Gases

➢ Elements in Gaseous (g) state at 25 °C and

➢ 1 atmosphere.

1
 Physical Characteristics of Gases
• Gases assume the volume and shape of their
containers.
• Gases are the most compressible state of matter.
• Gases will mix evenly and completely when
confined to the same container.
• Gases have much lower densities than liquids and
solids.

NO2 gas
2- Measurements of Pressure

➢ Pressure is the total amount of 10 miles 0.2 atm

force exerted by gas molecules on
entire surface.
➢ Atmospheric pressure is decreased
with the altitude (height).

• SI derived unit for pressure Sea level 1 atm

• Pascal = Pa= kg/m.s2 = N/m2
• Very small

3
 Measuring Air Pressure

Average Air
Unit Pressure at
Sea Level gravity

pascal (Pa) 101,325

atmosphere (atm) 1 (exactly)

millimeters of mercury 760 (exactly)

(mmHg)
torr (torr) 760 (exactly)

pounds per square inch 14.7

(psi, lbs./in2)

4
 3- Gas Laws
Robert Boyle (1627–1691)
➢ Boyles experiments
Length of Air in Difference in Hg
➢ Added Hg to a J-tube with air Column (Inch) Level (Inch)
trapped inside.
48 0
➢ Used length of air column as a
40 6.2
measure of volume.
➢ Observed the volume-pressure 32 15.1

relationship. 22 35.0

5
 3- Gas Laws

➢ Pressure of a gas is inversely

proportional to its volume.
➢ At constant T and amount of gas
➢ As P increases, V decreases by
the same factor.

Volume Pressure Pressure

P  1/V (inch3) (inch Hg) x Volume
48 29.13 1400
P × V = constant
42 33.50 1400
P1 × V1 = P2 × V2 28 50.31 1400
23 61.31 1400

6
 Boyle’s Law: A Molecular View
➢ Pressure is caused by the molecules striking the sides
of the container.
➢ When you decrease the volume of the container with
the same number of molecules in the container, more
molecules will hit the wall at the same instant.
➢ This results in increasing the pressure.

7
A cylinder with a movable piston has a volume of 7.25 L
at 4.52 atm. What is the volume at 1.21 atm?
Given: V1 = 7.25 L, P1 = 4.52 atm, P2 = 1.21 atm

Find: V2, L
Conceptual
Plan:
V1, P1, P2 V2

Relationships: P1 ∙ V1 = P2 ∙ V2
Solution:

Check: Since P and V are inversely proportional, when the pressure

decreases ~4×, the volume should increase ~4×, and it does.

8
A balloon is put in a bell jar and the pressure is reduced from 782
torr to 0.500 atm. If the volume of the balloon is now 2.78 × 103 mL,
what was it originally?

Given: P1 = 782 torr, P2 = 0.500 atm, V2 = 2780 mL

Find: V1, mL
Conceptual V1, P1, P2 V2
Plan:

Relationships: P1 ∙ V1 = P2 ∙ V2 , 1 atm = 760 torr (exactly)

Solution:

Check: Since P and V are inversely proportional, when the pressure

decreases ~2×, the volume should increase ~2×, and it does.
9
 3- Gas Laws
Jacques Charles (1746–1823)
Charles’ Experiment
Variation in Gas Volume with Temperature at Constant Pressure

As T increases V increases
 3- Gas Laws
Charles’ Law

Charles’s &
Gay-Lussac’s
Law

Temperature must be
VT in Kelvin
V = constant x T T (K) = t (0C) + 273.15
V1/T1 = V2 /T2
11
 Charles’s Law—A Molecular View
➢ The pressure of gas inside and
outside the balloon are the
same.
➢ Low temperature: the gas
molecules are NOT moving as
fast, so they don’t hit the
sides of the balloon as hard;
therefore, the volume is
small.
➢ High temperatures: the gas
molecules are moving faster,
so they hit the sides of the
balloon harder; therefore, the
volume is larger.
12
The temperature inside a balloon is raised from 25.0 °C to 250.0 °C.
If the volume of cold air was 10.0 L, what is the volume of hot air?

Given: V1 = 10.0 L, t1 = 25.0 °C, t2 = 250.0 °C

Find: V2, L
Conceptual V1, T1, T2 V2
Plan:

Relationships: T(K) = t(°C) + 273.15,

Solution:

Check: When the temperature increases, the volume should

increase, and it does.

13
 3- Gas Laws
• Gay-Lussac’s Law

• Worked on relationship between pressure and temperature

• P increases as T increases
Showed that gas pressure is directly proportional
to absolute temperature
Volume (V ) and number of moles (n) are constant

Low T, Low P

P µT P
High T, High P

T (K)

14
 3- Gas Laws
Combined Gas Law
All T 's must be in K
Value of P and V can be any units as long as they are
the same on both sides
Gives all relationships needed for fixed amount of
gas under two sets of conditions

Boyle’s Law T1 = T2 P1V1 = P2V2

Charles’ Law P1 = P2 V1 V2
=
T1 T2

Gay-Lussac’s V1 = V2 P1 P2
Law =
T1 T2

15
 Combined Gas Law

PV
• Ratio
T
• Constant for fixed amount of gas (n)

PV
• T
=C for fixed amount of moles

• OR can equate two sets of conditions to give

combined gas law

P1V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2

16
The initial temperature of a 1.00 liter sample of argon is 20.° C. The pressure is
decreased from 720 mm Hg to 360 mm Hg and the volume increases to 2.14
liters. What was the change in temperature of the argon?

Given: P1 = 720 mm P2 = 360 mm

V1 = 1.00 L V2 = 2.14 L
Find: T1 = 293 K T2 = ?

Conceptual P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2

Plan:
P2 V2
T2 = x xT1
P1 V1
Relationships:
Solution:

360 2.14
T2 = x x293 = 313 K = 40C
720 1

Check:

17
A sample of nitrogen gas occupies a volume of 2.00 L at 756 mm Hg and 0.00° C.
The volume increases by 2.00 L and the temperature decreases to 137 K. What is
the final pressure exerted on the gas?

Given: P1 = 756 mm P2 = ? mm
V1 = 2.00 L V2 = 4 L
Find: T1 = 273 K T2 = 137 K

Conceptual P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2

Plan:
T 2 V1
P2 = x xP1
T1 V2
Relationships:
Solution:

137 2
P2 = x x756 = 190 mmHg
273 4

Check:

18
A 20.0 L container is filled with helium and the pressure is 150 atm and the
temperature is 30.° C. How many 5.0 L balloons can be filled when the
temperature is 22° C and the atmospheric pressure is 755 mm

Given: P1 = 150 atm P2 = 755 mm = 0.99 atm

V1 = 20.0 L V2 = ? L
Find: T1 = 303 K T2 = 295 K

Conceptual P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2

Plan:
T 2 P1
V2 = x xV 1
T1 P2
Relationships:
Solution: 295 150
V2 = x x 20 = 2950
303 0.99

2950 / 5 = 590
Check:

19
 Standard STP Conditions
The conditions 0 0C (or 273 K) and 1 atm are called standard
temperature and pressure (STP).
Experiments show that at STP, 1 mole of an ideal gas occupies
22.414 L.
 A gas occupies 10.0 L at 44.1 psi and 27 °C. What
volume will it occupy at standard conditions?
V1 = 10.0 L P1 = 44.1 psi, T1 = 27 °C+ 273 = 300 K
V2= ?? P2 = 1.00 atm = 14.7 psi T2 = 0 °C + 273 = 273 K

Find : V2, L

T 2 P1
V2 = x xV 1
T1 P2

273 44.1
V2 = x x10 = 27.3L
300 14.7
 4- Stoichiometry using gas volume
• In reactions in which products and reactants are gases
✓ If T and P are constant
✓ Simple relationship among volumes

H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
hydrogen + chlorine → hydrogen chloride
1 vol 1 vol 2 vol

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
hydrogen + oxygen → water (gas)
2 vol 1 vol 2 vol
• Ratios of simple, whole numbers

22
Relationships between Gas Volumes
Example : Calculate the volume of ammonia formed by
the reaction of 25 L of hydrogen with excess nitrogen.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

25 L H2 2 L NH3
´ = 17 L NH3
1 3 L H2

23
 Relationships between Gas Volumes

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

If 125 L H2 react with 50.0 L N2, what volume of NH3 can be

expected?

125 L H2 2 L NH3
´ = 83.3 L NH3
1 3 L H2
50.0 L N2 2 L NH3
 = 100. L NH3
1 1 L N2
H2 is limiting reagent 83.3 L

24
Avogadro’s Law (Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856)

Equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of

molecules. Volume is directly proportional to
number of gas molecules.
V  number of moles (n), at Constant temperature and
Constant pressure
V = constant x n
V1 / n1 = V2 / n2
 Gas Laws
Law Formula Limitations
Boyle’s law P1V1 = P2V2 Constant: T and ‘n’

Charles’ law V1/T1 = V2/T2 Constant: P and ‘n’

V in L
T in Kelvin
Avogadro’s law V1/n1 = V2/n2 Constant: P and T
V in L
n in moles

Ideal Gas law PV = nRT P in atm

V in L
n in moles
T in K
R= 0.08206 L atm K-1 mol-1

26
 5- Ideal Gas Law
Boyle’s law: P  1 (at constant n and T)
V
Charles’s law: V  T (at constant n and P)
Avogadro’s law: V  n (at constant P and T)

nT
V
P
nT nT
V = constant x =R R is the gas constant
P P

PV = nRT

27
 How many moles of gas are in a basketball with total
pressure 24.3 psi and volume of 3.24 L at 25 °C?
Given: V = 3.24 L, P = 24.3 psi, t = 25 °C
Find: n, mol
Conceptual P, V, T, R n
Plan:

Relationships:

Solution:

Check: 1 mole at STP occupies 22.4 L. Since there is a much smaller

volume than 22.4 L, we expect less than 1 mole of gas.
28
How many liters of N2(g) at 1.00 atm and 25.0 °C are produced
by the decomposition of 150. g of NaN3?
2 NaN3(s) → 2 Na(s) + 3 N2(g)
V = nRT/P

T = 25C + 273.15 = 298.15 K

150. g NaN 3 1 mol NaN 3 3 mol N2

n = mol N2 = ´ ´
1 65.01 g 2 mol NaN 3

n = 3.461 mol N2

V =
( 3.461 mol N ) ( 0.082057
2
L×atm
mol×K ) (298.15 K )
1.00 atm

V = 84.6 L

29
Calculating Molar Mass

• Density and Molar Mass of Gases

A newly discovered gas has a density 2.39 g/L 23 ˚C and 715 mmHg.
What is the molar mass of this gas?

Density and Molar Mass of Gases

31
A gaseous compound of phosphorus and fluorine with an empirical formula of
PF2 was found to have a density of 5.60 g/L at 23.0 °C and 750. torr. Calculate
its molecular mass and its molecular formula

Mass of PF2 = 69 g/mol

molecular mass 138 g/mol

= =2
empirical mass 69 g/mol

The correct molecular formula is P2F4

32
What is the density of carbon dioxide at 500 torr and 50 °C?

Density and Molar Mass of Gases

33
 Orbitals

➢ For an electron with a given

energy, the best we can do is
describe a region of the atom with
a high probability of finding it,
called an orbital.
➢ Calculations show that the size,
shape, and orientation of an orbital
are determined by three integers.

➢ These integers are called quantum numbers (QN).

❖Principal quantum number (n)
❖Angular momentum quantum number (l)
❖Magnetic quantum number (ml)
34
 Quantum Numbers (QN)
➢ Each orbital is characterized by a series of numbers
called quantum numbers.
1. Principal QN (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) - related to size and
energy of the orbital.
2. Angular Momentum QN (l = 0 to n − 1) - related
to shape of the orbital.

Value of l and corresponding letters used:

Value of l 0 1 2 3 4
Letters used s p d f g

3. Magnetic QN (ml = l to −l) - relates to orientation of

the orbital in space relative to other orbitals.
35
 Quantum Numbers (QN)

➢ Number of orbitals in a shell = n2

➢ Number of orbitals in a subshell = (2l+1)
36
 Principal Quantum Number

➢ n characterizes the energy of the electron in a

particular orbital.

➢ n can be any integer  1.

➢ The larger the value of n, the more energy the

orbital has.

Tro, Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 37

 Angular Momentum QN

• The l quantum number

primarily determines the
shape of the orbital.
✓ s orbitals are spherical.
✓ p orbitals are like two balloons
tied at the knots.
✓ d orbitals are mainly like four
balloons tied at the knots.
✓ f orbitals are mainly like eight
balloons tied at the knots.

38
 Orbital shapes

l = 0, the S
orbital

l = 1, the p
orbitals

39
 Orbital shapes

l = 2, the d
orbitals

40
 Orbital shapes

l = 3, the f
orbitals

41
Energy Shells and Subshells

42
 Chapter 8

Periodic Properties of the ُlements

8.5. Quantum Mechanics and the Atom

8.6. Electron Spin
8.7.Energy levels and Ground State Electron Configuration
8.8. Periodic Table and Ground State Electron Configuration
8.9. Atomic Orbitals; Shape and Orientation
8.10. Periodic Table and properties of the elements

43
 Electron Spin

➢ Electrons generate a magnetic field,

because electrons spin on their axis.
✓ Spinning charged particles generate a
magnetic field.
➢ All electrons have the same amount of
spin.
➢ The orientation of the electron spin is
quantized—it can only be in one
direction or its opposite.
✓ spin up or spin down

44
 Spin Quantum Number, ms

➢ Spin quantum number describes how

the electron spins on its axis.
➢ spin up or spin down
➢ ms can have values of +½ or −½.
➢ By convention, a half-arrow pointing
up is used to represent an electron in
an orbital with spin up.

+½ -½
45
 Pauli Exclusion Principle

➢NO two electrons in an atom may have the same set

of four quantum numbers.
➢ Therefore, one orbital can have only two electrons,
and they must have opposite spins.
Example: Helium (2 electrons)
n=1 ml = -l to +l
l = 0 to n-1 ms = +1/2 , -1/2

Electron n l ml ms

Electron 1 1 0 0 +½

Electron 2 1 0 0 -½

46
 Pauli Exclusion Principle

Number of electrons in a subshell:

Subshell Orbital(s) Electrons

l
0 s 1 2

1 p 3 6
2 d 5 10
3 f 7 14

47
 Sublevel Splitting
➢ For hydrogen (single-electron atom), all the
sublevels in each principal energy shell have the
same energy.
✓ Energy depends only on principle quantum number (n)
✓ s (l = 0) = p (l = 1) = d (l = 2) = f (l = 3)
➢ For multi-electron atoms, the energies of the
sublevels are split.
✓ caused by electron–electron repulsion
➢ The lower the value of the l quantum number, the
less energy the sublevel has.
✓ s (l = 0) < p (l = 1) < d (l = 2) < f (l = 3)

48
 Energy of subshells

1s
Subshells: s, p, d, f 2s 2p
Electrons in subshells: 3s 3p 3d
s – 2 electrons 4s 4p 4d 4f
p – 6 electrons
d – 10 electrons 5s 5p 5d 5f
f – 14 electrons 6s 6p 6d
https://youtu.be/NIwcDnFjj98 7s
https://youtu.be/sE1IvKAijmo
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p …
49
 Filling the Orbitals with Electrons

➢ Energy shells fill from lowest energy to highest.

➢ Sublevels fill from lowest energy to highest.
❖s→p→d→f
❖ aufbau principle
➢ Orbitals that are in the same sublevel have the
same energy.
➢ NO more than two electrons per orbital
❖ Pauli exclusion principle
➢ When filling orbitals that have the same energy,
place one electron in each before completing pairs.
❖ Hund’s rule

50
 Electron Configurations

➢ In ground state (normal condition), the electron occupy

the lowest energy orbital.
➢ The distribution of electrons into the various orbitals in
an atom in its ground state is called its electron
configuration.
Example: He (2 electrons) = 1s2
➢ The number designates the principal energy level (n).
➢ The letter designates the sublevel and type of orbital (s).
➢ The superscript designates the number of electrons in
that sublevel (2).

51
 Electron Configuration
(atoms in Their Ground State)

Sub-shells:
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s
Electrons in subshells: s-2, p-6, d-10, f-14

Example: Mn: Z=25, Number of electrons= 25

➢ Electron configuration= 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d 5

➢ Short Electron configuration= [Ar] 4s23d 5

[previous noble gas] Remaining electron.

52
5

Orbital Diagrams
3

➢ We often represent an orbital as a square and the

electrons in that orbital as arrows.
✓ The direction of the arrow represents the spin of the
electron.

unoccupied orbital with orbital with

orbital 1 electron 2 electrons

Example: He (1s2)

Tro, Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach

Electron Configuration

54
 Orbital Diagram of Manganese
Mn: Z = 25; Subshell Orbital(s) Electrons
Number of electrons = 25 s 1 2

p 3 6
Electron configuration:
d 5 10
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5
f 7 14

         

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s
    

3d
55
 Valence Electrons
➢ Electrons in the highest principal energy shell (n) are
called the valence electrons.
➢ Electrons in lower energy shells are called core
electrons.
❖ Core electrons = total electron – valance electrons
➢ Chemical and physical properties of an atom depend
mainly on the number of valence electrons.
Example: Kr = 36 electrons
➢ Electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
➢ Highest principal energy shell = 4
➢ Valance electrons = 2 + 6 = 8
➢ Core electrons = 36 – 8 = 28
56
Electron Configuration & Periodic Table

➢ The group number corresponds to the number of

valence electrons (except transition elements).
1A = 1 valance electrons
7 A = 7 valance electrons

➢ The number of columns () in each “block” is the

maximum number of electrons that sublevels can
hold.

➢ The period number (→) corresponds to the principal

energy level (n) of the valence electrons.

57
Orbital blocks of periodic table

58
 S, p, d and f block elements
s1
1 s2 p1 p 2 p3 p4 p5 s 2
2 p6
3 d 1 d 2 d 3 d 4 d 5 d 6 d 7 d 8 d 9 d 10
4
5
6
7

f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f 9 f 10 f 11 f 12 f 13 f 14 f 14 d 1

59
 Electron configuration
(from periodic table)
s1 p6
1 s2 p1 p 2 p3 p4 p5 s 2
2 Ne
3 3s2 d 1 d 2 d 3 d 4 d 5 d 6 d 7 d 8 d 9 d 10 P Ar
4 4s2 3d10 As
5
6
7

P = [Ne]3s23p3 As = [Ar]4s23d104p3
P has five valence electrons As has five valence electrons

60
Properties and Electron Configuration

➢ Elements in the same group (column) have similar

chemical and physical properties.
➢ Because they have the same number of valence
electrons in the same kinds of orbitals.

61
 Noble Gas Electron Configuration

➢ The noble gases have eight valence

electrons.
➢ Except for He, which has only two electrons.
➢ The noble gases are especially
nonreactive.
➢ Because the electron configuration of the
noble gases is especially stable.

62
Everyone Wants to Be Like a Noble Gas!

- Alkali Metals
➢ The alkali metals have only one more
electron than the previous noble gas.
➢ In their reactions, the alkali metals tend
to lose their extra electron to get the
same electron configuration as a noble
gas.
❖forming a cation with a 1+ charge
➢ Very reactive

63
Everyone Wants to Be Like a Noble Gas!
- Halogens
➢ All the halogens have one electron less
than the next noble gas.
➢ In their reactions with metals:
Halogens tend to gain an electron to
get the electron configuration of the
next noble gas.
❖ forming an anion with charge 1−.
➢ In their reactions with nonmetals:
Halogens tend to share electrons with
the other nonmetal to get the electron
configuration of a noble gas.
➢ Very reactive
64
Electron Configuration and Ion Charge

➢ These atoms form ions to get the electron

configuration same as the nearest noble gas (stable
electron configuration).

65
 Electron Configuration of Anions
in Their Ground State

➢ Anions are formed when atoms gain enough

electrons to have eight valence electrons.
❖ filling the s and p sublevels of the valence shell
➢ The sulfur atom has six valence electrons.
S atom = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
➢ In order to have eight valence electrons, it must
gain two more.
S2− anion = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

66
 Electron Configuration of Cations
in Their Ground State

➢ Cations are formed when an atom loses all its valence

electrons.
❖ Resulting in a new lower energy level valence shell
❖ However, the process is always endothermic.
➢ The magnesium atom has 2 valence electrons.
Mg atom = 1s22s22p63s2
➢ When it forms a cation, it loses its valence electrons.
Mg2+ cation = 1s22s22p6

67
 Electron Configuration of Cations
➢ Cations form when the atom loses electrons from the
valence shell.
➢ For transition metals, electrons may also be removed
from the sublevel closest to the valence shell.

Al atom = 1s22s22p63s23p1

Al3+ ion = 1s22s22p6

Fe atom =1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6

Fe2+ ion = 1s22s22p63s23p63d6

Fe3+ ion = 1s22s22p63s23p63d5

68
 Anomalous Electron Configurations
➢ 4s sublevel is lower in energy than the 3d.
➢ But the difference in energy is not large.
➢ Some of the transition metals have anomalous
electron configurations in which the (n)s only
partially fills before the (n−1)d or doesn’t fill at all.
Expected Found experimentally
➢ Cr = [Ar]4s23d4 ➢ Cr = [Ar]4s13d5

➢ Cu = [Ar]4s23d9 ➢ Cu = [Ar]4s13d10

➢ Mo = [Kr]5s24d4 ➢ Mo = [Kr]5s14d5

➢ Ru = [Kr]5s24d6 ➢ Ru = [Kr]5s14d7
69
Anomalous Electron Configurations

70
 Magnetic Properties
(of Atoms and Ions)

➢ Electron configurations that result in unpaired

electrons mean that the atom or ion will have a net
magnetic field. This is called paramagnetism.
➢ will be attracted to a magnetic field
Example: Sc = [Ar]4s23d1
4s 3d
➢ Electron configurations that result in all paired
electrons mean that the atom or ion will have no
magnetic field. This is called diamagnetism.
➢ slightly repelled by a magnetic field
Example: Sc3+ = [Ar]
[Ar] = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
71
Magnetic Properties

Paramagnetism

Diamagnetism

Paramagnetism

Paramagnetism

72
 Complete the following table?
Br
Electron 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5
configuration 35Br :
or [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5

Valence electrons 7 electrons

Core electrons 35 – 7 = 28 electrons

[Ar]         
Orbital diagram
4s2 3d10 4p5
Paramagnetic or
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic
The set of four The last sublevel is 4p therefore n = 4 and l = 1
quantum numbers
for one electron in ml could be -1, 0 or 1 and ms could be +1/2 or -1/2
the last sublevel
73
 Atomic Radius

➢ Atomic radius is an average radius of

an atom.
It is related to atomic size.
➢ Atomic radius increases down group
➢ valence shell farther from nucleus
➢ Atomic radius decreases across
period (left to right)
➢ adding electrons to same valence
shell
➢ effective nuclear charge increases

74
Trend in Atomic Radius
(Main Group elements)

75
 Atomic Radius— Transition Metals

➢ Increase in size down the group.

➢ Atomic radius of transition metals are roughly the

same size across the d block.

76
 Ionic Radius
➢ Cations (+ve ions) are smaller than the neutral atom.

➢ Anions (-ve ions) are bigger than the neutral atom.

77
 Trends in Ionic Radius
➢ Ion size increases down the group (same group has
same ionic charge)

78
 Radius of Isoelectric species
➢ Isoelectronic = Same electron configuration
(same electron number)
➢ Example: Cl−, Ar, K+ and Ca2+: Isoelectric species
All have 18 electrons
➢ For isoelectric species:
Larger positive charge = smaller cation
Larger negative charge = larger anion
Smaller Ca2+< K+ < Ar < Cl− larger

79
 Ionization Energy

➢ Minimum energy needed to remove an electron from

an atom
❖Gas state
❖Endothermic process
❖Valence electron easiest to remove, lowest IE
M(g) + IE1 → M+(g) + 1 e−
❖first ionization energy = energy to remove electron from
neutral atom
M+(g) + IE2 → M2+(g) + 1 e−
❖second IE = energy to remove electron from 1+ ion

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 General Trends in
First Ionization Energy

➢ The larger the effective nuclear charge on the electron,

the more energy it takes to remove it.
➢ The farther the most probable distance of the electron is
from the nucleus, the less energy it takes to remove it.
➢ First IE decreases down the group.
➢ valence electron farther from nucleus
➢ First IE generally increases across the period.
➢ effective nuclear charge increases

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➢Exception: from 2A
82
to 3A, 5A to 6A
 Irregularities in the Trend
➢ Ionization energy generally increases from left to right
across a period.
➢ Except from 2A to 3A, 5A to 6A

    
Be   N
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p

B    O     
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p

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 Ionization Energy
➢ Removal of each successive electron costs more
energy.
➢ Large increase in energy when start removing core
electrons.

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 Electron Affinity
➢ Energy released when an neutral atom gains an
electron
❖ M(g) + 1 e− → M−(g) + EA
➢ The more energy that is released, the larger the
electron affinity of the atom.
❖ The more negative the number, the larger the EA.
➢ Alkali metals have decreasing EA down the column.
❖ but not all groups do (anomalous increase in EA from second
period to third period).
➢ EA increases (become more negative) across period
❖ Group 5A has lower EA because extra electron must pair.
❖ Groups 2A and 8A generally have very low EA because added
electron goes into higher energy level or sublevel.
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 Trends in Electron Affinity

➢ Alkali metals have decreasing EA down the column.

➢ but not all groups do
➢ generally, anomalous increase in EA from second period
to third period.
➢ Generally, EA increases across period (highest EA in
period = halogen).
➢ becomes more negative from left to right.
➢ Group 5A generally lower EA than expected because
extra electron must pair
➢ Groups 2A and 8A generally have very low EA because
added electron goes into higher energy level or sublevel

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➢Exception: 2A, 5A
87
and 8A
 Metallic Character
➢ Metallic character is how closely an element's
properties match the ideal properties of a metal.
Properties of metal: More malleable and ductile,
better conductors, and easier to ionize (release e−).
➢ Metallic character decreases from left to right across a
period.
❖ Metals are found at the left of the period and nonmetals are to
the right.
➢ Metallic character increases down the column.
❖ Nonmetals are found at the top of the middle main- group
elements and metals are found at the bottom.

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89
Trends in periodic properties
Increase in Ionization energy & Electron affinity

Decrease in Atomic radius & Metallic character

Increase in AR & MC

Decrease in IE & EA

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 From each of the following pair, choose the atom
which has the higher atomic radius, first ionization
energy, electron affinity and metallic character
Higher AR & MC Higher IE & EA
Al or S Al S
As or Sb Sb As
N or Si Si N
O or Cl Not possible to predict

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