Unit 2 Physical Layer

Agenda:
 Functions of Physical Layer
 Data and signals: Analog and Digital signals, Transmission Impairment, Data Rate
Limits, Performance
 Data transmission Media: Guided Media, Unguided Media and Satellites
 Bandwidth Utilization: Multiplexing and Spreading
 Switching : Circuit switching, Message Switching and Packet Switching
 Telephone, Mobile and Cable network for data communication

Physical Layer
 Physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI reference model. It is responsible for sending bits
from one computer to another. This layer is not concerned with the meaning of the bits and deals
with the setup of physical connection to the network and with transmission and reception of
signals.

 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to
another node. It is the lowest layer of the OSI model. It establishes, maintains and deactivates
the physical connection. It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.

Fig Physical Layer

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav
  One of the major role of Physical layer is to transfer the data in form of signals through
a transmission medium. It doesn’t matter what data you are sending, it can be text, audio,
image, video etc. everything is transferred in form of signals. This happens because a data
cannot be send as it is over a transmission medium, it must be converted to a form that is
acceptable by the transmission media, signals are what a transmission medium carry. In
this guide, we will discuss data and signals.

Functions of Physical Layer

Following are the various functions performed by the Physical layer of the OSI model.

1. Representation of Bits: Data in this layer consists of stream of bits. The bits must be encoded
into signals for transmission. It defines the type of encoding i.e. how 0's and 1's are changed to
signal.

2. Data Rate: This layer defines the rate of transmission which is the number of bits per second.

3. Synchronization: It deals with the synchronization of the transmitter and receiver. The sender
and receiver are synchronized at bit level.

4. Interface: The physical layer defines the transmission interface between devices and
transmission medium.

5. Line Configuration: This layer connects devices with the medium: Point to Point configuration
and Multipoint configuration.

6. Topologies: Devices must be connected using the following topologies: Mesh, Star, Ring and
Bus.

7. Transmission Modes: Physical Layer defines the direction of transmission between two
devices: Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex.

8. Deals with baseband and broadband transmission.

Data and Signals:

 When discussing data in the context of data communications, we can define data as a raw
collection of 0’s and 1’s, with “information” being the result of converting the data into
a meaningful form.
 Signals are the electric or electromagnetic impulses used to encode and transmit data. Data
is then transmitted through some medium, such as a cable or the airwaves. The receiving
node then reverses the conversion and turns the electronic pulses or waveforms back into
the 0’s and 1’s that represent the original data.

Analog and Digital signals

Both the data and the signal can be represented in form of analog and digital.

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Analog and Digital Data:

 Analog data is continuous data that keeps changing over time, for example in an analog
watch, the hour, minute and second hands keep moving so you infer the time by looking at
it, it keeps changing.
 Digital data is discrete data. Digital data is information stored on a computer system as a
series of 0's and 1's in a binary language. On the other hand digital watch shows you discrete
data such as 12:20 AM, 5:30 PM etc. at a particular moment of time.
Analog and Digital Signals:

 Similar to data, a signal can be analog or digital.

 An analog signal can have infinite number of values in a given range, on the other hand a
digital signal has limited number of values in a given range. The following diagram shows
analog and digital signals.
 A simple analog signal can be represented in form of sine wave. A sine wave is shown in the
above diagram.

 There are three parameters that defines a sine wave – peak amplitude, frequency and phase.

 Peak amplitude: Absolute value of highest intensity of sine wave.

 Frequency and Period: Period is the amount of time a signal takes to complete one
cycle, it is denoted by T. Frequency refers to the number of cycles in 1 second, it is
denoted by f. They are inversely proportional to each other which means f = 1/T.
 Phase: Phase refers to the position of sine wave relative to the time 0. For example if
the sine wave is at its highest intensity at the time zero then the phase value for this sine
wave is 90 degrees. Phase is measured in degrees or radians.

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2. Digital Signals
 Similar to analog signals, data can be transmitted in form of digital signals.

Fig Digital signal

 For example a data that is converted it into a machine language (combination of 0s and 1s) such
as 1001 can be represented in form digital signals. 1 represents high voltage and 0 represents
low voltage.
 Bit Rate: A bit rate is measured as bits per second, it represents the number of 1s send in 1
second.
 Bit Length: A bit length is the distance a bit occupies on the transmission medium.

Transmission impairments in Data Communication

 In the data communication system, analog and digital signals go through the transmission medium.
Transmission media are not ideal. There are some imperfections in transmission mediums. So, the
signals sent through the transmission medium are also not perfect. This imperfection cause signal
impairment.
 It means that signals that are transmitted at the beginning of the medium are not the same as the signals
that are received at the end of the medium that is what is sent is not what is received. These impairments
tend to deteriorate the quality of analog and digital signals.
 The impairment is caused by the strength of signals that degrades with distance over
a transmission link. The received signal should have sufficient strength to be intelligently interpreted by
a receiver.

Types of transmission impairments

 There are three types of transmission impairments in data communication: attenuation, delay
distortion, and noise

Causes of impairment
 There are three main causes of impairment are,
1. Attenuation
2. Distortion
3. Noise

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1) Attenuation
 Here attenuation Means loss of energy that is the weaker signal. Whenever a signal transmitted through
a medium it loses its energy, so that it can overcome by the resistance of the medium.
 That is why a wire carrying electrical signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the
electrical energy is converted to heat in the signal.
 Amplifiers are used to amplify the signals to compensate for this loss.
 This figure shows the effect of attenuation and amplification:

 A signal has lost or gained its strength, for this purpose engineers use the concept of decibel (dB).
 Decibel is used to measure the relative strengths of two signals or a signal at two different points.
 If a signal is attenuated then dB is negative and if a signal is amplified so the db is positive.

Attenuation (dB) = 10log10 (P2/P1)

Where P2 and P1 are the power of a signal at points1 and 2.

2) Distortion
 If a signal changes its form or shape, it is referred to as distortion. Signals made up of different frequencies
are composite signals. Distortion occurs in these composite signals.

 Each component of frequency has its propagation speed traveling through a medium and therefore,
different components have different delay in arriving at the final destination.
 It means that signals have different phases at the receiver than they did at the source.
 This figure shows the effect of distortion on a composite signal:

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

3) Noise
 Noise is another problem. There are some random or unwanted signals mix up with the original signal is
called noise. Noises can corrupt the signals in many ways along with the distortion introduced by the
transmission media.

 Different types of noises are:

a. Thermal noise
b. Intermodulation noise
c. Crosstalk
d. Impulse noise

a) Thermal noise
 The thermal noise is random motion of electrons in a conductor that creates an extra signal not originally
sent by the transmitter.
 It is also known as white noise because it is distributed across the entire spectrum (as the frequency
encompass over a broad range of frequencies).
b) Intermodulation noise
 More than one signal share a single transmission channel, intermodulation noise is generated.

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  For instance, two signals S1 and S2 will generate signals of frequencies (S1 + S2) and (s1 - S2), which
may interfere with the signals of the same frequencies sent by the sender. Due to If nonlinearity present
in any part of the communication system, intermodulation noise is introduced.

c) Cross talk
 Cross talk is an effect a wire on the another. One wire acts as a sending antenna and the transmission
medium acts as the receiving antenna.
 Just like in telephone system, it is a common experience to hear conversation of other people in
the background. This is known as cross talk.
d) Impulse noise
 Impulse noise is irregular pulses or spikes( a signal with high energy in a very short period) generated by
phenomena like that comes from power lines, lightning, spark due to loose contact in electric circuits and
so on.
 It is a primary source of bit-errors in digital data communication that kind of noise introduces burst errors.

Data rate Limits:

 The data rate is a term to denote the transmission speed, or the number of bits per second transferred.
 The useful data rate for the user is usually less than the actual data rate transported on the network
 A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in bits per second
over a channel.
 Data rate depends on three factors:

1. The bandwidth available

2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
 Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist for a noiseless
channel, another by Shannon for a noisy channel.

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

 For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate

 In this formula, B is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal levels used to represent data,
and Bit Rate is the bit rate in bits per second.

Example
1. Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as

2. Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2
bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

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Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
 In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy.
 In 1944, Claude Shannon introduced a formula, called the Shannon capacity, to determine the theoretical
highest data rate for a noisy channel:

 In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio, and capacity
is the capacity of the channel in bits per second.
Example
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words,
the noise is so strong that the signal is faint.
For this channel the capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot receive
any data through this channel.
Example
 We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone line. A telephone line normally
has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 to 3300 Hz) assigned for data communications. The signal-to-noise
ratio is usually 3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as
C = B log2 (1 + SNR)
= 3000 log2 (l + 3162) = 3000 log2 3163
= 3000 x 11.62 = 34,860 bps
 This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than
this, we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal-to-noise ratio.

Performance
 One important issue in networking is the performance of the network—how good is it? We discuss quality
of service, an overall measurement of network performance, in greater detail in Chapter 24. In this
section, we introduce terms that we need for future chapters.
 Topics discussed in this section:
 Bandwidth
 Throughput
 Latency (Delay)
 Bandwidth-Delay Product
Bandwidth
 One characteristic that measures network performance is bandwidth. However, the term can be used in
two different contexts with two different measuring values: bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits per
second.

Bandwidth in Hertz
 We have discussed this concept. Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies contained in a composite
signal or the range of frequencies a channel can pass. For example, we can say the bandwidth of a
subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz.
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Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds
 The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits per second that a channel, a link, or even a
network can transmit. For example, one can say the bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network (or the links
in this network) is a maximum of 100 Mbps. This means that this network can send 100 Mbps.

Throughput
 The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network. Although, at first
glance, bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem the same, they are different.
 A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this link with T always less
than B.
 In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link; the throughput is an actual
measurement of how fast we can send data.
 For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices connected to the end of
the link may handle only 200 kbps. This means that we cannot send more than 200 kbps through this
link.

Latency (Delay)
 The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the destination
from the time the first bit is sent out from the source.
 We can say that latency is made of four components: propagation time, transmission time, queuing time
and processing delay.

Propagation Time
 Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source to the destination. The
propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance by the propagation speed.

 The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on the medium and on the frequency
of the signal For example, in a vacuum, light is propagated with a speed of 3 x 108 m/s. It is
lower in air; it is much lower in cable.
Transmission Time
 In data communications we don't send just 1 bit, we send a message. The first bit may take a
time equal to the propagation time to reach its destination; the last bit also may take the same
amount of time. However, there is a time between the first bit leaving the sender and the last bit
arriving at the receiver. The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier; the last bit leaves later and
arrives later. The time required for transmission of a message depends on the size of the message
and the bandwidth of the channel.

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Queuing Time
 The third component in latency is the queuing time, the time needed for each intermediate or
end device to hold the message before it can be processed.
 The queuing time is not a fixed factor; it changes with the load imposed on the network. When
there is heavy traffic on the network, the queuing time increases. An intermediate device, such
as a router, queues the arrived messages and processes them one by one. If there are many
messages, each message will have to wait.
Bandwidth Delay Product
 Bandwidth and delay are two performance metrics of a link. However, what is very important in
data communications is the product of the two, the bandwidth-delay product

Jitter
 Another performance issue that is related to delay is jitter.
 We can roughly say that jitter is a problem if different packets of data encounter different delays
and the application using the data at the receiver site is time-sensitive (audio and video data, for
example).
 If the delay for the first packet is 20ms, for the second is 45ms, and for the third is 40ms, then
the real-time application that uses the packets endures jitter.

Data Transmission Media

 A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from a
source to a destination.
 In data communications the definition of the information and the transmission medium is more
specific. The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable.
The information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data from another form.
 The physical layer directly controls transmission media. The transmission media is also known
as the communication channel. The transmission media is shows in diagram below.

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Types of Transmission Media
 Generally, Transmission media can be divided into two types:
1. Guided Media
2. Unguided Media

1. Guided Media

 Guided Media is also known as Wired or Bounded transmission media. A signal travelling the
media is directed and confined by the physical limits of the medium.
 Guided media is more secure. These types of networks use the cable to communicate.
 Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
 A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of
the medium.
 Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport
signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals
in the form of light.
 The waves are guided along a solid medium.
a) Twisted Pair Cable
b) Coaxial Cable
c) Optical Fiber

Advantage of guided media

 More secure
 Provides high speed
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  Used for shorter distances
 The cost of guided media is very low (inexpensive) and easily
available.
 This is very Flexible and Lightweight.
 Very easy to set up and install.
Disadvantage of guided media
 Need Physical link
 Time Consuming
 Bandwidth is very low in guided media.
 Susceptible to interference and noise- (Noise is an electrical disturbance that can degrade
communication)

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a. T w i s t e d Pair Cable
 This cable is the most commonly used and is cheaper than others. It is lightweight, cheap,
can be installed easily, and they support many different types of network.
 It consists of two insulated strands (each about 1mm thick) of copper wire twisted around
each other to form a pair.
 One or more twisted pairs are used in it.
 The purpose of twisting is to eliminate electrical interference from the wires and cancels
any noises from the adjacent pair. The more twist per linear foot, the greater the effect.
 There are two types:
i. UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
ii. SIP (Shielded Twisted Pair)

i. UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

 UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and
4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector.
 UTP cabling, as it is used in Ethernet LANs, consists of four pairs of color-coded wires
that have been twisted together and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath.
 As seen in the figure, the colour codes identify the individual pairs and wires in the pairs and
aid in cable termination.

Advantages of UTP Cable

 Installation is easy
 Flexible, Cheap
 It has high speed capacity,
 100 meter limit
 Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.

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Disadvantages of UTP Cable
 Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable
 Provides less protection from interference.
 No shielding and is more victim of EMI but is the most frequently used because it is
inexpensive and easier to install.
 Crosstalk is the interference caused by the magnetic field around the adjacent pairs of wires
in the cable.
ii. SIP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
 Another type of cabling used in networking is shielded twisted-pair (STP).
 This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated
conductors. Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding also
eliminates crosstalk.
 It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair.
 It is faster the unshielded and coaxial cable. It is more expensive than coaxial and unshielded
twisted pair.
 STP provides better noise protection than UTP cabling, however at a significantly higher price.

Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

 Performance is adequate
 Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission
 Increases the signalling rate
 Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair
 Eliminates crosstalk
 Minimizes EMI radiation.
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
 Little bit difficult to install
 Difficult to manufacture
 Costly or heavy

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b) Coaxial Cable
 It is made of two conductors that share the same axis, the centre is a copper wire that is
insulated by a plastic coating and then wrapped with an outer conductor (usually a wire braid,
foil, or both).
 Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second conductor which
completes the circuit. The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The
outermost part is the plastic cover which protects the whole cable.

 Here the most common coaxial standards.

 50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11: used with thick Ethernet.
 50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
 75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television
 93-Ohm RG-62: used with ARCNET ( Attached Resource Computer NETwork).
 There are two types:
i. Thick Net
.38 inch in diameter
Also called 10b5 cable, which means speed 10 and signal can be strong
up to 500m.
ii. Thin Net
0.25 inch in diameter.
Similar to the material commonly used in cable TV.
Also called 10b2 cable, means 10 mbps and can carry up to 200 m before
being weak.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable
 Bandwidth is high
 Used in long distance telephone lines.
 Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
 Much higher noise immunity
 Data transmission without distortion.
 The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when compared
to twisted pair cable
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
 Single cable failure can fail the entire network.
 Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
 If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.

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 c) Optical Fiber
 A fibre-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
 A thin, flexible medium that conducts pulses of light, with each pulse representing a bit.
 Optical fibres use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is
surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the two
materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding
instead of being refracted into it.

Fig 1 Internal view of an Optical fibre

 Can support high bit rates, up to Gbps, immune to EMI, has very low signal attenuation up to
100 km.
 Standard is optical carrier (OC), ranges from 51.8 Mbps to39.8 Gbps.
 Oc-1, oc-3, oc-12, oc-24, oc-48, oc-96, oc-192, oc-768 are available.
 Oc-n, where the link speed equals n*51.8 Mbps.
Principle of Fiber-optics:
 It is based on the principle of Total internal Reflection.

There are two types:

i. Single Mode (Mono Mode)
ii. Multi-Mode
i. Single Mode (Mono Mode)
 Single-mode optical fiber carries a single ray of light, usually emitted from a laser. Because
the laser light is unidirectional and travels down the center of the fiber, this type of fiber can
transmit optical pulses for very long distances.

 The single-mode fibre itself is manufactured with a much smaller diameter than that of
multimode fibre, and with substantially lower density.
 It performs super performance.
 For longer distance and LASER is used as light source.
ii. Multi-Mode
For shorter distance and LED is used as light source.

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Fibre Optic Cable Connectors
There are three types of connectors for fibre-optic cables, as shown in the figure below.

 The Subscriber Channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses push/pull locking system.
 The Straight-Tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to the networking devices. MT-
RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ45.
Advantages of Fibre Optic Cable
 Higher bandwidth. Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths
(and hence data rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable. Currently, data rates
and bandwidth utilization over fiber-optic cable are limited not by the medium but by
the signal generation and reception technology available.
 Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than
that of other guided media. A signal can run for 100 km without requiring regeneration.
We need repeaters every 5km and 100 meters for coaxial and twisted-pair cable
respectively.
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise cannot affect
fiber-optic cables.
 Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than
copper
 Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
 Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than
copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.
Disadvantages of Fibre Optic Cable
There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.
 Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its
installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available everywhere.
 Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need
bidirectional communication, two fibres are needed.
 Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other
guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical fiber
cannot be justified.

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 2. Unguided Media
 Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
 This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
 Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a
device capable of receiving them.
 The term 'wireless network' refers to two or more computers communicating using standard
network rules or protocols, but without the use of cabling to connect the computers together.
Instead, the computers use wireless radio signals to send information from one to the
other.
 The below figure shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900
THz, used for wireless communication.

 Unguided signals can travel from the source to the destination in several ways: Ground
propagation, Sky propagation and Line-of-sight propagation as shown in below figure.

Propagation Modes
 Ground Propagation: In this, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the
atmosphere, hugging the Earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the
transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet.
 Sky Propagation: In this, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere
where they are reflected back to Earth. This type of transmission allows for greater distances
with lower output power.
 Line-of-sight Propagation: in this type, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in
straight lines directly from antenna to antenna.
Wireless transmission types
We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups:
1. Radio waves
2. Micro waves
3. Infrared waves

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1. Radio Waves
 Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are normally called
radio waves.
 Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated
in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.
A sending antenna send waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The
omnidirectional property has disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna
are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signal suing the same
frequency or band.
 Radio waves, particularly with those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an advantage because, an AM
radio can receive signals inside a building. It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a
communication to just inside or outside a building.
Applications of Radio Waves
 The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting in which
there is one sender but many receivers.
 AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples of
multicasting.
2. Micro Waves
 Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called micro waves.
Micro waves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly
focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The
unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without
interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
 The following describes some characteristics of microwaves propagation:
 Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas
need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall.
 Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a
disadvantage if receivers are inside the buildings.
 The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore, wider sub-bands
can be assigned and a high date rate is possible.
 Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.
Applications of Micro Waves
 Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when unicast (one-to-one)
communication is needed between the sender and the receiver. They are used in cellular
phones, satellite networks and wireless LANs.
Advantages of Microwave Transmission
 Used for long distance telephone communication
 Carries 1000's of voice channels at the same time

Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission

 It is very costly

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

Types of Microwave Transmission:
 The waves propagate in the atmosphere and in outer space, such as in a wireless LAN or
a digital satellite channel are of 2 types:
i. Terrestrial Microwave (Terrestrial Radio Channel
ii. Satellite Microwave (Satellite Radio Channel
i. Terrestrial Microwave
 Carry signals in the electromagnetic spectrum.
 No need of physical wire to be installed, can penetrate walls, provide connectivity to
mobile user, and potentially carry a signal for long distances.
 May face
 Path loss
 Shadow fading(which decrease the signal strength as signal travels over a distance
and around/through obstructing objects)
 Multiple fading (due to signal reflection off of interfering objects)
 E.g. wireless LAN, cellular access technology.
 For increasing the distance served by terrestrial microwave, repeaters can be installed with
each antenna .The signal received by an antenna can be converted into transmittable form and
relayed to next antenna as shown in below figure. It is an example of telephone systems all
over the world

ii.Satellite Microwave
 Links two or more Earth-based microwave transmitter/receiver known as ground stations.
 Satellite receives transmissions on one frequency band, regenerates the signal using a repeater,
and transmits the signal on another frequency.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

  This is a microwave relay station which is placed in outer space. The satellites are launched
either by rockets or space shuttles carry them.
 These are positioned 36000 Km above the equator with an orbit speed that exactly matches the
rotation speed of the earth. As the satellite is positioned in a geo-synchronous orbit, it is
stationery relative to earth and always stays over the same point on the ground. This is usually
done to allow ground stations to aim antenna at a fixed point in the sky.

Features of Satellite Microwave

 Bandwidth capacity depends on the frequency used.

 Satellite microwave deployment for orbiting satellite is difficult.
 There are two types of satellite microwaves:
i. Geostationary Satellite
ii. Low Earth Orbiting (LEO) satellite
i. Geostationary Satellite
 Permanently remain above the same spot on Earth at 36,000 km above surface.
 Propagate delay of 280ms.
ii. Low Earth Orbiting (LEO) satellite
 Placed much closer to Earth and do not remain permanently above one spot on Earth.
 Rotate around Earth and may communicate with each other as well as with ground
stations.
 For continuous coverage, may satellites need to be placed?

Advantages of Satellite Microwave

 Transmitting station can receive back its own transmission and check whether the satellite has
transmitted information correctly.
 A single microwave relay station which is visible from any point.
Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave
 Satellite manufacturing cost is very high
 Cost of launching satellite is very expensive
 Transmission highly depends on whether conditions, it can go down in bad weather

Satellite Applications:
 Long-distance telephones.
 Television distribution
 Private business networks
VSAT (Very Small Aperture System)
 For business data applications requiring high data rates for short periods of time.
 National Weather Service, news services, credit card verification, automatic tellers, car rental
agencies,
 Commonly connects a central location with many remote ones.
 Communication between two sites is via a satellite and allows a low-cost small antenna dishes
(5 ft.).

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

3. Infrared Waves
 Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz, can be used for short-range
communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This
advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and another, a short-
range communication system in on room cannot be affected by another system in the next
room.
 When we use infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the remote by our
neighbours. However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless for long-range
communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's
rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.

Applications of Infrared Waves

 The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data transmission. Such a
wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high data rate.
 The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of infrared waves,
has established standards for using these signals for communication between devices such as
keyboards, mouse, PCs and printers.
 Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-of-sight
propagation.

Bandwidth Utilization: Multiplexing and Spreading

 In real life, we have links with limited bandwidths. The wise use of these bandwidths has been,
and will be, one of the main challenges of electronic communications. However, the meaning
of wise may depend on the application?
 Sometimes we need to combine several low-bandwidth channels to make use of one channel
with a larger bandwidth.
 Sometimes we need to expand the bandwidth of a channel to achieve goals such as privacy and
anti-jamming.
 There are two broad categories of bandwidth utilization: multiplexing and spreading.
In multiplexing, our goal is efficiency; we combine several channels into one. In spreading,
our goals are privacy and anti-jamming; we expand the bandwidth of a channel to insert
redundancy, which is necessary to achieve these goals.
 Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available bandwidth to achieve specific goals.
Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing; privacy and anti-jamming can be achieved by
spreading.
MULTIPLEXING
 Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the bandwidth needs
of the devices, the link can be shared.
 Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple
signals across a single data link.
 Today's technology includes high-bandwidth media such as optical fiber and terrestrial and
satellite microwaves. Each has a bandwidth far in excess of that needed for the average
transmission signal.
 If the bandwidth of a link is greater than the bandwidth needs of the devices connected to it, the
bandwidth is wasted.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

  An efficient system maximizes the utilization of all resources; bandwidth is one of the most
precious resources we have in data communications.

Fig: Dividing a link into channels

 There are three basic multiplexing techniques:
1. Frequency-division multiplexing,
2. Wavelength-division multiplexing, and
3. Time-division multiplexing.

 The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital signals (see
Figure 6.2).

1. Frequency-Division Multiplexing
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when the
bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted.
 In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier frequencies. These
modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by
the link.
 Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated
signal. These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel.
Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands-to prevent signals from
overlapping. In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data
frequencies.
 Figure 6.3 gives a conceptual view of FDM. In this illustration, the transmission path is divided
into three parts, each representing a channel that carries one transmission.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

  We consider FDM to be an analog multiplexing technique; however, this does not mean that
FDM cannot be used to combine sources sending digital signals. A digital signal can be
converted to an analog signal before FDM is used to multiplex them.

 Frequency overlap is a serious issue when it comes to frequency division multiplexing and it
must be completely avoided. Two frequency ranges can be separated by using some narrow
frequency ranges called guard bands.
 The guard bands avoid signal interference and enhance the quality of communication.

Fig guard bands.

How FDM works?

 Each transmitter sends signal of different frequency. For example, the transmitter 1 sends signal
of 30 KHz, transmitter 2 sends signal of 40 KHz and transmitter sends signal of 50 KHz.

 At sender (transmitter) end, these signals of different frequencies are multiplexed or

combined using a multiplexer. Multiplexer transmits multiplexed signal over a communication
channel.

 At the receiver end the multiplexed signals are separated using a de-multiplexer and the
separated signals are sent to intended receivers.

Multiplexing Process
 Figure 6.4 is a conceptual illustration of the multiplexing process. Each source generates a
signal of a similar frequency range.
 Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals modulates different carrier frequencies. The
resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that is sent out
over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

Demultiplexing Process
 The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its
constituent component signals.
 The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them from their carriers
and passes them to the output lines.
 Figure 6.5 is a conceptual illustration of demultiplexing process.

Example 6.2
Five channels, each with a l00-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed together. What is the minimum
bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10kHz between the channels to prevent
interference?
Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 x 100 + 4 x 10 = 540 kHz, as shown in Figure 6.7.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

Example 6.3
Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at I Mbps, use a satellite channel of I MHz. Design an
appropriate configuration, using FDM.
Solution
The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four channels, each channel having a 250-kHz
bandwidth. Each digital channel of I Mbps is modulated such that each 4 bits is modulated to 1 Hz.

Advantages:
 It does not need synchronization between its transmitter and receiver.
 Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is simpler and easy demodulation.
 Due to slow narrow band fading only one channel gets affected.
 It is used for analog signals.
 A large number of signals (channels) can be transmitted simultaneously.

Disadvantages:

 It is suffers problem of cross-talk.

 It is used only when a few low speed channels are desired.
 Intermodulation distortion takes place.
Applications:

 It is used to public telephones and in cable TV systems.

 It is used in broad casting.
 It is used in AM and FM broadcasting.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
 Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) may be defined as the fiber-optic transmission
technique that employs two or more optical signals having different wavelengths to transmit
data simultaneously in the same direction over one fiber, and later on is separated by
wavelength at the distant end.
 WDM allows transmission of analog or digital signals up to a few GHz or Gbits on a carrier’s
very high frequency around 190 THz (infrared). In fact, using several carrier waves that are
propagating without significant interaction on the same cable can increase the bit rate further.
these carrier waves correspond to different wavelengths. This is the reason it is called
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM).
 WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing
involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels. The idea is the same: We are
combining different signals of different frequencies. The difference is that the frequencies are
very high.
 Figure 6.10 gives a conceptual view of a WDM multiplexer and demultiplexer. Very narrow
bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider band of light. At the
receiver, the signals are separated by the demultiplexer.

 Although WDM technology is very complex, the basic idea is very simple. We want to combine
multiple light sources into one single light at the multiplexer and do the reverse at the
demultiplexer.
 The combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism. Recall from basic
physics that a prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the frequency.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

  Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams of light, each
containing a narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a wider band of frequencies.
A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process. Figure 6.11 shows the concept.

 A new method, called Dense WDM (DWDM), can multiplex a very large number of channels
by spacing channels very close to one another. It achieves even greater efficiency.

Benefits or advantages of WDM

 Full duplex transmission is possible.
 Easier to reconfigure.
 Optical components are similar and more reliable.
 It provides higher bandwidth.
 This could be the best approach as it is simple to implement.
 High security

Drawbacks or disadvantages of WDM

 Signals cannot be very close.
 Light wave carrying WDM are limited to 2-point circuit.
 Scalability is a concern as OLT (Optical Line Termination) has to have transmitter array with
one transmitter for each ONU (Optical Network Unit). Adding a new ONU could be problem
unless transmitters were provisioned in advance. Each ONU must have a wavelength specific
laser.
 Cost of system increases with addition of optical components.

Applications of Wavelength Division Multiplexing:

 WDM multiply the effective bandwidth of a fiber optic communications system
 A fiber optic repeater device called the erbium amplifier can make WDM a cost-effective and
it is the long-term solution.
 This reduces the cost and increases the capacity of the cable to carry data.
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) uses multiple wavelengths (colors of light) to
transport signals over a single fiber.
 It uses light of different colours to create a number of signal paths.
 It uses Optical prisms to separate the different colours at the receiving end and optical prisms
does not require power source.
 These systems used temperature stabilized lasers to provide the needed channels count.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

Time Division Multiplexing
 TDM is the digital multiplexing technique.
 In TDM, the channel/link is not divided on the basis of frequency but on the basis of time.
 Total time available in the channel is divided between several users.
 Each user is allotted a particular a time interval called time slot or time slice during which the
data is transmitted by that user. Thus each sending device takes control of entire bandwidth of
the channel for fixed amount of time.
 In TDM the data rate capacity of the transmission medium should be greater than the data rate
required by sending or receiving devices.
 In TDM all the signals to be transmitted are not transmitted simultaneously. Instead, they are
transmitted one-by-one.
 Thus each signal will be transmitted for a very short time. One cycle or frame is said to be
complete when all the signals are transmitted once on the transmission channel.
 The TDM system can be used to multiplex analog or digital signals, however it is more suitable
for the digital signal multiplexing.
 The TDM signal in the form of frames is transmitted on the common communication medium.

Fig TDM
Types of TDM
1.Synchronous TDM
2.Asynchronous TDM
1. Synchronous TDM (STDM)

 In synchronous TDM, each device is given same time slot to transmit the data over the link,
irrespective of the fact that the device has any data to transmit or not. Hence the name
Synchronous TDM. Synchronous TDM requires that the total speed of various input lines
should not exceed the capacity of path.
 Each device places its data onto the link when its time slot arrives i.e. each device is given the
possession of line turn by turn.
 If any device does not have data to send then its time slot remains empty.
 The various time slots are organized into frames and each frame consists of one or more time
slots dedicated to each sending device.
 If there are n sending devices, there will be n slots in frame i.e. one slot for each device.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

  As show in fig, there are 3 input devices, so there are 3 slots in each frame.
Multiplexing Process in STDM

 In STDM every device is given the opportunity to transmit a specific amount of data onto the
link.
 Each device gets its turn in fixed order and for fixed amount of time. This process is known as
interleaving
 We can say that the operation of STDM is similar to that of a fast interleaved switch. The
switch opens in front of a device; the device gets a chance to place the data onto the link.
 Such an interleaving may be done on the basis of a hit, a byte or by any other data unit.
 In STDM, the interleaved units are of same size i.e. if one device sends a byte, other will also
send a byte and so on.
 As shown in the fig. interleaving is done by a character (one byte). Each frame consists of four
slots as there are four input devices. The slots of some devices go empty if they do not have
any data to send.
 At the receiver, demultiplexer decomposes each frame by extracting each character in turn. As
a character is removed from frame, it is passed to the appropriate receiving device.

Disadvantages of Synchronous TDM

 The channel capacity cannot be fully utilized. Some of the slots go empty in certain frames. As
shown in fig only first two frames are completely filled. The last three frames have 6 empty
slot. It means out of 20 slots in all, 6 slots are empty. This wastes the l/4th capacity of links.
 The capacity of single communication line that is used to carry the various transmission should
be greater than the total speed of input lines.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

Asynchronous TDM

 It is also known as statistical time division multiplexing.

 Asynchronous TDM is called so because is this type of multiplexing, time slots are not
fixed i.e. the slots are flexible.
 Here, the total speed of input lines can be greater than the capacity of the path.
 In synchronous TDM, if we have n input lines then there are n slots in one frame. But in
asynchronous it is not so.
 In asynchronous TDM, if we have n input lines then the frame contains not more than m slots,
with m less than n (m < n).
 In asynchronous TDM, the number of time slots in a frame is based on a statistical analysis of
number of input lines.

 In this system slots are not predefined, the slots are allocated to any of the device that has data
to send.
 The multiplexer scans the various input lines, accepts the data from the lines that have data to
send, fills the frame and then sends the frame across the link.
 If there are not enough data to fill all the slots in a frame, then the frames are transmitted
partially filled.
 Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing is depicted in fig. Here we have five input lines
and three slots per frame.
 In Case 1, only three out of five input lines place data onto the link i.e. number of input lines
and number of slots per frame are same.
 In Case 2, four out of five input lines are active. Here number of input line is one more than
the number of slots per frame.
 In Case 3, all five input lines are active.
 In all these cases, multiplexer scans the various lines in order and fills the frames and transmits
them across the channel.
 The distribution of various slots in the frames is not symmetrical. In case 2, device 1 occupies
first slot in first frame, second slot in second frame and third slot in third frame.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

Advantages of TDM:

 Full available channel bandwidth can be utilized for each channel.

 Inter-modulation distortion is absent.
 TDM circuitry is not very complex.
 The problem of crosstalk is not severe.
 Time division multiplexing systems are more flexible than frequency division multiplexing.
Disadvantages of TDM:

 Synchronization is required in time division multiplexing.

 Complex to implement.
 Due to slow narrowband fading, all the TDM channels may get wiped out.

Applications:

 It used in ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) telephone lines.

 It is used in PSTN (public switched telephone network).
 It is used for some telephone system.
 It is used in wire line telephone lines.
 It is used in in Satellite Access system and digital audio mixing system.
 TDM is the most common method for use in optical data transmission systems or fiber optic
communication.

SPREAD SPECTRUM(SS)
 Multiplexing combines signals from several sources to achieve bandwidth efficiency; the
available bandwidth of a link is divided between the sources.
 In spread spectrum, we also combine signals from different sources to fit into a larger
bandwidth, but our goals are somewhat different.
 Spread spectrum is designed to be used in wireless applications (LANs and WANs) in which
stations must be able to share the medium without interception by an eavesdropper and without
being subject to jamming from a malicious intruder.
 In these types of applications, we have some concerns that outweigh bandwidth efficiency. In
wireless applications, all stations use air (or a vacuum) as the medium for communication.
Stations must be able to share this medium without interception by an eavesdropper and without
being subject to jamming from a malicious intruder (in military operations, for example).
 To achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add redundancy; they spread the original
spectrum needed for each station. If the required bandwidth for each station is B, spread
spectrum expands it to Bss ' such that Bss » B. The expanded bandwidth allows the source to
wrap its message in a protective envelope for a more secure transmission. An analogy is the
sending of a delicate, expensive gift. We can insert the gift in a special box to prevent it from
being damaged during transportation, and we can use a superior delivery service to guarantee
the safety of the package.
 Figure 6.27 shows the idea of spread spectrum. Spread spectrum achieves its goals through two
principles:
 The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be, by far, larger than what is needed. This
allows redundancy.
 The expanding of the original bandwidth B to the bandwidth Bss must be done by a process
that is independent of the original signal. In other words, the spreading process occurs after the
signal is created by the source.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

  After the signal is created by the source, the spreading process uses a spreading code and
spreads the bandwidth. The figure shows the original bandwidth B and the spreaded bandwidth
Bss. The spreading code is a series of numbers that look random, but are actually a pattern.
 There are two techniques to spread the bandwidth:
o Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and
o Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
 The frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) technique uses M different carrier frequencies
that are modulated by the source signal. At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier
frequency; at the next moment, the signal modulates another carrier frequency. Although the
modulation is done using one carrier frequency at a time, M frequencies are used in the long
run. The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is BpHSS »B.
 Figure 6.28 shows the general layout for FHSS. A pseudorandom code generator, called
pseudorandom noise (PN), creates a k-bit pattern for every hopping period .The frequency table
uses the pattern to find the frequency to be used for this hopping period and passes it to the
frequency synthesizer. The frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal of that frequency, and
the source signal modulates the carrier signal.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
 The direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) technique also expands the bandwidth of the
original signal, but the process is different.
 In DSSS, we replace each data bit with 11 bits using a spreading code. In other words, each bit
is assigned a code of 11 bits, called chips, where the chip rate is 11 times that of the data bit.
 Figure 6.32 shows the concept of DSSS.

 As an example, let us consider the sequence used in a wireless LAN, the famous Barker
sequence where 11 is 11. We assume that the original signal and the chips in the chip generator
use polar NRZ encoding.
 Figure 6.33 shows the chips and the result of multiplying the original data by the chips to get
the spread signal.
 In Figure 6.33, the spreading code is 11 chips having the pattern 10110111000 (in this case). If
the original signal rate is N, the rate of the spread signal is lIN. This means that the required
bandwidth for the spread signal is 11 times larger than the bandwidth of the original signal. The
spread signal can provide privacy if the intruder does not know the code. It can also provide
immunity against interference if each station uses a different code.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

Switching techniques
 Whenever we are dealing with a large network or say a very long-distance data transmission
has to take place, this can't be done directly without any external hardware support. Hence, we
must have a dedicated path for our data packets to traverse. Since there are so many choices for
which path to take, so we have to select a particular path. This selecting of the path on which
our data packets will be transmitted is known as Switching.
 In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching technique
will decide the best route for data transmission.
 Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communication.

Classification Of Switching Techniques

Circuit Switching
 Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender and
receiver.
 In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated path
will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
 Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
 A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
 In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a
request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure
the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path
transfers the data.
 Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
 Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

 Circuit establishment
 Data transfer
 Circuit Disconnect

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

  Circuit Switching can use Space Division Switches:

Space Division Switches:

 Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single transmission path
is accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate set of crosspoints.
 Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A crossbar switch is a
metallic crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can be enabled or disabled by a control unit.
 The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx crossbar switch
using FPGAs.
 Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking switches.

Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:

1. Crossbar Switch
2. Multistage Switch

1. Crossbar Switch

 The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The crossbar switch
has n2 intersection points known as crosspoints.
 The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased. Therefore, it
becomes very expensive for a large switch. The solution to this is to use a multistage switch.

2. Multistage Switch

 Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the smaller units and then
interconnecting them.
 It reduces the number of crosspoints.
 If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.

Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

 In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.

 It has fixed bandwidth.
 Improves data transmission rate
 Improves data loss
 Improves delay in the data flow

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

 Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data transmission.
 It takes a long time to establish a connection approx. 10 seconds during which no data can be
transmitted.
 It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required for each
connection.
 It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred, then the
capacity of the path is wasted.
 In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred even if the
channel is free.

Message Switching
 Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a complete
unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
 In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between the
sender and receiver.
 The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a dynamic
routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the information
available in the message.
 Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most efficient
routes.
 Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node. This type
of network is known as store and forward network.
 Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

 Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the efficiency of
using available bandwidth.
 Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored when the next
node is not available.
 The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it supports the
data of unlimited size.
 Manages traffic efficiently by assigning priorities.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

Disadvantages Of Message Switching

 The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to store the
messages until the message is forwarded.
 The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the message
switching technique.

Packet Switching
 The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but it is
divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
 The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique number
to identify their order at the receiving end.
 Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination
address and sequence number.
 Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
 All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
 If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.
 If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be sent.

Approaches of Packet Switching:

 There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

1. Datagram Packet switching:

2. Virtual Circuit Packet switching

1. Datagram Packet switching:

 It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is considered as an

independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the destination and switch uses
this information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
 The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
 In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
 Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
 Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

2. Virtual Circuit Packet switching

 Virtual Circuit Packet Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.

 In the case of Virtual circuit packet switching, a pre-planned route is established before the
messages are sent.
 Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between sender and
receiver.
 In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
 Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit Packet switching through a diagram:

 In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.
 Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between the sender and
receiver.
 When a route is established, data will be transferred.
 After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that the message
has been received.
 If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the termination.

Difference between Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach

Difference between Datagram Packet switching and Virtual-circuit Packet Switching:

Sno Datagram Packet Switching Virtual-circuit Packet Switching

1 Two packets of the same user pair can All packets of the same virtual circuit
travel along different routes. travel along the same path.
2 The packets can arrive out of sequence. Packet sequencing is guaranteed.
3 Packets contain full Src, Dst addresses Packets contain short VC Id. (VCI).
4 Each host occupies routine table entries. Each VC occupies routing table entries.
5 Requires no connection setup. Requires VC setup. First packet has large
delay.
6 Also called Connection less Also called connection oriented.
7 Examples: X.25 and Frame Relay Eg. Internet which uses IP Network
protocol.

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Advantages Of Packet Switching:

 Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require massive

secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can
say that the packet switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
 Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the Packet
Switching technique provides reliable communication.
 Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any established path
prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same communication channel
simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth very efficiently.

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

 Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require low delay
and high-quality services.
 The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires high
implementation cost.
 If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost packets. It can
also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.

Telephone, Mobile and Cable network for data communication

COMMUNICATIONS OVER THE TELEPHONE NETWORK (INTERNET ACCESS METHODS or Network
access method)

 The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is the worldwide telephone system that handles
voice-oriented telephone calls.

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  Nearly the entire telephone network today uses digital technology, with the exception of the
final link from the local telephone company to a home, which often is analog.
 The telephone network is an integral part of computer communications. Data, instructions, and
information are transmitted over the telephone network using dial-up lines or dedicated lines.
 The following are the various types of telephone network technologies that use the telephone
network for data communications.
 Dial-Up Lines
 Dedicated Lines
 ISDN LINES
 DSL
 FTTP

Dial-Up Lines

 Dial-up access is really just like a phone connection

 Connection through modem and a public telephone network.
 It uses analog telephone lines

 Encoding & Decoding of analog signals is done by modem

 Using a dial-up line to transmit data is similar to using the telephone to make a call
 Speed is only 56 kbps
 A dial-up line is a temporary connection that uses one or more analog telephone lines for
communications. A dial-up connection is not permanent.
 Using a dial-up line to transmit data is similar to using the telephone to make a call. A modem
at the sending end dials the telephone number of a modem at the receiving end. When the
modem at the receiving end answers the call, a connection is established and data can be
transmitted. When either modem hangs up, the communications end.

ADVANTAGES

 Low cost
 Availability

DISADVANTAGES

 Low Speed
 Requires phone line
 Route busy

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Dedicated Lines

 A dedicated line is a type of always-on connection that is established between two

communications devices (unlike a dial-up line where the connection is re-established each time
it is used). The quality and consistency of the connection on a dedicated line are better than a
dial-up line because dedicated lines provide a constant connection.
 Businesses often use dedicated lines to connect geographically distant offices. Dedicated lines
can be either analog or digital. Digital lines increasingly are connecting home and business
users to networks around the globe because they transmit data and information at faster rates
than analog lines.
 Five types of digital dedicated lines are
 ISDN lines,
 DSL,
 FTTP,

ISDN LINES

 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a set of standards for digital transmission of
data over standard copper telephone lines.
 For the small business and home user, an ISDN line provides faster transfer rates than dial-up
telephone lines.
 Not as widely used today as in the past.
 ISDN requires that both ends of the connection have an ISDN modem. The ISDN modem at
your location must be within about 3.5 miles of the telephone company’s ISDN modem.
 Thus, ISDN may not be an option for rural residents.
 It put together speech and information on the same line
 Data transfer rate: 64kbps

ADVANTAGES

 Multiple digital channels

 Speedy
 It can be used for other activities like – videoconferencing

DISADVANTAGE

 It is very costly than the other typical telephone system

DSL

 DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is a popular digital line alternative for the small business or
home user.
 After traditional modems reached their peak data rate, telephone companies developed another
technology, DSL, to provide higher-speed access to the Internet. Digital subscriber line (DSL)
technology is one of the most promising for supporting high-speed digital communication over
the existing local loops.
 DSL transmits at fast speeds on existing standard copper telephone wiring. Some DSL
installations include a dial tone, providing users with both voice and data communications.
 To connect to DSL, a customer must have a special network card and a DSL modem.
 Not all areas offer DSL service because the local telephone company or the lines in the area
may not be capable of supporting DSL technology.
 Provides higher-speed access to the Internet

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  Supports high-speed digital communication over the existing local loops

 Price not much more than the price of dial up, but twice the speed.
 It provides 960 Kbps download & 120 Kbps upload.

ADVANTAGES

 DSL simultaneously keeps your Internet connection and phone lines open
 Downloads are faster than uploads
 DSL uses the existing wiring infrastructure of your telephone lines

DISADVANTAGES

 Large amount of uploading is not possible

 DSL is limited to a certain perimeter
 Compared to dial up ,it is expensive

ADSL is one of the more popular types of DSLs.

 ADSL (asymmetric digital subscriber line) is a type of DSL that supports faster transfer rates
when receiving data (the downstream rate) than when sending data (the upstream rate).
 ADSL is ideal for Internet access because most users download more information from the
Internet than they upload i.e. Downstream bit rate > upstream bit rate
 ADSL is an asymmetric communication technology designed for residential users; it is not
suitable for businesses.

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

Advantages:
 It does not occupy the telephone line.
o This represents an advantage when installing the service in homes and companies, since
it allows the autonomy of both services, something impossible with the dialing method.
 Use the traditional infrastructure.
o It does not require new and extensive investments or large works, because it takes
advantage of traditional copper wiring.
 It exceeds the dial-up connection.
o It offers much better speed / price ratio than the dialing methods, which in addition to
occupying the telephone line are usually at 56 kps, while the ADSL can reach 4mbps
(70 times faster).
 It allows central and customized circuits.
o Since it uses telephone cables, each subscriber receives an independent and non-
transferable service directly to his home or office.
Disadvantages of ADSL
 It does not operate on any telephone line.
o It is not enough to have a copper wire telephone connection to use the ADSL, since
this technology has a limit of 3km of line length from the emission center.
 It demands quality of copper.
o In countries where this material is expensive or scarce, the service may not be as
economical as in others.
 It depends on external factors.
o The quality of the service is subject to the quality of the cables, the distance from the
power station and fluctuations in the service flow.
 It is very inferior to optical fiber.
o The fiber optic connections far exceed the ADSL stability and speed.

FTTP

 Fiber-To-The-Premises (FTTP) is a technology for providing Internet access by running fiber

optic cable directly from an Internet Service Provider (ISP) to a user's home or business.
 Two specific types of FTTP are FTTH (Fiber to the Home) and FTTB (Fiber to the Building).
 It facilitates much faster speeds than dial-up and most coaxial cable Internet connections, and
generally needs to be serviced less.
 With FTTP service, an optical terminal at your premises receives the signals and transfers them
to a router connected to your computer.

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Advantages
 Speed and Reliability
o This means that users can both upload and download things quickly, and also have high
quality streaming media.

 Long-Term Use
o FTTP is expected to be usable as-is for a very long time. As long as a fiber optic network
is made with cable that can transmit the full optical spectrum of light

 Durability
o Fiber optic cable is generally more durable than copper, since the materials it's made
out of are less susceptible to weather damage. Remote Monitoring and Control

Disadvantages

 Difficult and Expensive to Install

 Equipment and Power Required

Other internet access methods are:

 CABLE MODEM
 SATELLITE CONNECTION
 WI-FI
 WLAN --- Wi-Max
 Cellular

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

CABLE MODEM
 Cable modems provide Internet access using the same cables that transmit cable television
 Cable modems are primarily used to deliver broadband internet access in the form of cable internet

 Cable modem connections are faster than dial-up and DSL connections.

ADVANTAGES

 High connection speed

 Convenient
 Does not affect your phone line
 Easy setup with self-installation kit

DISADVANTAGES

 Higher price than dialup and DSL connection

 Higher security risk than dialup or DSL
 Not available to all cable TV networks

SATELLITE CONNECTION

 Internet access provided through satellites

 Data is being sent from the satellite to a user's equipment and then translated and decoded.

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  Delivered through satellite dish
 Equipment required-mini dish satellite receiver and satellite modem
 Upload speed-128 kbps
 Download speed-400 kbps

ADVANTAGES

 High speed internet access

 Does not tie up with local phone service or cable TV subscription
 Connection speed is not affected by phone or cable wiring

DISADVANTAGES

 More expensive than DSL and cable

 Large setup fee. Expensive equipment upfront. Has to be set up by trained technician.

WI-FI

 Wireless Fidelity
 Vic Hayes has been named as father of Wi-Fi
 Practical range is about 90 meters (300 feet) from the transceiver using normal powered
transmitters
 At least 7 or more end users can be sharing the same master transceiver & still each be able to
get up to 1544 Kbps.

ADVANTAGES

 Flexible working
 Reduced set up cost
 Password and security

DISADVANTAGES

 Climatic conditions

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WLAN
 Wireless Local Area Network
 Provide wireless network communication over short distances
 Uses radio or infrared signals instead of traditional network cabling

Wi-Max

 Worldwide Interoperability of Microwave Access

 Broadband wireless access technique
 Offers fast broadband connections over long distance
 Range of up to 30 miles
 Improves non-line-of-sight performance
 Great advantage to rural communities where cable & DSL wasn't available & to developing
nations

ADVANTAGES

 WiMAX coverage
 WiMAX high speed
 Multi-functionality within WiMAX Technology

DISADVANTAGES

 Lack of quality
 WiMAX range
 WiMAX bandwidth
 High cost

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Cellular (mobile) technology

 The mobile phone network enables wireless communication using mobile devices, such as
mobile phones, smart phones or tablets.

 Mobile phone networks provide the necessary infrastructure and are operated by mobile phone
providers. In addition to the access network, which establishes the wireless connection to the
terminal devices by radio, a core network exists that connects the individual access points to
each other. The core network ensures that mobile users can exchange information with those
using other access networks or external networks.
 A mobile network is composed of a web of base stations, each covering a delimited area (cell)
and routing communications in the form of radio waves to and from users’ terminals
 A user’s mobile telephone communicates through the air with an base station antenna, which
in turn links to the central exchange of the operator – a computer. This routes the
communication to the corresponding party on the fixed network or via other base stations.

 Mobile network connects urban and rural area through their base stations.
 The speeds vary depending on the provider, but the most common are 3G and 4G speeds.
 A 3G is a term that describes a 3rd generation cellular network obtaining mobile speeds of
around 2.0 Mbps.
 4G is the fourth generation of cellular wireless standards.
 The goal of 4G is to achieve peak mobile speeds of 100 Mbps but the reality is about 21 Mbps
currently.

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Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav

Compiled by Er. Jeet Narayan Yadav