Optics Communications 550 (2024) 129933

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Optics Communications
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/optcom

Analytical analysis of the beam propagation factor of elegant

Hermite-Gaussian and elegant Laguerre-Gaussian beams with astigmatism
Chemist M. Mabena
CSIR Photonics Centre, Meiring Naudé Road, Pretoria, 0001, Gauteng, South Africa

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The impact of astigmatism on the beam propagation factor (𝑀 2 ) of elegant Hermite–Gaussian and elegant
Elegant Hermite–Gaussian beams Laguerre–Gaussian beams is examined. We derive closed-form expressions for 𝑀 2 when the optical beams
Elegant Laguerre–Gaussian beams
are aberrated with astigmatism. The analysis shows that the beam radius is crucial to the degree of impact
Beam propagation factor
astigmatism has on 𝑀 2 . To this extent, we derive the beam radius that separates the region where the 𝑀 2
Astigmatism
Phase aberrations
is negligibly affected and the region where it becomes severely affected. For the elegant Laguerre-Gaussian
beams, we establish a parameter that determines a set of beams that are impacted equally by astigmatism.
The analytical results are validated with numerical simulations.

1. Introduction Saghafi and Sheppard performed calculations for the beam propagation
factor of higher-order elegant Gaussian beams in an aberration-free
Hermite-Gaussian and Laguerre-Gaussian beams are eigenmodes optical system [10]. They obtained an analytical expression for the
of the paraxial wave equation in cartesian and cylindrical symme- beam propagation factor of the elegant Hermite-Gaussian beams and
try, respectively. Their orthonormality and completeness make them an expression for elegant Laguerre-Gaussian beams only in the special
a suitable basis choice for optical resonator modes and propagating case of |𝓁| = 0. A simplified expression for the beam propagation
optical beams. In addition to being an ideal basis set, these higher-order factor of elegant Laguerre-Gaussian beams was derived for the first
Gaussian laser beams have received considerable attention within the
time in the work by Porras et al. [29]. Some work has been done
optics community and have found applications in various fields such as
to understand the behavior of elegant Gaussian beams in truncated
optical trapping [1,2], free-space communication [3–5], and quantum
systems. Zhao and Mei [19] derived a generalized beam propagation
optics [6–8]. While the conventional high-order Gaussian beams have
factor expression of truncated elegant Laguerre-Gaussian beams. In a
amassed a lot of attention, there exists a different set of modes of the
paraxial wave equation, which are also becoming topical, called the el- more recent study, an analytical expression for the beam propagation
egant Hermite-Gaussian and elegant Laguerre-Gaussian (eHG and eLG) factor of 1D truncated elegant Hermite-Gaussian beams was derived by
beams. They are defined in the same way as the conventional Hermite- Mihoubi et al. [30]. The effect of atmospheric turbulence [16,31,32]
Gaussian and Laguerre–Gaussian beams except that the polynomial and misaligned systems [13,33] on elegant Gaussian beams has also
functions have complex arguments. The complex arguments create a been investigated.
symmetry between the polynomial functions and the Gaussian envelop, It is generally accepted that optical elements or systems are not ideal
which is the origin of the elegant description in their name. A notable and may contain aberrations. A phase aberration can be represented
physical property of the elegant Gaussian beams is that their transverse as a complex function that modifies the wavefront of a laser beam.
intensity distribution does not remain constant during propagation [9]. Phase aberrations can be introduced into an optical system as a result
A venerable body of work has been done toward understanding their of misalignment, in optical elements due to manufacturing imperfec-
propagation properties [9–19]. Furthermore, elegant Gaussian beams tions or thermal effects [34]. Astigmatism is one of the most common
have been reported as a promising alternative to standard high-order aberrations that occur in optical systems. The presence of astigmatism
Gaussian beams in applications such as optical manipulation [20].
in an optical system leads to a degradation of the quality of the laser
The beam propagation factor (𝑀 2 ) is a critical parameter that can
beam that traverses the system. In order to inform the design and
be used to quantify the quality of a laser beam [21–28]. It gives
development of laser systems that are dominated by astigmatism, it is
information about the propagation dynamics of the laser beam such as
useful to know and quantify the amount of degradation it can cause.
how tightly it will focus or how much it will diverge upon propagation.

E-mail address: mabenacm@gmail.com.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optcom.2023.129933
Received 2 August 2023; Received in revised form 5 September 2023; Accepted 9 September 2023
Available online 16 September 2023
0030-4018/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
C.M. Mabena Optics Communications 550 (2024) 129933

In this work, we use the method of moments and the generation

functions of elegant Hermite-Gaussian and elegant Laguerre-Gaussian
beams to derive compact and simplified analytical expressions for
the beam propagation factor due to astigmatism. While a venerable
body of work exists on the experimental measurement of the beam
propagation factor, analytical methods, and expressions remain essen-
tial to understanding quantitative and qualitative features, especially
when parametric studies are to be done or when expeditious results
are required. This work contributes to the body of knowledge on the
understanding of elegant Gaussian beams and the design of optical
systems that use elegant Gaussian beams.

2. Elegant Gaussian beams

2.1. Elegant Hermite-Gaussian beams

The elegant Hermite-Gaussian (eHG) beams are solutions of the

paraxial wave equation and have a complex amplitude that is express-
ible as follows,
( ) 𝑛+𝑚 +1 (√ ) (√ )
𝑞0 2 𝑖𝑘 𝑖𝑘 Fig. 1. Intensity cross-section of selected eHG laser beams at the waist plane. The
eHG (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑛 𝑥 𝑚 𝑦
𝑞 (𝑧) 2𝑞 (𝑧) 2𝑞 (𝑧) insets at the bottom right corner show the phase of each optical beam.
[ ]
𝑖𝑘 ( 2 )
× exp − 𝑥 + 𝑦2 − 𝑖𝑘𝑧 , (1)
2𝑞 (𝑧)
|𝓁|
( ) where 𝑝 is the generalized Laguerre polynomial, 𝓁
1 ( and
) 𝑝 are the
where 𝑞 (𝑧) = 1∕ 𝑅(𝑧) + 𝜋𝜔𝑖𝜆2 (𝑧) is the complex beam parameter, 𝑞0 =
azimuthal and radial indices, respectively, 𝜙 = arctan 𝑥𝑦 , and all the
𝑧2
𝑞(0), the wavefront curvature is given as 𝑅 (𝑧) = 𝑧 + 𝑧𝑅 , beam radius other terms are similar to those defined in Section 2.1.
( )
2 At the waist plane, the eLG complex amplitude can be expressed in
as a function of propagation distance 𝜔2 (𝑧) = 𝜔20 1 + 𝑧2 , with the
𝑧𝑅 terms of a generating function, in cartesian coordinates, as follows,
𝜋𝜔20 [ ( 2 ) ( 2 )]
Rayleigh range is expressed as 𝑧𝑅 = 𝜆 where 𝜔0 is the beam radius 1 (𝑥 + 𝑖T𝑦) 𝜇 𝑥 + 𝑦2 𝜂 𝑥 + 𝑦2
of the Gaussian beam envelope at the waist, 𝜆 is the wavelength of = exp − − , (7)
1−𝜂 𝜔0 (1 − 𝜂) 𝜔2 (1 − 𝜂)
0
𝜔2 0
the eHG laser beam, 𝑘 = 2𝜋∕𝜆, 𝐻𝑛 (⋅) and 𝐻𝑚 (⋅) are the Hermite
polynomials. At the waist, the eHG complex amplitude can be expressed where 𝜇 and 𝜂 are the generating parameters for the azimuthal (𝓁)
in terms of a generating function as follows, and radial (𝑝) indices, respectively,and T gives the sign of the az-
[ ( 2 )] imuthal index 𝓁. To generate a particular eLG, one has to perform the
2𝑥𝜇 2𝑦𝜂 ( 2 2
) 𝑥 + 𝑦2
 = exp + − 𝜇 +𝜂 − , (2) differentiation as follows,
𝜔0 𝜔0 𝜔2 0
[ 𝑝 |𝓁| ]
1 𝜕 𝜕
where 𝜇 and 𝜂 are the generating parameters for the 𝑛 and 𝑚 indices, eLG𝓁,𝑝 =  , (8)
eLG 𝜕𝜂 𝑝 𝜕𝜇 |𝓁| 𝜂,𝜇=0
respectively. To generate a particular eHG expression, one has to
perform the differentiation as follows, where eLG is a normalization constant given by,
[ 𝑚 𝑛 ] [ ]
eHG𝑛,𝑚 =
1 𝜕 𝜕
 , (3) 𝜕 𝑝 𝜕 𝑝 𝜕 |𝓁| 𝜕 |𝓁|
eLG =  (9)
eHG 𝜕𝜂 𝑚 𝜕𝜇𝑛 𝜂,𝜇=0 𝜕𝜂1𝑝 𝜕𝜂2𝑝 𝜕𝜇 |𝓁| 𝜕𝜇|𝓁|
1 2 𝜂1 ,𝜂2 ,𝜇1 ,𝜇2 =0
where eHG is a normalization constant given by,
[ ] with  given as follows,
𝜕𝑚 𝜕𝑚 𝜕𝑛 𝜕𝑛 √ [ ]
√
eHG =  (4) √ 2 𝜇 𝜇2
𝜕𝜂1𝑚 𝜕𝜂2𝑚 𝜕𝜇1𝑛 𝜕𝜇2𝑛 √ 𝜋𝜔0 exp 2−𝜂1 −𝜂
𝜂1 ,𝜂2 ,𝜇1 ,𝜇2 =0 √ 1 2
 = . (10)
2 − 𝜂1 − 𝜂2
with  given as follows,
√ [ 2 2 ]
√ Examples of the intensity profiles of selected eLG laser beams to-
√ 𝜂 +𝜂 2
√ 2 exp 1 2 − 𝜂1 𝜂2 + (𝜇1 −𝜇2 ) gether with their respective phases are shown in Fig. 2.
√ 2 2
 =√ . (5)
𝜋𝜔20
3. Beam propagation factor
Examples of the intensity profiles of selected eHG laser beams
together with their respective phases are shown in Fig. 1. The beam propagation factor is invariant when passing through an
ideal optical system, a linear system, or when passing through a system
2.2. Elegant Laguerre-Gaussian beams with a quadratic transfer function such as a lens. Real optical systems
have aberrations and the presence of aberrations degrades the quality of
The elegant Laguerre-Gaussian (eLG) beams are also solutions of the the laser beams. Here, we will use the method of moments to calculate
paraxial wave equation, albeit in cylindrical coordinates. Their complex the beam propagation factor, which is a critical parameter that is used
amplitude is expressible as follows, in practice to characterize the quality of a laser beam. If we assume that
( ) 𝑝+|𝓁| +1 ( ) the propagation of the laser beam along the two axes can be treated as
𝑞0 2 𝑖𝜋 2 independent, the beam propagation factor along the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions
eLG (𝑟, 𝜙, 𝑧) = |𝓁|
𝑝 𝑟
𝑞 (𝑧) 𝜆𝑞 (𝑧) is given as follows,
[ ]
𝑖𝜋 2 √
× exp − 𝑟 − 𝑖𝑘𝑧 exp [𝑖𝓁𝜙] , (6) 𝑀𝑥2 = 4𝜋 ⟨𝑥2 ⟩⟨𝜃𝑥2 ⟩ − ⟨𝑥𝜃𝑥 ⟩2 , (11)
𝜆𝑞 (𝑧)

2
C.M. Mabena Optics Communications 550 (2024) 129933

Table 1
Algebraic expressions for primary astigmatism.
Description Algebraic expression
( )
0◦ astigmatism 𝐷ast0 𝑥2 − 𝑦2
45◦ astigmatism 𝐷ast45 𝑥𝑦

The complex amplitude of a laser beam can be expressed as follows,

2𝜋
𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑒−𝑖 𝜆
𝜙(𝑥,𝑦)
, (20)

where 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) is the complex amplitude distribution of the laser beam,

𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) represents the phase accrued as a result of aberrations. Table 1
shows the algebraic expressions for the aberrations considered in this
work. The coefficients 𝐷ast0 and 𝐷ast45 have units of diopter.

3.1. Beam propagation factor of aberrated elegant Hermite-Gaussian beams

3.1.1. 0◦ astigmatism
It can be easily shown that the beam propagation factor of eHG
Fig. 2. Intensity cross-section of selected eLG laser beams at the waist plane. The insets
at the bottom right corner show the phase of each laser beam. laser beams is not affected by 0◦ astigmatism. We can start by substi-
tuting the expression for 0◦ astigmatism (Table 1) into Eq. (16), which
becomes the second-order spatial moment with an extra factor 𝜋12 . A
similar substitution into Eq. (17) gives the first-order spatial moment,
√ which is zero. Substitution of the expression for 0◦ astigmatism (Ta-
𝑀𝑦2 = 4𝜋 ⟨𝑦2 ⟩⟨𝜃𝑦2 ⟩ − ⟨𝑦𝜃𝑦 ⟩2 , (12) ble 1) into Eq. (19) also results in the second-order spatial moment
with an extra factor 𝜋1 . Putting everything together and substituting all
where ⟨𝑥2 ⟩ and ⟨𝑦2 ⟩ are the second-order spatial moments along the of the above into Eq. (11) gives,
𝑥 and 𝑦 directions, respectively; ⟨𝜃𝑥2 ⟩ and ⟨𝜃𝑦2 ⟩ are the second-order √
angular moments in each direction; ⟨𝑥𝜃𝑥 ⟩ and ⟨𝑦𝜃𝑦 ⟩ are the first-order 𝑀𝑥2 = 4𝜋 ⟨𝑥2 ⟩𝜃1 . (21)
spatial-angular moments in the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions, respectively. The
terms represented in Eq. (11) can be calculated as follows, This shows that the beam propagation factor is unchanged by 0◦
∞ ∞
astigmatism. This conclusion also holds for the case of eLG laser beams.
⟨𝑥2 ⟩ = 𝑥2 𝑢2 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦, (13)
∫−∞ ∫−∞
3.1.2. 45◦ astigmatism
[ ( )2 ] The beam propagation factor of eHG laser beams is not unaffected
∞ ∞ (
)
1 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝜙
⟨𝜃𝑥2 ⟩ = + 𝑢 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 by 45◦ astigmatism. The second-order spatial moment in terms of the
4𝜋 2 ∫−∞ ∫−∞ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
generating parameters, is given as follows,
( ∞ ∞ )2
1 𝜕𝜙 { 2 2 }[ ]
− 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 , (14) 𝜂 +𝜂 +(𝜇1 −𝜇2 )
2 ( )2
4𝜋 2 ∫−∞ ∫−∞ 𝜕𝑥 𝜋𝜔40 exp − 1 2 2 + 𝜂1 𝜂2 𝜇1 + 𝜇2 + 1
⟨𝑥2 ⟩eHG = , (22)
For convenience, we break up Eq. (14) into three different parts as 8eHG 2
follows: the first term does contain any aberration information,
The aberration independent term in Eq. (18) for 45◦ astigmatism is
∞ ∞( )
1 𝜕𝑢 2 given below as
𝜃1 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦, (15)
4𝜋 ∫−∞ ∫−∞ 𝜕𝑥
2 { 2 2 }
𝜂 +𝜂 +(𝜇1 −𝜇2 )
2 [ ][ ]
the aberration-dependent terms are given as, exp − 1 2 2 + 𝜂1 𝜂2 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 + 1 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 − 1
ast45
∞( )2
∞
𝜃1,𝑥 = , (23)
8𝜋eHG 2
1 𝜕𝜙
𝜃2 = 𝑢 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦, (16)
4𝜋 2 ∫−∞ ∫−∞ 𝜕𝑥
Next, we consider the aberration-dependent terms, which are given by,
and,
{ }[ ]
1
∞ ∞
𝜕𝜙 𝜂12 +𝜂22 +(𝜇1 −𝜇2 )
2 ( )2
𝜃3 = 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦. (17) 2
𝐷ast45 𝜔40 𝜋 exp − + 𝜂1 𝜂2 𝜂1 + 𝜂2 + 1
2𝜋 ∫−∞ ∫−∞ 𝜕𝑥 ast45
2
𝜃2,𝑥 = , (24)
2 8𝜆2
eHG
With this, the second-order angular moment can be rewritten as
follows,
{ }
𝜂12 +𝜂22 +(𝜇1 −𝜇2 )
2 [ ]
⟨𝜃𝑥2 ⟩ = 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 − 𝜃32 . (18) 𝐷ast45 𝜔30 𝜋 exp − 2
+ 𝜂1 𝜂2 𝜂1 + 𝜂2
ast45
𝜃3,𝑥 = , (25)
Finally, from Eq. (11) we also have the first-order spatial-angular 2
4𝜆eHG
moment, which is calculated as follows,
Finally, the expression for the first-order spatial-angular moment for
∞ ∞
⟨𝑥𝜃𝑥 ⟩ =
1 𝜕𝜙
𝑢2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦. (19) 45◦ astigmatism in terms of generating parameters is given as,
2𝜋 ∫−∞ ∫−∞ 𝜕𝑥 { }
2
2
𝜂12 +𝜂22 +(𝜇1 −𝜇2 ) ( )( )
𝐷ast45 𝜔40 𝜋 exp − + 𝜂1 𝜂2 𝜇1 + 𝜇2 𝜂1 + 𝜂2
The terms in Eq. (12) are given by the same formulae as above, 2
⟨𝑥𝜃𝑥 ⟩ast45 = . (26)
albeit with the appropriate substitution of the 𝑥 and 𝑦 variables. 2
8𝜆eHG

3
C.M. Mabena Optics Communications 550 (2024) 129933

With the above expressions, the next step is to substitute them into
Eq. (11) and carefully perform some calculations to obtain the beam
propagation factor along the 𝑥 directions as,
𝜋 2 𝜔40 𝐷ast45
2
(4𝑚 − 1) (4𝑛 − 1) (4𝑛 − 1) (2𝑛 + 1)
𝑀𝑥4 = + . (27)
𝜆2 (2𝑚 − 1) (2𝑛 − 1) 2𝑛 − 1
The expressions used to calculate the beam quality factor along the 𝑦
direction are similar to those given in Eqs. (22) to (26), except for the
terms in the square brackets. In this case, the generating parameters
need to be replaced with the alternative. For instance, in Eq. (22) the
following substitution has to be made: 𝜇1 → 𝜂1 , 𝜇2 → 𝜂2 . Using the same
approach for the beam propagation factor along the 𝑦 direction yields
the following result,
𝜋 2 𝜔40 𝐷ast45
2
(4𝑚 − 1) (4𝑛 − 1) (4𝑚 − 1) (2𝑚 + 1)
𝑀𝑦4 = + . (28)
𝜆2 (2𝑚 − 1) (2𝑛 − 1) 2𝑚 − 1
Fig. 3 shows the beam propagation factor of various eHG optical
beams aberrated by 45◦ astigmatism as a function of beam radius. The
solid lines represent the beam quality factor for an aberration coeffi-
cient given by 0.01 cm−1 and the dashed lines represent an aberration
coefficient of 1 cm−1 . The plots in Fig. 3 have a similar trend: the beam
propagation factor is almost flat and changes infinitesimally up until a
certain threshold beam radius. Beyond the threshold beam radius, the
beam propagation factor starts changing sharply. We define the beam
radius that separates these two regions as the critical width. The critical
width depends on the 𝑛 and 𝑚 indices of the eHG beam, astigmatism
strength, and the wavelength of the laser beam as follows,
[ ]1
4
𝜆2 (2𝑚 − 1) (2𝑛 − 1)
𝜔ast45
c = . (29)
2 2 (4𝑚 − 1) (4𝑛 − 1)
𝜋 𝐷ast
For eHG laser beams with a beam radius that is larger than the critical
Fig. 3. Beam propagation factor due to 45◦ astigmatism as a function of beam radius.
width, 𝜔c ≪ 𝜔0 , the beam propagation factor, in both the 𝑥 and 𝑦 The solid lines represent the beam propagation factor due to an aberration coefficient
directions, can be approximated as a quadratic function in beam radius, of 0.01 cm−1 and the dashed lines represent an aberration coefficient of 1 cm−1 . The
𝜔0 , as follows, same color is used for both types of lines to represent the same laser beam. (a) shows
√ the beam propagation factor along the 𝑥 direction, and (b) shows the beam propagation
𝜋𝜔20 𝐷ast45 (4𝑚 − 1) (4𝑛 − 1) factor along the 𝑦 direction.
2
𝑀𝑥,𝑦 ≃ . (30)
𝜆 (2𝑚 − 1) (2𝑛 − 1)
Since Fig. 3 is a log–log plot of the beam propagation factor versus [( ) ]
+ 2𝜇1 𝜇2 + 8 𝜂2 − 2𝜇1 𝜇2 − 2𝜇22 − 2𝜂22 − 6 𝜂1
beam radius, Eq. (30) appears as a straight line with a slope determined ( ) ( )
by the exponent of 𝜔0 and the 𝑦−intercept, for a fixed wavelength, is + 𝜇12 + 2 𝜂22 − 2𝜇12 + 2𝜇1 𝜇2 + 6 𝜂2
}
determined by the indices of the eHG laser beam and the strength of +𝜇12 + 2𝜇1 𝜇2 + 𝜇22 + 4 .
the 45◦ astigmatism. The beam propagation factor plots for different
eHG laser beams cross each other due to the different critical widths. For the second-order angular momentum, the terms in Eq. (18) are
Some eHG laser beams pass their critical width while others have not given as,
( )[ ]
and thus move into the region which is described by the straight line 𝜇 𝜇2
exp 2−𝜂1 −𝜂 𝜇12 − 2𝜇1 𝜇2 + 𝜇22 + 2𝜂1 + 2𝜂2 − 4
while the rest are still relatively flat. However, once all the beams pass ast45 1 2
𝜃1 = ( )3 . (32)
2 𝜂1 + 𝜂2 − 2
their critical width, all the lines remain parallel, except for the laser 𝜋eLG
beams for some cases where the beam propagation factor plots join. where the aberration dependent terms for 45◦ astigmatism are express-
Looking at Eq. (30), it can be seen that the beam propagation factor ible as follows,
in the region of sharp increase is symmetric about 𝑚 = 𝑛. When two ( )
2 𝜇 𝜇2
eHG optical beams are related by a swap of their indices, their beam 𝐷ast45 𝜔40 𝜋 exp 2−𝜂1 −𝜂 {( )
propagation factors are exactly equal. For instance, eHG01 and eHG10 𝜃2ast45 = (
1
)3
2
× 𝜇22 + 2𝜂2 − 2 𝜂12
2
4eLG 𝜂1 + 𝜂2 − 2 𝜆 2
behave exactly the same in the region of sharp increase. [ ( ) ]
+ 2𝜂22 + −2𝜇1 𝜇2 − 8 𝜂2 + 2𝜇1 𝜇2 − 2𝜇22 + 6 𝜂1
( ) ( ) ( )
3.2. Beam propagation factor of aberrated elegant Laguerre-Gaussian beams + 𝜇12 − 2 𝜂22 + 2𝜇1 𝜇2 − 2𝜇12 + 6 𝜂2 + 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 + 2
( )}
3.2.1. 45◦ astigmatism × 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 − 2 , (33)
Elegant Laguerre-Gaussian laser beams are symmetric, therefore, we and
expect the propagation dynamics along the 𝑥− and 𝑦− directions to be ( )[ ]
𝜇1 𝜇2
𝐷ast45 𝜔30 𝜋 exp 𝜂2 𝜇1 − 𝜂1 𝜇2 + 𝜇2 − 𝜇1
similar. With this, we only focus on Eq. (11). The second-order spatial 2−𝜂2 −𝜂1
𝜃3ast45 = ( )2 . (34)
moment along the 𝑥 direction, in terms of the generating parameters, 2
2𝑖eLG 𝜂1 + 𝜂2 − 2 𝜆
is given as follows,
( ) The first-order spatial-angular moment for 45◦ astigmatism in terms of
𝜇 𝜇2
𝜋𝜔40 exp 2−𝜂1 −𝜂 {( 2 ) 2 generating parameters is given as,
1 2
⟨𝑥2 ⟩eLG = ( )3 𝜇2 − 2𝜂2 + 2 𝜂1 (31)
2
4eLG 𝜂1 + 𝜂2 − 2 ⟨𝑥𝜃𝑥 ⟩ast45

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C.M. Mabena Optics Communications 550 (2024) 129933

Fig. 4. Beam propagation factor due to 45◦ astigmatism as a function of beam radius. Fig. 5. Beam propagation factor due to 45◦ astigmatism as a function of beam radius.
The solid lines represent the beam propagation factor due to an aberration coefficient The dashed lines represent the beam propagation factor when the mode parameter is
of 0.01 cm−1 and the dashed lines represent an aberration coefficient of 1 cm−1 . The given by  = 1 and the solid lines represent the mode parameter given by  = 4.
same color is used for both types of lines to represent the same laser beam.

( ) [( )( )] astigmatism. That is, for some constant  ≥ 1 which we call the index
𝜇1 𝜇2
𝐷ast45 𝜔40 𝜋 exp 2−𝜂1 −𝜂2
𝜂1 𝜇2 + 𝜂2 𝜇1 − 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 𝜂1 𝜇2 − 𝜂2 𝜇1 + 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 parameter, there exists a radial index,
= ( )3 .
2
4eLG 𝜂1 + 𝜂2 − 2 𝜆 −1
𝑝> , (39)
(35) 8
and an azimuthal index,
Substitution of Eqs. (33) and (34) into Eq. (18), and subsequent substi- √
tution into Eq. (11) together with Eqs. (35) and (32) yields the analyt- −1 ( − 1) (8𝑝 +  − 1)
|𝓁| = + (40)
ical expression of the beam propagation factor due to 45◦ astigmatism. 2 2
The final result is given as follows, which describe eLG beams that have the same beam propagation factor.
( )[ 2 ( ) ] The case when  = 1 is an interesting case. Here, the azimuthal index is
|𝓁|2 + |𝓁| + 2𝑝 𝜋 2 𝐷ast45 𝜔40 |𝓁|2 + |𝓁| + 2𝑝
𝑀𝑥4 = + (2𝑝 + |𝓁| + 1) , zero, and all the radial modes are in this set. The dashed lines in Fig. 5
2𝑝 + |𝓁| 𝜆2 2𝑝 + |𝓁|
represent this case. The solid lines represent the case when  = 4.
(36)
4. Numerical simulation
Fig. 4 shows the beam propagation factor of various eLG laser beams
aberrated by 45◦ astigmatism as a function of beam radius.
The beam propagation simulation is performed using the angu-
The solid lines represent the propagation factor of the laser beam
lar spectrum method. First, we generate the angular spectrum by
due to an aberration coefficient of 0.01 cm−1 and the dashed lines
computing the Fourier transform of the input function as follows,
represent an aberration coefficient of 1 cm−1 . The plots in Fig. 4 have
a similar trend: the beam propagation factor is almost flat and changes 𝐹 (𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) exp (−2𝜋𝑖 [𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦]) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦. (41)
infinitesimally up until a certain thresh-hold beam radius. As in the ∬
case of eHg laser beams, we use the critical width to partition the two This is subsequently followed by multiplication of the angular spectrum
regions for eLG laser beams. The critical width is given as, with the propagation phase factor which is given by,
√ ( ) ( √ )
𝜆 2𝑝 + |𝓁| 1
𝜔ast45
c = . (37) 𝛷(𝑎, 𝑏) = exp −2𝜋𝑖𝑧 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 − . (42)
𝜋𝐷ast |𝓁|2 + |𝓁| + 2𝑝 𝜆2
In the region where the beam radius is larger than the critical width, Finally, to obtain the laser beam at the specified 𝑧 position, an inverse
𝜔c ≪ 𝜔0 , the beam propagation factor can be approximated as a Fourier transform is performed to give the propagated laser beam,
quadratic function in beam radius, 𝜔0 ,
( ) 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐹 (𝑎, 𝑏)𝛷(𝑎, 𝑏) exp (2𝜋𝑖 [𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦]) 𝑑𝑎𝑑𝑏. (43)
𝜋𝜔20 𝐷ast45 |𝓁|2 + |𝓁| + 2𝑝 ∬
𝑀𝑥2 ≃ . (38)
𝜆 2𝑝 + |𝓁| To obtain the beam propagation factor, we use the method proposed by
Fig. 4 is a log–log plot of the beam propagation factor versus beam Siegman [21]. This method is based on the measurement of the beam
radius, therefore Eq. (38) appears as a straight line with a slope width along the propagation axis, and the final result is plotted and
determined by the exponent of 𝜔0 and the 𝑦−intercept, for a fixed compared to the equation,
wavelength, is determined by the azimuthal index, radial index, and the ( 2 )2 ( 2 )2 ( 2 )2
𝑀 𝜆 𝑀 𝜆 𝑀 𝜆
strength of the 45◦ astigmatism. The beam propagation factor plots for 𝜔2 (𝑧) = 𝑧2 − 2𝑧0 𝑧+ 𝑧20 + 𝜔20 . (44)
𝜋𝜔0 𝜋𝜔0 𝜋𝜔0
different eLG laser beams cross each other due to the different critical
The data is fitted with a quadratic polynomial of the form
widths. Some eLG beams pass their critical width while others have not
and thus move into the region which is described by the straight line 𝑌 = 𝐴𝑧2 + 𝐵𝑧 + 𝐶. (45)
while the rest are still relatively flat. However, once all the beams pass
their critical width, all the lines remain parallel. Upon fitting the polynomial and extracting the pertinent coefficients,
Fig. 5 shows plots for the cases where the beam propagation factor the beam propagation factor is calculated as follows,
of eLG beams is equal in the region of sharp increase. Here, it can be √
𝜋 𝐵2
seen that there exists a set of eLG beams that behave the same under 𝑀2 = 𝐴𝐶 − , (46)
𝜆 4

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C.M. Mabena Optics Communications 550 (2024) 129933

Table 2
Critical width of the eHG beams in Figs. 6 and 7 for the highest aberration strength
𝐷ast45 = 0.001 cm−1 .
eHG laser beam Critical width (cm)
eHG10 0.11
eHG01 0.11
eHG11 0.08
eHG23 0.09

where,
( 2 )2
𝑀 𝜆
𝐴 = , (47)
𝜋𝜔0
( 2 )2
𝑀 𝜆
𝐵 = −2𝑧0 , (48)
𝜋𝜔0
( 2 )2
𝑀 𝜆
𝐶 = 𝑧20 + 𝜔20 . (49)
𝜋𝜔0

5. Results and discussion

The numerical simulation method described in the previous section,

Section 4, is used here to validate the analytical results obtained in
Section 3. All the results are generated with 𝜆 = 680 nm and the aber-
ration strength considered is in the range [−0.001 cm−1 , 0.001 cm−1 ].
The numerical simulation is performed with 𝑁𝑥 = 2048 and 𝑁𝑦 = 2048,
where 𝑁𝑥 and 𝑁𝑦 are the number of points in the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions,
respectively.

5.1. Elegant Hermite-Gaussian beams

Fig. 6. Beam propagation factor as a function of the 45◦ astigmatism for various eHG
beams. The plots show results for the eHG beams with 𝜔0 = 0.05 cm; (a) the beam
Fig. 6 shows the comparison of the beam propagation factor expres- propagation factor along 𝑥, (b) the beam propagation factor along 𝑦. The solid lines
represent the analytical prediction of the beam propagation factor. The discrete markers
sions in Eqs. (27) and (28) with numerical simulations. The selected
represent the results of the numerical simulation.
eHG beams have a beam radius 𝜔0 = 0.05 cm and are subjected to
45◦ astigmatism. Fig. 6(a) shows 𝑀𝑥2 plots of selected eHG beams and
Table 3
Fig. 6(b) shows 𝑀𝑦2 plots of the same eHG beams. It can be seen that Critical width of the eLG beams in Fig. 8 for the highest aberration strength 𝐷ast45 =
the effect of 45◦ astigmatism is infinitesimal at this beam width for the 0.001 cm−1 .
aberration strength range. The beam propagation factor of the selected eLG laser beam Critical width (cm)
eHG beams is practically unchanged. Table 2 shows the critical widths eLG10 0.10
of the selected beams in Fig. 6 calculated at the highest aberration eLG01 0.15
strength (𝐷ast45 = 0.001 cm−1 ). The critical width in Table 2 is the eLG11 0.13
lowest critical width for the range of aberration strengths. This means eLG23 0.12
that any of the selected eHG beams with a radius that is below this
width should experience a negligible change in the beam propagation
factor. The results in Fig. 6 confirm the latter point since all the 5.2. Elegant Laguerre-Gaussian beams
plots are flat lines indicating that the beam propagation factor remains
unchanged. Fig. 7 also shows the comparison of the beam propagation
factor expressions in Eqs. (27) and (28) with numerical simulations,
albeit the selected eHG beams have a beam radius 𝜔0 = 0.3 cm. Here, Fig. 8 shows a comparison of the beam propagation factor expres-
the effect of 45◦ astigmatism on the beam propagation factor is clearly sion in Eq. (36) with numerical simulations. It shows two scenarios:
discernible for both 𝑀𝑥2 and 𝑀𝑦2 . The beam radius for the eHG beams in Fig. 8(a) shows the beam propagation factor of eLG beams with beam
Fig. 7 is larger than the critical width at the aberration strength 𝐷ast45 = radius 𝜔0 = 0.05 cm and Fig. 8(b) shows the comparison for eLG
0.001 cm−1 . Therefore, it is expected that the beam propagation factor beams with beam radius 𝜔0 = 0.3 cm. Table 3 shows the critical
should deviate from the aberration-free one for all the selected eHG widths of the selected laser beams in Fig. 8 calculated at the highest
beams. Lastly, the asymmetry in the beam propagation factor along the aberration strength (𝐷ast45 = 0.001 cm−1 ). It can be seen that the beam
𝑥 and 𝑦 is easy to see in both Figs. 6 and 7. The laser beam with the radius considered in Fig. 8(a) is below the critical width for all the
lowest beam propagation factor along the 𝑥 is eHG01 whereas the beam selected eLG beams. Therefore, as expected, the results of the beam
with the lowest beam propagation factor along the 𝑦 is the beam eHG10 . propagation factor show no change for all the aberration strengths
Furthermore, the minimum value of 𝑀𝑦2 for the beam eHG23 is larger in the chosen range. Conversely, the beam radius of the eLG beams
than the minimum value of 𝑀𝑥2 . This can be seen by taking the values in Fig. 8(b) is larger than all the critical widths that are shown in
of 𝑀𝑥2 and 𝑀𝑦2 for the beam eHG11 as the reference since it has the Table 3. As predicted in Section 3, the beam propagation factor deviates
same beam propagation factor in both 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions. In all the from the aberration-free case. In both Fig. 8(a) and (b), the beam
plots, there is excellent agreement between the numerical results and propagation factor obtained from the numerical simulations matches
the analytical results. the beam propagation factor that is calculated using Eq. (36).

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C.M. Mabena Optics Communications 550 (2024) 129933

Fig. 7. Beam propagation factor as a function of the 45◦ astigmatism for various eHG
Fig. 8. Beam propagation factor as a function of the 45◦ astigmatism for various eLG
beams. The plots show results for the eHG beams with 𝜔0 = 0.3 cm; (a) the beam
beams. The plots show results for the eLG beams with (a) 𝜔0 = 0.05 cm; (b) 𝜔0 = 0.3 cm.
propagation along 𝑥, (b) the beam propagation factor along 𝑦. The solid lines represent
The solid lines represent the analytical prediction of the beam propagation factor. The
the analytical prediction of the beam propagation factor. The discrete markers represent
discrete markers represent the results of the numerical simulation.
the results of the numerical simulation.

6. Summary Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal rela-

In this work, we derived compact and simplified analytical expres- tionships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
sions for the beam propagation factor of elegant Hermite-Gaussian and Chemist Mabena reports financial support was provided by National
elegant Laguerre-Gaussian beams when they are aberrated with astig- Research Foundation.
matism. Our analytical analysis shows that the effect of astigmatism on
the beam propagation factor is not only determined by the astigmatism Data availability
strength, the beam radius is also a key parameter. As a result, we de-
rived an expression for the beam radius that separates the region where Data will be made available on request.
the beam propagation factor is negligibly affected by the presence of
astigmatism and the region where it becomes severely affected. We Acknowledgment
call this the critical width. We found that it is inversely proportional
to the strength of astigmatism and also depends on the beam indices. The research was carried out with the partial support of a grant from
We further derived a limiting expression for the beam propagation the National Research Foundation (NRF).
factor in the region of sharp increase. The expression shows that the
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