics. Sup-
pose the coordinates of an element of fluid are given as a function
of time by
xi = xi ( t ) (24)

vi

The velocities of elements of fluid at all spatial locations within a

given region constitute a vector field, i.e. v i = v i ( x j, t )

The derivative of a function, f ( x i, t ) along the trajectoryof a parcel

fluid is given by:

df ∂ f ∂ f d xi ∂f ∂f
----- = + ------- = + vi (25)
dt ∂ t ∂ x i dt ∂t ∂ xi

Cartesian Tensors 7/13

Derivative of velocity
If we follow the trajectory of an element of fluid, then on a partic-
ular trajectory x i = x i ( t ) . The acceleration of an element is then
given by:

dv i d ∂v ∂v i dx j ∂v ∂v i
fi = = v i ( x j ( t ), t ) = i + = i + vj (26)
dt dt ∂t ∂ x jdt ∂t ∂x j

Exercise: Show that f i is a vector.

6 The permutation tensor εijk

ε ijk = 0 if any of i, j, k are equal
= 1 if i, j, k unequal and in cyclic order (27)
= – 1 if i, j, k unequal and not in cyclic order
e.g.
ε 112 = 0 ε 123 = 1 ε 321 = – 1 (28)

Is ε ijk a tensor?
In order to show this we have to demonstrate that ε ijk , when defined
the same way in each coordinate system has the correct transforma-
tion properties.

Cartesian Tensors 8/13

Define

′
ε ijk = ε lmn a il a jm a kn
= ε 123 a i1 a j2 a k3 + ε 312 a i3 a j1 a k2 + ε 231 a i2 a j1 a k2
+ ε 213 a i2 a j1 a k3 + ε 321 a i3 a j2 a k1 + ε 132 a i1 a j3 a k2
= a i1 ( a j2 a k3 – a j3 a k2 ) – a i2 ( a j1 a k3 – a j3 a k2 )
(29)
+ a i3 ( a j1 a k2 – a j2 a k1 )

a i1 a i2 a i3
= a j1 a j2 a j3
a k1 a k2 a k3

In view of the interpretation of the a ij , the rows of this determinant

represent the components of the primed unit vectors in the
unprimed system. Hence:
′
ε ijk = e i′ ⋅ e ′j × e k′ (30)

This is zero if any 2 of i, j, k are equal, is +1 for a cyclic permuta-

tion of unequal indices and -1 for a non-cyclic permutation of une-
′ . Thus ε
qual indices. This is just the definition of ε ijk ijk transforms
as a tensor.
6.1 Uses of the permutation tensor
6.1.1 Cross product
Define
c i = ε ijk a j b k (31)

then

Cartesian Tensors 9/13

 c 1 = ε 123 a 2 b 3 + ε 132 a 3 b 2 = a 2 b 3 – a 3 b 2
c 2 = ε 231 a 3 b 1 + ε 213 a 1 b 3 = a 3 b 1 – a 1 b 3 (32)
c 3 = ε 312 a 1 b 2 + ε 321 a 2 b 1 = a 1 b 2 – a 2 b 1

These are the components of c = a × b .

6.1.2 Triple Product
In dyadic notation the triple product of three vectors is:
t = u⋅v×w (33)
In tensor notation this is
t = u i ε ijk v j w k = ε ijk u i v j w k (34)

6.1.3 Curl
∂u k
( curl u ) i = ε ijk (35)
∂x j

e.g.

∂u 3 ∂u 2 ∂u 3 ∂u 2
( curl u ) 1 = ε 123 + ε 132 = – (36)
∂ x2 ∂ x3 ∂ x2 ∂ x3
etc.

6.1.4 The tensor ε iks ε mps

Define
T ikmp = ε iks ε mps (37)

Properties:
• If i = k or m = p then T ikmp = 0 .

Cartesian Tensors 10/13

• If i = m we only get a contribution from the terms s ≠ i and
k ≠ i, s . Consequently k = p . Thus ε iks = ± 1 and
ε mps = ε iks = ± 1 and the product ε iks ε iks = ( ± 1 ) 2 = 1 .
• If i = p , similar argument tells us that we must have s ≠ i and
k = m ≠ i . Hence, ε iks = ± 1 , ε mps = −+ 1 ⇒ ε iks ε mps = – 1 .

So,

i = m, k = p ⇒ 1 unless i = k ⇒ 0
(38)
i = p, k = m ⇒ – 1 unless i = k ⇒ 0
These are the components of the tensor δ im δ kp – δ ip δ km .

∴ε iks ε mps = δ im δ kp – δ ip δ km (39)

6.1.5 Application of ε iks ε mps

∂ ∂
( curl ( u × v ) ) i = ε ijk ( ε klm u l v m ) = ε ijk ε klm ( u l v m )
∂x j ∂x j

 ∂u l ∂v m
= ( δ il δ jm – δ im δ jl )  v m + u l 
∂
 j x ∂ x j

∂u i ∂u j ∂v m ∂v i (40)
= vm – vi + ui – uj
∂ xm ∂x j ∂ xm ∂x j
∂u i ∂v i ∂v j ∂u j
= vj – uj + ui – vi
∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j
= ( v ⋅ ∇u – u ⋅ ∇v + u∇ ⋅ v – v∇ ⋅ u ) i

7 The Laplacean
2 2 2
2 ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ∂2φ
∇ φ = + + = --------------- (41)
∂ x 12 ∂ x 22 ∂ x 32 ∂x i ∂x i

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8 Tensor Integrals
8.1 Green’s Theorem

ni

In dyadic form:

∫ ( ∇ ⋅ u )dV = ∫ ( u ⋅ n )dS
V S
(42)

In tensor form:

∂u i
∫
V
∂ xi
dV =
∫ S
u i n i dS = Flux of u through S (43)

Extend this to tensors:

∂T ij
∫
V
∂x j
dV =
∫ T n dS = Flux of T
S
ij j ij through S (44)

Cartesian Tensors 12/13

8.2 Stoke’s Theorem

n
ti C

In dyadic form:

∫S
( curl u ) ⋅ n dS =
∫
C
u ⋅ t ds (45)

In tensor form:

∂u k
∫
S
ε ijk n i dS =
∂x j ∫ u t ds
C
i i (46)

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