Raymond A.

Serway
John W. Jewett
Shang-fang Tsai

Chapter 1
Introduction and Vectors

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in part.
 Theory and Experiments

 Physics—Physics is a science based on experimental

observations and mathematical analyses.
 Main objectives:
– behind such experiments and analyses are to develop theories
that explain the phenomenon being studied and
– to relate those theories to other established theories.
 It possible to explain the behavior of various physical
systems using relatively few fundamental laws.
– Analytical procedures require the expression of those laws in
the language of mathematics.

2
1.1 Standards of Time, Length, and Mass

 SI system (Système International)

– An international committee has agreed on a system of
definitions and standards to describe fundamental physical
quantities.

3
1.1 Standards of Time, Length, and Mass

 Time is defined in terms of the oscillation of radiation

from a cesium atom
– SI unit: second, s

Figure 1.1 A cesium atomic clock

4
1.1 Standards of Time, Length, and Mass

 Length is defined in terms of a meter:

– the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during a given time
– SI unit: meter, m

5
1.1 Standards of Time, Length, and Mass

 Mass is defined in terms of the kilogram:

– In 1889, the SI unit of mass, the kilogram, was defined as
the mass of a specific platinum–iridium alloy cylinder kept at
the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres,
France.
– SI unit: kilogram, kg

6
1.1 Standards of Time, Length, and Mass

 Fundamental quantities: The variables are time, length,

and mass.
 Derived quantities: quantities that can be expressed as
a mathematical combination of fundamental quantities.
 Examples:
– Area: a product of two lengths
– Speed: a ratio of a length to a time interval
– density: mass per unit volume:

m

V
7
1.1 Standards of Time, Length, and Mass

 The table shows the most frequently

used prefixes for the powers of ten
and their abbreviations
– 1023 m = 1 millimeter (mm)
– 103 m = 1 kilometer (km)
– 1 kg = 103 grams (g)
– 1 megavolt (MV) = 106 volts (V)

8
 1.2 Dimensional Analysis

 In physics, the word dimension

– denotes the physical nature of a quantity

 Square brackets denote dimensions:

– Dimensions of speed v: [v] = L/T
– Dimensions of area A: [A] = L2
9
 1.2 Dimensional Analysis

 Dimensional Analysis: can be used as a consistency

check, to assist in the derivation, or to check your final
expression.
 Dimensions can be treated as algebraic quantities:
– Quantities can be added or subtracted only if they have the
same dimensions.
– Furthermore, the terms on both sides of an equation must
have the same dimensions.

10
 1.2 Dimensional Analysis

 Given the equation: x = ½ at2

 Check dimensions on each side:
L 2
[ x] = 2 T = L
T
– The correct dimension for the position x.
– Notice that the number ½ in the equation has no units, so it
does not enter into the dimensional analysis.

11
 1.3 Conversion of Units

 Units can be treated as algebraic quantities that can

cancel each other.
 When performing calculations, make it a habit to
include the units with every quantity and carry the units
through the entire calculation.
 To perform a conversion, a quantity can be multiplied
by a conversion factor, which is a fraction equal to 1.
 Example: suppose we wish to convert 15.0 in. to
centimeters. Because 1 in. = 2.54 cm.
 2.54 cm 
15.0 in. = (15.0 in. )   = 38.1 cm
 1in.  12
 1.4 Order of Magnitude Calculations

 Order of magnitude: The estimate may be made even

more approximate by expressing it as an order of
magnitude, which is a power of ten determined as
follows:
1. Express the number in scientific notation, with the
multiplier of the power of ten between 1 and 10 and a unit.
2. If the multiplier is less than 3.162 (the square root of ten),
the order of magnitude of the number is the power of ten in
the scientific notation.

13
 1.4 Order of Magnitude Calculations

 We use the symbol  for “is on the order of.”

 Use the procedure above to verify the orders of
magnitude for the following lengths:
– 0.008 6 m  10−2 m
– 0.002 1 m  10−3 m
– 720 m  103 m
 The results are reliable to within about a factor of ten.
 If a quantity increases in value by three orders of
magnitude, its value increases by a factor of about 103
= 1000.

14
 Example 1.1
Volume of Oxygen Breathed in a Lifetime
 Given that each breath contains about 102 cm3 of
oxygen, estimate the volume of oxygen a human
breathes during an average lifetime.

SOL.
 Find the approximate number of minutes in a year :

 400 days   25 h   60 min 

1 yr     = 6  10 5
min
 1 yr   1days  1h 
  

15
 Example 1.1
Volume of Oxygen Breathed in a Lifetime
 Find the approximate number of minutes in a 70-year
lifetime :

number of minutes = (70 yr)(6 105 min/yr)

= 4 107 min
 Find the approximate number of breaths in a lifetime :

number of breaths = (10 breaths/min)(4 107 min)

= 4 108 breaths

16
 Example 1.1
Volume of Oxygen Breathed in a Lifetime
 Find the approximate volume of oxygen breathed in a
lifetime:
volume of oxygen = (102 cm3/breath)(4×108 breaths)
= 4×1010 cm3

 Therefore, a person breathes on the order of 1011 cm3

of oxygen in a lifetime. Notice how much simpler it is
in the first calculation above to multiply 400 × 25 than
it is to work with the more accurate 365 × 24.

17
 1.5 Significant Figures
 When certain quantities are measured, the measured
values are known only to within the limits of the
experimental uncertainty.
 The number of significant figures in a measurement
can be used to express something about the uncertainty.
 Note that the significant figures include the first
estimated digit.

18
 1.5 Significant Figures
 Zeros may or may not be significant figures.
– Those used to position the decimal point in such numbers as
0.03 and 0.007 5 are not significant.
– To remove this ambiguity, it is common to use scientific
notation to indicate the number of significant figures.
 suppose the mass of an object is given as 1 500 g.
– 1.5 × 103 g if there are two significant figures in the
measured value
– 1.50 × 103 g if there are three significant figures
– 1.500 × 103 g if there are four

19
 1.5 Significant Figures

 When multiplying several quantities, the number of

significant figures in the final answer is the same as the
number of significant figures in the quantity having the
smallest number of significant figures. The same rule
applies to division.
 When numbers are added or subtracted, the number of
decimal places in the result should equal the smallest
number of decimal places of any term in the sum or
difference.

20
 1.5 Significant Figures

 Notice that the rule for addition and subtraction is

different from that for multiplication and division.
– For addition and subtraction, the important consideration is
the number of decimal places, not the number of significant
figures.

21
 1.5 Significant Figures

 In this book, most of the numerical examples and end-

of-chapter problems will yield answers having three
significant figures. When carrying out estimation
calculations, we shall typically work with a single
significant figure.

22
 1.6 Coordinate Systems

 A point on a line can be located with one coordinate, a

point in a plane is located with two coordinates, and
three coordinates are required to locate a point in space.
 A coordinate system used to specify locations in space
consists of
– A fixed reference point O, called the origin
– A set of specified axes or directions with an appropriate scale
and labels on the axes
– Instructions that tell us how to label a point in space relative
to the origin and axes

23
 1.6 Coordinate Systems

 Cartesian coordinate system

(sometimes called the rectangular coordinate system)
– Every point is labeled with coordinates (x, y)

Figure 1.2

24
 1.6 Coordinate Systems

 In this coordinate system

– r is the length of the line from the origin to the point, and θ is
the angle between that line and a fixed axis, usually the
positive x axis, with θ measured counterclockwise.
– plane polar coordinates(r, )

Figure 1.3
25
 1.6 Coordinate Systems

 Form a right triangle

x = r cos 
y = r sin 
y
tan  =
x
r = x2 + y 2
Figure 1.3

–  is measured in a counterclockwise direction from the

positive x axis.

26
 1.7 Vectors and Scalars

 A scalar is a quantity that is completely specified by a

positive or negative number with appropriate units.
– Other examples of scalars are temperature, volume, mass,
and time intervals.
– The rules of ordinary arithmetic are used to manipulate scalar
quantities.

27
 1.7 Vectors and Scalars

 A vector is a physical quantity that must be specified

by both magnitude and direction.
– They include velocity, acceleration, force, and momentum,
all of which will be defined in later chapters.

28
1.7 Vectors and Scalars

Figure 1.4

29
 1.7 Vectors and Scalars

 A particle travels from

– This is the distance traveled and is a scalar
 The displacement: solid line from
– The displacement is independent of the path taken between
the two points
 Displacement is a vector

Figure 1.5

30
 1.7 Vectors and Scalars

 If the position of the particle changes from xi to xf, as in

Figure 1.6, its displacement is given by xf − xi
– The indices i and f refer to the initial and final values.
– delta () denotes the change in a quantity.
 Displacement: x  xf – xi
– x is positive if xf is to the right of xi and negative if xf is to
the left of xi.

Figure 1.6

31
 1.7 Vectors and Scalars

 We will use boldface letters with an arrow over the

letter: A
 The magnitude of the vector A is written with an italic
letter A or, alternatively, | A |
 The magnitude of a vector is always nonnegative and
carries the units of the quantity that the vector
represents, such as meters for displacement or meters
per second for velocity.

32
 1.8 Some Properties of Vectors

Equality of Two Vectors:

 Two vectors A and B are defined to be equal if they
have the same units, the same magnitude, and the same
direction.
– A = B only if A = B and A and B point in the same
direction.

Figure 1.7
33
 1.8 Some Properties of Vectors

Addition
 To add vector B to vector A , first draw a diagram of
vector A on graph paper, with its magnitude
represented by a convenient scale
 Then draw vector B to the same scale with its tail
starting from the tip of A
 The resultant vector R = A + B is the
vector drawn from the tail of A
to the tip of B

Figure 1.8
34
 1.8 Some Properties of Vectors

 When vectors are added, the sum is independent of the

order of the addition.
– This is the commutative law of addition: A + B = B + A

Figure 1.8
35
 1.8 Some Properties of Vectors

 If three or more vectors are added, their sum is

independent of the way in which they are grouped .
– This property is called the associative law of addition:

( ) (
A+ B+C = A+B +C )

Figure 1.9
36
 1.8 Some Properties of Vectors

 Geometric constructions can also be used to add more

than three vectors, as shown in Figure 1.10 for the case
of four vectors.

Figure 1.10

37
 1.8 Some Properties of Vectors

Negative of a Vector
 The negative of a vector A is defined as the vector
that, when added to A , gives zero for the vector sum.
– A + ( − A) = 0

 The vectors A and −A have the same magnitude but

point in opposite directions.

38
 1.8 Some Properties of Vectors

Subtraction of Vectors
 A − B = A + (−B)
 The geometric construction for subtracting two vectors
is illustrated in Figure 1.11.

Figure 1.11
39
 1.8 Some Properties of Vectors

Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

 If a vector A is multiplied by a positive scalar quantity
s, the product sA is a vector that has the same direction
as A and magnitude sA. If s is a negative scalar
quantity, the vector sA is directed opposite to A .

40
 1.8 Some Properties of Vectors

Multiplication of Two Vectors

 Two vectors A and B can be multiplied in two
different ways:
– One is the scalar product: A  B = AB cos 

⚫Also called the dot product

– The other is the vector product: A  B = AB sin 

41
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors

 We describe a method of adding vectors that makes use

of the projections of vectors along coordinate axes.
These projections are called the components of the
vector or its rectangular components.
 Consider a vector A lying in the xy plane and making
an arbitrary angle  with the positive x axis as shown in
Figure 1.12a.
A x (parallel to the x axis)
A y (parallel to the y axis)

Figure 1.12

42
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors

Ax = A cos  and Ay = A sin 

Ay
A = Ax + Ay
2 2
tan  =
Ax

Figure 1.12

43
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors

 These components can be positive or negative.

 Note that the signs of the components Ax and Ay depend
on the angle θ.

Figure 1.13
44
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors

 A unit vector is a dimensionless vector having a

magnitude of exactly 1.
 It is used to specify a given direction and has no other
physical significance.

45
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors

 The symbols i , j , and k to represent unit vector

pointing in the x, y, and z directions
– They form a set of mutually perpendicular vectors

Figure 1.14
46
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors

 The unit-vector notation for the vector A is

A = Ax i + Ay j

Figure 1.14
47
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors

 To add vector B to vector A .

R = A + B = ( Ax + Bx ) i + ( Ay + By ) j
 The components of the resultant vector are given by
Rx = Ax + Bx
Ry = Ay + By

Figure 1.15
48
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors

 The magnitude of R and the angle it makes with the x

axis can be obtained from its components using the
relationships

R = Rx 2 + Ry 2 = ( Ax + Bx ) 2 + ( Ay + By ) 2
Ry Ay + By
tan  = =
Rx Ax + Bx

49
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors

 The extension of these methods to three-dimensional

vectors is straightforward.

R = A + B = ( Ax + Bx ) i + ( Ay + By ) j + ( Az + Bz ) k

Rx
R = Rx + Ry + Rz
2 2 2
cos  x =
R

50
 Example 1.2 The Sum of Two Vectors

 Find the sum of two displacement vectors A and B

lying in the xy plane and given by

A = (2.0 i + 2.0 j) m and B = (2.0 i − 4.0 j) m

SOL.
 Obtain the resultant vector R :

R = A + B = (2.0 + 2.0)i m + (2.0 − 4.0) j m

51
 Example 1.2 The Sum of Two Vectors

 Evaluate the components of R :

Rx = 4.0 m Ry = −2.0 m
 Find the magnitude of R :

R = Rx 2 + Ry 2 = (4.0 m) 2 + (−2.0 m) 2

= 20 m = 4.5 m
2

 Find the direction of R :

Ry −2.0 m
tan  = = = −0.50
Rx 4.0 m

52
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy

 A model is a simplified yet reasonable substitute for

the real problem that allows us to solve the problem
in a relatively simple way.

53
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy

 In a simplified model, the Earth is imagined to be a

particle, an object with mass but zero size.
 The two primary conditions for using the particle
model may be summarized as follows:
– The size of the actual object is of no consequence in the
analysis of its motion.
– Any internal processes occurring in the object are of no
consequence in the analysis of its motion.

54
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy

 Four categories of models used in this book will help

us understand and solve physics problems.
– Geometric model
– Simplification model
– Analysis model
– Structural model

55
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy

 Geometric model
– We form a geometric construction that represents the real
situation .
– We then set aside the real problem and perform an analysis
of the geometric construction.

56
Example 1.3 Finding the Height of a Tree

 You wish to find the height of a tree but cannot

measure it directly. You stand 50.0 m from the tree and
determine that a line of sight from the ground to the top
of the tree makes an angle of 25.0° with the ground.
How tall is the tree?

57
Example 1.3 Finding the Height of a Tree

SOL.
 Figure 1.16 shows the tree and a right triangle
corresponding to the information in the problem
superimposed over it. (We assume that the tree is
exactly perpendicular to a perfectly flat ground.) In the
triangle, we know the length of the horizontal leg and
the angle between the hypotenuse and the horizontal
leg. We can find the height of the tree by calculating
the length of the vertical leg. We do so with the tangent
function:

58
Example 1.3 Finding the Height of a Tree

opposite side h
tan  = =
adjacent side 50.0 m
h = (50.0 m) tan  = (50.0 m) tan 25.0 = 23.3 m

Figure 1.16
59
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy

 Simplification model
– details that are not significant in determining the outcome of
the problem are ignored.
– The particle model is an example of the second category of
models
– Other simplification models will assume that quantities such
as friction forces are negligible, remain constant, or are
proportional to some power of the object’s speed.

60
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy

 Analysis model
– which are general types of problems that we have solved
before.
– An important technique in problem solving is to cast a new
problem into a form similar to one we have already solved
and which can be used as a model.

61
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy

 Structural model
– These models are generally used to understand the behavior
of a system that is far different in scale from our macroscopic
world
– either much smaller or much larger
– so that we cannot interact with it directly.

62
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy

 Intimately related to the notion of modeling is that of

forming alternative representations of the problem.
– A representation is a method of viewing or presenting the
information related to the problem.
 Considering alternative representations can help you
think about the information in the problem in several
different ways to help you understand and solve it.

63
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy

 Mental representation
– Imagine a scene that describes what is happening in the word
problem
– Let time progress so that you understand the situation and
can predict what changes will occur in the situation.
– This step is critical in approaching every problem.

64
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy

 Pictorial representation
– Drawing a picture of the situation
described in the word problem can be
of great assistance in understanding
the problem.
– a pictorial representation describes
what you would see if you were
observing the situation in the
problem.

Figure 1.17
65
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy

 Simplified pictorial representation

– It is often useful to redraw the pictorial representation
without complicating details by applying a simplification
model.

Figure 1.18

66
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy

 Graphical representation
– Drawing a graph that describes the situation can be very
helpful.
– The axes may represent any two related variables.
– A graphical representation is generally not something you
would see when observing the situation in the problem with
your eyes.

Figure 1.19
67
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy

 Tabular representation
– It is sometimes helpful to organize the information in tabular
form to help make it clearer.
– For example, some students find that making tables of known
quantities and unknown quantities is helpful.
– The periodic table of the elements is an extremely useful
tabular representation of information in chemistry and
physics.

68
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy

 Mathematical representation
– The ultimate goal in solving a problem is often the
mathematical representation.
– Through various representations of the problem that allow
you to understand what is happening,
– to one or more equations that represent the situation in the
problem and that can be solved mathematically for the
desired result.

69
 General Problem-Solving Strategy

Conceptualize
 The first things to do when approaching a problem are
to think about and understand the situation.
 Make a quick drawing of the situation
– A pictorial representation is not provided
 Focus on the expected result
– Do you know what units to expect
– What should a reasonable answer look like?

70
 General Problem-Solving Strategy

Categorize
 Simplify the problem
– Ignore air resistance or friction between a sliding object and a
surface .
– Model a moving object as a particle.
 Classify a problem
 If your simplification shows that the problem can be
treated as a particle under constant acceleration and
you have already solved such a problem

71
 General Problem-Solving Strategy

Analyze
 Select relevant equations that apply to the type of
situation in the problem.
 Use algebra (and calculus, if necessary) to solve
symbolically for the unknown variable in terms of what
is given.
 Substitute in the appropriate numbers

 Calculate the results

 Round it to the proper number of significant figures.

72
 General Problem-Solving Strategy

Finalize
 Examine your numerical answer.
– Does it have the correct units? Does it meet
– your expectations from your conceptualization of the
problem?
 Looking at limiting cases to see whether they yield
expected values is a very useful way to make sure that
you are obtaining reasonable results.
 This problem compared with others you have solved.

73
 General Problem-Solving Strategy

 When solving complex problems, you may need to

identify a series of subproblems and apply the
problem-solving strategy to each.

74
 Example 1.4 Taking a Hike

 A hiker begins a trip by first walking 25.0 km southeast

from her car. She stops and sets up her tent for the
night. On the second day, she walks 40.0 km in a
direction 60.0° north of east, at which point she
discovers a forest ranger’s tower.
 (A) Determine the components of the hiker’s
displacement for each day.

75
 Example 1.4 Taking a Hike

SOL.
 Conceptualize We
conceptualize the problem by
using a graphical representation
and drawing a sketch as in
Figure 1.20. If we denote the
displacement vectors on the
first and second days by A and B
, respectively, and use the car as
Figure 1.20
the origin of coordinates, we
obtain the vectors shown in
Figure 1.20.
76
 Example 1.4 Taking a Hike

 Categorize Drawing the resultant R , we can now

categorize this problem as one we’ve solved before: an
addition of two vectors. You should now have a hint of
the power of categorization in that many new problems
are very similar to problems we have already solved if
we are careful to conceptualize them. Once we have
drawn the displacement vectors and categorized the
problem, this problem is no longer about a hiker, a
walk, a car, a tent, or a tower. It is a problem about
vector addition, one that we have already solved.

77
 Example 1.4 Taking a Hike

 Analyze Displacement A has a magnitude of 25.0 km

and is directed 45.0° below the positive x axis.
 Find the components of A using Equation 1.10:

Ax = A cos(−45.0°) = (25.0 km)(0.707) = 17.7 km

Ay = A sin(−45.0°) = (25.0 km)(−0.707) = 217.7 km

78
 Example 1.4 Taking a Hike

 The signs of Ax and Ay also are evident from Figure

1.20.
 Find the components of B using Equation 1.10:

Bx = B cos 60.0° = (40.0 km)(0.500) = 20.0 km

By = B sin 60.0° = (40.0 km)(0.866) = 34.6 km

79
 Example 1.4 Taking a Hike

 (B) Determine the components of the hiker’s resultant

displacement R for the trip. Find an expression for R
in termsof unit vectors.

80
 Example 1.4 Taking a Hike

SOL.
 Use Equation 1.15 to find the components of the
resultant displacement R = A + B :
Rx = Ax + Bx = 17.7 km + 20.0 km = 37.7 km
Ry = Ay + By = −17.7 km +34.6 km = 17.0 km
 Write the total displacement in unit-vector form:

R = (37.7i + 17.0 j)km

81
 Example 1.4 Taking a Hike

 Finalize Looking at the graphical representation in

Figure 1.20, we estimate the position of the tower to be
about (38 km, 17 km), which is consistent with the
components of R in our result for the final position of
the hiker. Also, both components of R are positive,
putting the final position in the first quadrant of the
coordinate system, which is also consistent with Figure
1.20.

82