REPUBLIC OF KENYA

LEARNING GUIDE

FOR

MASONRY

LEVEL 3
 TVET CDACC
P.O. BOX 15745-00100
NAIROBI

ii
First published 2020
©Copyright TVET CDACC

All rights reserved. No part of this learning guide may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or
mechanical methods without the prior written permission of the TVET CDACC, except in the
case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other non-commercial uses
permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write to the Council Secretary/CEO, at the
address below:

Council Secretary/CEO
TVET Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council
P.O. Box 15745–00100
Nairobi, Kenya
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.tvetcdacc.go.ke

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 1

 FOREWORD

The provision of quality education and training is fundamental to the Government’s overall
strategy for social economic development. Quality education and training will contribute to
achievement of Kenya’s development blue print and sustainable development goals. Reforms in
education are necessary to align the sector to the provisions of the Constitution of Kenya 2010.
This triggered the formulation of the Policy Framework on “Reforming Education and Training
in Kenya” (Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019). A key provision of this policy is the radical change
in the design, development and delivery of Technical and Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) which is the key to unlocking the country’s potential for industrialization. This policy
requires that training in TVET be Competency Based, Curriculum development be industry led,
certification be based on demonstration of competence and that mode of delivery allows for
multiple entry and exit in TVET programs.

The State Department for Vocational and Technical Training (VTT) has a responsibility of
facilitating the process of inculcating knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for catapulting
the nation to a globally competitive country, hence the paradigm shift to embrace Competency
Based Education and Training (CBET) to address the mismatch between skills acquired through
training and skills needed by industry as well as increase the global competitiveness of Kenyan
labor force. The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act No. 29 of 2013 and the
Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019 on Reforming Education and Training in Kenya, emphasizes the
need to reform curriculum development, assessment and certification to respond to the unique
needs of the industry.
This learning guide has been developed to support the implementation of CBET curriculum in
Masonry level 3 and is intended to guide the trainee through the learning process. It is my
conviction that this learning guide will play a critical role towards supporting the development of
competent human resource for Masonry sector’s growth and sustainable development.

PRINCIPAL SECRETARY, VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

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 PREFACE
Kenya Vision 2030 is anticipated to transform the country into a newly industrializing, “middle-income
country providing a high-quality life to all its citizens by the year 2030”. The Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) number four that focuses on inclusive and equitable quality education and promotion of
lifelong learning for all, further affirm that education and training is an important driver to economic
development for any country. Kenya intends to create a globally competitive and adaptive human
resource base to meet the requirements of a rapidly industrializing economy.

TVET CDACC has a responsibility of facilitating the process of inculcating knowledge, skills and
attitudes necessary for catapulting the nation to a globally competitive country, hence the paradigm
shift to embrace Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) to address the mismatch between
skills acquired through training and skills needed by industry as well as increase the global
competitiveness of Kenyan labor force. The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act No.
29 of 2013 and the Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019 on Reforming Education and Training in Kenya,
emphasizes the need to reform curriculum development, assessment and certification to respond to the
unique needs of the industry.

To effectively implement CBET curriculum in Masonry level 3, this learning guide has been designed
and organized with clear interactive learning activities for each learning outcome of every unit of
learning. The guide further provides information sheet, self-assessment items, tools, equipment,
supplies, and materials necessary for the particular learning outcome. This is aimed at imparting the
relevant knowledge, requisite skills and the right attitude for work.

I am grateful to the trainers involved in the development of this learning guide.

Prof. CHARLES M. M. ONDIEKI, PhD, FIET (K), Con. Eng Tech.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This learning guide has been designed and developed to support the implementation of
Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) curricula in Kenya. The learning guide is
intended to support learning by providing practical and theoretical learning activities, simplified
content and self-assessment items to guide the trainee in the learning process.

I recognize with appreciation the critical role of trainers in developing this learning guide and
ensuring its alignment with National Occupational Standards (OS) and CBET curriculum. I am
convinced that this learning guide will support trainees’ acquisition of knowledge, skills and
right attitude needed for work in Masonry sector.

DR. LAWRENCE GUANTAI M’ITONGA, PhD

COUNCIL SECRETARY/CEO
TVET CDACC

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 ACRONYMS

CBET Competence Based Education and Training

OS Occupational standards
PPEs Personal protective Equipments
DPC Dump proof course
CDAC C Curriculum Development, Assesment and certification council
PPEs Personal protective Equipments
VTT Vocational and Technical Training
DPM Dump proof Membrane
SOPs Standard operating procedures

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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Contents
FOREWORD.................................................................................................................................2

PREFACE.......................................................................................................................................3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................................................5

CHAPTER 1: PRODUCTION OF SIMPLE MASONRY PRODUCTS......................................11

Figure 1.1 soil profiles...................................................................................................................13

Figure 1.2 sedimentary rock, Chalk...............................................................................................14

Figure 1.3 metamorphic rock,Schist..............................................................................................15

Figure 1.4 igneous rock, Pumice...................................................................................................16

Figure 1.5 An excavator................................................................................................................16

Figure 1.6 open excavation............................................................................................................18

Spirit Level.............................................................................................................................25

Line and Pins..........................................................................................................................25

Water Level............................................................................................................................25

Boning rods............................................................................................................................26

Spades.....................................................................................................................................26

Mortar Pan..............................................................................................................................26

Jointer.....................................................................................................................................27

Crow Bar................................................................................................................................27

Hand Saw...............................................................................................................................28

Figure 1.7 use of hammers............................................................................................................31

Figure 1.8 using a spirit level........................................................................................................31

Figure 1.9 using a trowel...............................................................................................................33

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Figure 1.10 using a plumb line......................................................................................................33

Figure 1.11 using a water level......................................................................................................34

Figure 1.12 using a wood float......................................................................................................34

Figure 1.13 using a meter rule.......................................................................................................35

Figure 1.14 using a tape measure..................................................................................................35

Figure 1.15 using a jointer.............................................................................................................36

Figure 1.16 cleaning a brick frame................................................................................................36

Figure 1.17 maintenance of a wheelbarrow...................................................................................37

Figure 1.18 tool rack.....................................................................................................................37

Figure 1.19 Earthenware Clay......................................................................................................41

Figure 1.20 Ball Clay....................................................................................................................42

Figure 1.21 stoneware clay............................................................................................................43

Figure 1.22 porcelain clay.............................................................................................................44

Figure 1.23 digging of clay............................................................................................................45

Figure 1.24 hand molding of clay..................................................................................................47

Figure 1.25 machine molding........................................................................................................48

Figure 1.26 firing of clay...............................................................................................................49

Figure 1.27 brick manufacturing flow chart..................................................................................50

Figure 1.28 stacking of bricks.......................................................................................................51

Figure 1.29 absorption test of bricks.............................................................................................52

Figure 1.30 crushing test................................................................................................................53

Figure 1.31 hardness test of bricks................................................................................................53

Figure 1.32 size test of bricks........................................................................................................54

Figure 1.33 colour test of bricks....................................................................................................54

Figure 1.34 Soundness Test of Bricks...........................................................................................55

Figure 1.35.....................................................................................................................................55

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Figure 1.36 Efflorescence Test on Bricks......................................................................................56

Figure 1.37 pedestrian routes.........................................................................................................68

Figure 1.38 Stabilisation Mixer.....................................................................................................71

Figure 1.39 Curing stabilized blocks.............................................................................................75

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Contents
FOREWORD.................................................................................................................................2

PREFACE.......................................................................................................................................3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................................................5

CHAPTER 1: PRODUCTION OF SIMPLE MASONRY PRODUCTS......................................14

1.1 Introduction to the unit of learning......................................................................................14

1.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes.........................................................................................14

1.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Identify and locate raw materials..............................................14

Figure 1.1 Soil profiles..................................................................................................................16

Figure 1.2 Sedimentary rocks; Chalk............................................................................................17

Figure 1.3 Metamorphic rock,Schist.............................................................................................18

Figure 1.4 Igneous rock, Pumice...................................................................................................19

Figure 1.5 An excavator................................................................................................................20

Figure 1.6 Open excavation...........................................................................................................22

1.2. 1 Learning Outcome 2 Use masonry tools and equipment.................................................29

1.2.1.1 Introduction to the learning outcome.........................................................................29

1.2.1.2 Performance Standard................................................................................................29

1.2.1.3 Information Sheet.......................................................................................................29

Spirit Level.............................................................................................................................33

Line and Pins..........................................................................................................................33

Water Level............................................................................................................................33

Boning rods............................................................................................................................34

Spades.....................................................................................................................................34

Mortar Pan..............................................................................................................................34

Jointer.....................................................................................................................................35

Crow Bar................................................................................................................................35

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 Hand Saw...............................................................................................................................36

Figure 1.7 Use of hammers............................................................................................................39

Figure 1.8 Using a spirit level........................................................................................................39

Figure 1.9 Using a trowel..............................................................................................................41

Figure 1.10 Using a plumb line....................................................................................................41

Figure 1.11 Using a water level.....................................................................................................42

Figure 1.12 Using a wood float.....................................................................................................42

Figure 1.13 Using a meter rule......................................................................................................43

Figure 1.14 Using a tape measure..................................................................................................43

Figure 1.15 Using a jointer............................................................................................................44

Figure 1.16 Cleaning a brick frame..............................................................................................44

Figure 1.17 Maintenance of a wheelbarrow..................................................................................45

Figure 1.18 Tool rack...................................................................................................................45

1.2.1.4 Learning Activities.....................................................................................................45

1.2.1.5 References..................................................................................................................51

1.3. 1 Learning Outcome 3: Produce masonry clay units..........................................................52

1.3. 1 .1 Introduction to the learning outcome.......................................................................52

1.3. 1 .2 Performance Standard..............................................................................................52

1.3. 1 .3 Information Sheet.....................................................................................................52

Figure 1.19 Earthenware Clay.......................................................................................................53

Figure 1.20 Ball Clay.....................................................................................................................54

Figure 1.21 Stoneware clay...........................................................................................................55

Figure 1.22 porcelain clay.............................................................................................................56

Figure 1.23 digging of clay............................................................................................................57

Figure 1.24 hand molding of clay..................................................................................................59

Figure 1.25 machine molding........................................................................................................60

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Figure 1.26 firing of clay...............................................................................................................61

Figure 1.27 brick manufacturing flow chart..................................................................................62

Figure 1.28 Stacking of bricks.......................................................................................................63

Figure 1.29 absorption test of bricks.............................................................................................65

Figure 1.30 Crushing test...............................................................................................................65

Figure 1.31 Hardness test of bricks...............................................................................................66

Figure 1.32 size test of bricks........................................................................................................66

Figure 1.33 Colour test of bricks...................................................................................................67

Figure 1.34 Soundness Test of Bricks...........................................................................................67

Figure 1.35.....................................................................................................................................68

Figure 1.36 Efflorescence Test on Bricks......................................................................................68

1.3. 1 .4 Learning Activities...................................................................................................69

1.3. 1 .5 References................................................................................................................72

1.4.1 Learning Outcome 4; Produce concrete masonry products..............................................73

1.4.1 .1 Introduction to the learning outcome........................................................................73

1.4.1 .2 Performance Standard...............................................................................................73

1.4.1 .3 Information Sheet......................................................................................................73

1.4.1 .4 Learning activities.....................................................................................................78

1.4.1 .5 References.................................................................................................................82

1.5.1 Learning Outcome 5 Produce hand dressed stones...........................................................83

1.5.1.1 Introduction to the learning outcome.........................................................................83

1.5.1.2 Performance Standard................................................................................................83

1.5.1.3 Information Sheet.......................................................................................................83

Figure 1.37 Pedestrian routes........................................................................................................87

1.5.1.4 Learning Activities.....................................................................................................88

1.5.1.5 References..................................................................................................................91

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 1.6.1 Learning Outcome 6; Produce stabilized soil masonry units............................................92

1.6.1.1 Introduction to the learning outcome.........................................................................92

1.6.1.2 Performance Standard................................................................................................92

1.6.1.3 Information Sheet.......................................................................................................92

Sand soils...............................................................................................................................92

Figure 1.38 Stabilisation Mixer.....................................................................................................96

Figure 1.39 Curing stabilized blocks...........................................................................................101

1.6.1.4 Learning Activities...................................................................................................102

1.6.1.5 References................................................................................................................106

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Background Information
This learning guide will provide competencies in produce masonry products in Masonry (MAS)
and to addresses the challenges created by todays evolving technological and legislative
requirements. In the wake of challenging work environment, and evolving industrial demands in
Masonry practices, this learning outcome will meet the competencies in training to Identify and
locate raw materials Use masonry tools and equipment Produce masonry clay units Produce
concrete masonry products Produce hand dressed stones Produce stabilized soil masonry units

Layout of the Trainee Guide

Performance standards: These are obtained from the performance criteria statements in the
related unit of competency of the Occupational Standards (OS)
Information Sheet: This section covers information relating to the specific learning outcome.
This information should include but not limited to meaning of terms, methods, processes/
procedures/ guidelines, Illustrations (photographs, pictures, videos, charts, plans, digital content
links, simulations links) and case studies. This section also provides additional information
sources relevant to the learning outcome e.g. books, web links
Learning activities: This section covers practical activities related to the Performance Criteria
statements, Knowledge in relation to Performance Criteria as given under content in the
curriculum Special instructions related to learning activities
Self-Assessment: This section must be related to the Performance Criteria, Required Knowledge
and Skills in the Occupational Standards. This section requires the trainee to evaluate their
acquisition of skills, knowledge and attitude in relation to the learning outcome. A variety of
assessment items such as written and practical tests which emphasizes on the application of
knowledge, skills and attitude is recommended
The self-assessment items should be valid, relevant and comprehensive to the level of
qualification in the learning outcome
Tools, equipment, materials and supplies: This section should provide for the requirements of
the learning outcome in terms of tools, equipment, supplies and materials. The section should be
adequate, relevant and comprehensive for the learning outcome.

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References: Information sources should be quoted and presented as required in the APA format
The units of learning covered in this learning guide are as presented in the table below:

Table 1; Basic Units of Learning

Unit of Learning Code Unit of Duration in Credit Factor
Learning Title Hours
CON/CU/MA/BC/01/3 Communication 15 1.5
Skills
CON/CU/MA/BC/02/3 Numeracy skills 15 1.5
CON/CU/MA/BC/03/3 Digital Literacy 20 3
CON/CU/MA/BC/04/3 Entrepreneurial 40 4
Skills
CON/CU/MA/BC/05/3 Employability 20 2
Skills
CON/CU/MA/BC/06/3 Environmental 15 1.5
Literacy
Unit of Learning Code Unit of Duration Credit Factor
Learning Title in
Hours
CON/CU/MA/BC/07/3 Occupational 15 1.5
Safety and
Health Practices
Total 140 14

Table 2; Common Units of Learning

Unit of Learning Code Unit of Duration Credit Factor
Learning Title in
Hours
CON/CU/MA/CC/01/3 Mensuration 50 5
and calculation
CON/CU/MA/CC/02/3 Interpretation 50 5
of working

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 drawings
Total 100 10

Table 3: Core Units of Learning

Unit of Learning Code Unit of Duration Credit
Learning Title in Factor
Hours
CON/CU/MA/CR/02/3/A Construction of 80 8
Simple 1 Level
Masonry
Superstructures
CON/CU/MA/CR/03/3/A Masonry Work 80 8
Finishing
CON/CU/MA/CR/04/3/A Production of 80 8
Simple
Masonry
Products
Industrial 60 6
Attachment
Total 380 38

CHAPTER 1: PRODUCTION OF SIMPLE MASONRY PRODUCTS

Unit of learning code CON/CU/MA/CR/04/3/A

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Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard produce simple masonry units

1.1 Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit specifies the competencies required to produce simple masonry products. It entails
production of masonry clay units, concrete masonry products, hand dressed stone masonry
products and stabilized soil masonry products. It applies in the construction industry.

1.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Identify and locate raw materials

2. Use masonry tools and equipment
3. Produce masonry clay units
4. Produce concrete masonry products
5. Produce hand dressed stones
6. Produce stabilized soil masonry units

1.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Identify and locate raw materials

1.2.1.1Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify and locate raw
materials. It entails identification of supplies, materials, tools and equipment as well as
observation of public safety and health regulations.

1.2.1.2 Performance Standard

1.1 Supplies and materials are identified and differentiated based their properties,
workability and product specification.
1.2 Statutory requirements are obtained and adhered to as per the law.
1.3 Personal and public safety and health regulations are adhered to as per the law.
1.4 Tools and equipment are identified and gathered based on construction materials required
1.5 Raw materials are obtained from source based on quantities required

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1.2.1.3 Information Sheet

1.2.1.4 Definition of terms

Supplies – to provide or make something available for use
Statutory - written laws that govern a procedure

1.2.1.5 Soil profile and types

A soil horizon makes up a distinct layer of soil. The horizon runs roughly parallel to the soil
surface and has different properties and characteristics than the adjacent layers above and below.
The soil profile is a vertical section of the soil that depicts all of its horizons. The soil profile
extends from the soil surface to the parent rock material.
Master Horizons
There are 5 master horizons in the soil profile. Not all soil profiles contain all 5 horizons; and so,
soil profiles differ from one location to another. The 5 master horizons are represented by the
letters: O, A, E, B, and C.
O: The O horizon is a surface horizon that is comprised of organic material at various stages of
decomposition. It is most prominent in forested areas where there is the accumulation of debris
fallen from trees.
A: The A horizon is a surface horizon that largely consists of minerals (sand, silt, and clay) and
with appreciable amounts of organic matter. This horizon is predominantly the surface layer of
many soils in grasslands and agricultural lands.
B: The B horizon is a subsurface horizon that has been heavily leached. Leaching is the process
in which soluble nutrients are lost from the soil due to precipitation or irrigation. The horizon is
typically light in color. It is generally found beneath the O horizon.
C: The C horizon is a subsurface horizon that has accumulated from the layer(s) above. It is a
site of deposition of certain minerals that have leached from the layer(s) above.
R: The R horizon is a subsurface horizon. It is the least weathered horizon. Also known as the
saprolite, it is unconsolidated, loose parent material.

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Figure 1.1 Soil profiles

1.2.1.6 Types of rocks and their properties

There are three main types of rocks: sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic. Each of these rocks
are formed by physical changes—such as melting, cooling, eroding, compacting, or deforming—
that are part of the rock cycle.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed from pieces of other existing rock or organic material. There are
three different types of sedimentary rocks: clastic, organic (biological), and chemical. Clastic
sedimentary rocks, like sandstone, form from clasts, or pieces of other rock. Organic sedimentary
rocks, like coal, form from hard, biological materials like plants, shells, and bones that are
compressed into rock.
The formation of clastic and organic rocks begins with the weathering, or breaking down, of the
exposed rock into small fragments. Through the process of erosion, these fragments are removed
from their source and transported by wind, water, ice, or biological activity to a new location.
Once the sediment settles somewhere, and enough of it collects, the lowest layers become
compacted so tightly that they form solid rock.

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Chemical sedimentary rocks, like limestone, halite, and flint, form from chemical precipitation.
A chemical precipitate is a chemical compound—for instance, calcium carbonate, salt, and silica
—that forms when the solution it is dissolved in, usually water, evaporates and leaves the
compound behind. This occurs as water travels through Earth’s crust, weathering the rock and
dissolving some of its minerals, transporting it elsewhere. These dissolved minerals are
precipitated when the water evaporates.

Figure 1.2 Sedimentary rocks; Chalk

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed from their original form by immense heat
or pressure. Metamorphic rocks have two classes: foliated and nonfoliated. When a rock with flat
or elongated minerals is put under immense pressure, the minerals line up in layers, creating
foliation. Foliation is the aligning of elongated or platy minerals, like hornblende or mica,
perpendicular to the direction of pressure that is applied. An example of this transformation can
be seen with granite, an igneous rock. Granite contains long and platy minerals that are not
initially aligned, but when enough pressure is added, those minerals shift to all point in the same
direction while getting squeezed into flat sheets. When granite undergoes this process, like at a
tectonic plate boundary, it turns into gneiss (pronounced “nice”).
Nonfoliated rocks are formed the same way, but they do not contain the minerals that tend to line
up under pressure and thus do not have the layered appearance of foliated rocks. Sedimentary
rocks like bituminous coal, limestone, and sandstone, given enough heat and pressure, can turn
into nonfoliated metamorphic rocks like anthracite coal, marble, and quartzite. Nonfoliated rocks

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can also form by metamorphism, which happens when magma comes in contact with the
surrounding rock.

Figure 1.3 Metamorphic rock,Schist

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks (derived from the Latin word for fire) are formed when molten hot material cools
and solidifies. Igneous rocks can also be made a couple of different ways. When they are formed
inside of the earth, they are called intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rocks. If they are formed
outside or on top of Earth’s crust, they are called extrusive, or volcanic, igneous rocks.

Granite and diorite are examples of common intrusive rocks. They have a coarse texture with
large mineral grains, indicating that they spent thousands or millions of years cooling down
inside the earth, a time course that allowed large mineral crystals to grow.
Alternatively, rocks like basalt and obsidian have very small grains and a relatively fine texture.
This happens because when magma erupts into lava, it cools more quickly than it would if it
stayed inside the earth, giving crystals less time to form. Obsidian cools into volcanic glass so
quickly when ejected that the grains are impossible to see with the naked eye.

Extrusive igneous rocks can also have a vesicular or “holey” texture. This happens when the
ejected magma still has gases inside of it so when it cools, the gas bubbles are trapped and end
up giving the rock a bubbly texture. An example of this would be pumice.

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Figure 1.4 Igneous rock, Pumice

Methods of masonry materials excavation

Excavation is the process of removing earth to form a cavity in the ground. In small sites or in
confined spaces, excavation may be carried out by manual means using tools such as picks,
shovels and wheelbarrows. Larger scale excavation works will require heavy plant such as
bulldozers and backactors

Figure 1.5 An excavator

Classification according to materials being excavated

Topsoil excavation

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This involves the removal of the exposed layer of the earth’s surface, including any vegetation or
decaying matter which could make the soil compressible and therefore unsuitable for bearing
structural loads. The depth will vary from site to site, but is usually in a range of 150-300 mm.
Earth excavation
This involves the removal of the layer of soil directly beneath the topsoil. The removed material
(referred to as 'spoil') is often stockpiled and used to construct embankments and foundations
Rock excavation
This is the removal of material that cannot be excavated without using special excavation
methods such as drilling (by hand or with heavy machinery) or blasting with explosives.

Muck excavation
This is the removal of excessively wet material and soil that is unsuitable for stockpiling.
Classification according to the purpose of the work
Cut and fill excavation
This is the process of excavation whereby the material that is cut or stripped. The removed
topsoil and earth can be used as fill for embankments, elevated sections, and so on. It can also be
used to form a level surface on which to build, as elevated sections of the site are ‘cut’ and
moved to ‘fill’ lower sections of the site
Trench excavation

A trench is an excavation in which the length greatly exceeds the depth. Shallow trenches are
usually considered to be less than 6 m deep, and deep trenches greater than 6 m.

Trench, or footing, excavation is typically used to form strip foundations, buried services, and so
on. The choice of technique and plant for excavating, supporting and backfilling the trench
depends on factors such as; the purpose of the trench, the ground conditions, the trench location,
the number of obstructions, and so on.

Basement excavation
A basement is part of a building that is either partially or completely below ground level.
Dredging

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Dredging is the process of excavating and removing sediments and debris from below water
level, typically from the bottom of lakes, rivers, harbours, and so on.

Open excavations
An excavation in open ground is an open excavation and can vary in shape and size.

Figure 1.6 Open excavation

1.2.1.7 Safety precautions

Excavation Hazards:

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 1. Damage to underground facilities.
2. Personal, vehicle, equipment and materials falling inside excavation.
3. Cave-in, Soil collapse due to loose soil and heavy equipment moment.
4. Presence of toxic and flammable gases.
5. Injuries due to employees working very close to each other.
6. Expose of existing building foundation.

Excavation safety Precautions:

i. Inspections

Frequent inspection of the excavation and surrounding area by the Competent Person is critical
to ensure the safety of the workers involved in work within the trench. An excavation inspection
form is included as Appendix A in this document. The Competent Person must conduct
inspections of the entire excavation site:

 Daily and before the start of each shift.

 As dictated by the work being done in the trench.
 After every rain storm.
 When fissures, tension cracks, sloughing, undercutting, water seepage, bulging at the
bottom, or other similar conditions occur.
 When there is a change in the size, location, or placement of the spoil pile.
 When there is any indication of change or movement in adjacent structures.

ii. Temporary spoil shall be placed no closer than 2 feet from the surface edge of the
excavation. The distance is measured from the nearest base of the spoil to the cut. This
distance should not be measured from the crown of the spoil deposit. This distance
requirement ensures that loose rock or soil from the temporary spoil will not fall on
employees in the trench.

The spoil should be placed so that it channels rainwater and other run-off water away from the
excavation. Spoil should be placed so that it cannot accidentally run, slide, or fall back into the
excavation.

iii. Surface Crossing of Trenches

Surface crossing of trenches should not be made unless absolutely necessary. However, if
necessary, they are only permitted under the following conditions:

 Vehicle crossings must be designed by and installed under the supervision of a registered
professional engineer.

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  Walkways or bridges must have a minimum clear width of 20 inches, be fitted with
standard rails, and extend a minimum of 24 inches past the surface edge of the trench.

iv. Ingress and Egress

Trenches 4 feet or more in depth shall be provided with ladders or other fixed means of egress.
Spacing must be such that a worker will not have to travel more than 25 feet to the nearest means
of egress. Ladders must be secured and extend a minimum of 36 inches above the landing. Metal
ladders should be used with caution, particularly when electric utilities are present.

v. Exposure to Falling Loads

Employees are not allowed in the excavation while heavy equipment is digging. Employees must
not work under loads being lifted or moved by heavy equipment used for digging or lifting.
Employees are required to stand away from equipment that is being loaded or unloaded to avoid
being struck by falling materials or spillage.

vi. Hazardous Atmospheres and Confined Spaces

Testing for Atmospheric Contaminants If there is any possibility that the trench or excavation
could contain a hazardous atmosphere, atmospheric testing must be conducted prior to entry.
Conditions that might warrant atmospheric testing would be if the excavation was made in a
landfill area or if the excavation is adjacent to sources of contamination (e.g. sewage or fuel
leaks).

Excavation tools and equipment

i. Hoes
ii. Fork hoes
iii. Pickaxes, mattocks and crowbars
iv. Crowbar
v. Shovels and spades
vi. Wheelbarrows

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1.2.1.8 Learning Activities

1.2.1.8. 1 Practical assessment

You are required to complete the following tasks

1. Visit a local quarry site and excavate building stones
2. Excavate the local soil and sketch the soil profile as it appears
3. Collect locally available stones and classify them

Resource Requirements
1. A fully functional masonry workshop
2. A quarry site

1.2.1.8.2 Self-Assessment questions

1. What is a soil horizon?
2. Which are the five soil horizons commonly found in soils?
3. Which tools would you use to excavate soil profile?
4. What is a quarry?
5. How would you ensure personal safety during excavation?
6. What is open excavation?
7. How are igneous rocks formed?
8. Which are some examples of sedimentary rocks?
9. Which are some equipment used for light excavation works?
10. What is a basement?

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1.2.1.8.3 Response to self-assessment questions
1. What is a soil horizon?
The soil profile is a vertical section of the soil that depicts all of its horizons. The
soil profile extends from the soil surface to the parent rock material.
2. Which are the five soil horizons commonly found in soils?
i. The O horizon is a surface horizon that is comprised of organic material at
various stages of decomposition. It is most prominent in forested areas where
there is the accumulation of debris fallen from trees.
ii. The A horizon is a surface horizon that largely consists of minerals (sand,
silt, and clay) and with appreciable amounts of organic matter. This horizon
is predominantly the surface layer of many soils in grasslands and
agricultural lands.
iii. The B horizon is a subsurface horizon that has been heavily leached.
Leaching is the process in which soluble nutrients are lost from the soil due
to precipitation or irrigation. The horizon is typically light in color. It is
generally found beneath the O horizon.
iv. The C horizon is a subsurface horizon that has accumulated from the layer(s)
above. It is a site of deposition of certain minerals that have leached from the
layer(s) above.
v. The R horizon is a subsurface horizon. It is the least weathered horizon. Also
known as the saprolite, it is unconsolidated, loose parent material.
3. Which tools would you use to excavate soil profile?
i. Shovels
ii. Spades
iii. Jembes
iv. Mattock
4. What is a quarry?
A quarry is a site for mining stones
5. How would you ensure personal safety during excavation?
i. Adequate spacing should be provided between workers.

ii. Temporary support shall be provided for existing foundations.

iii. If excavation reached more than 3 meter, shoring or close sheeting shall
be done
iv. Adapting soil protection method like stepping, sloping, shoring and close
sheeting
6. What is open excavation?
This is an excavation in open ground.
7. How are igneous rocks formed?

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 Igneous rocks are formed when molten hot material cools and solidifies. Igneous
rocks can also be made a couple of different ways. When they are formed inside
of the earth, they are called intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rocks. If they are
formed outside or on top of Earth’s crust, they are called extrusive, or volcanic,
igneous rocks.
8. Which are some examples of sedimentary rocks?
i. Limestone
ii. Sandstone
iii. Shale
iv. Rock salt
v. Flint
9. Which are some equipment used for light excavation works?
i. Mattocks
ii. Jembes
iii. Hoes
iv. Pick axes
v. Crow bar
vi. Shovels
10. What is a basement?
A basement is part of a building that is either partially or completely below ground
level

Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools
 Hoes
 Fork hoes
 Pickaxes, mattocks and crowbars
 Crowbar
 Shovels and spades
 Wheelbarrows
Supplies and materials
 Cement
 Sand
 Ballast
 Water
 Masonry units (e.g. quarry stones, bricks, concrete hallow brocks, precast
products, capped stones, dressed stones)

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1.2.1.9 References

1. Day W. Robert, (2000). Geotechnical Engineers Portable Handbook.

2. Turner M. Joe, (2008). Excavation Systems Planning, Design and Safety.
3. Endicott John,(2020). Deep Excavations in Soil.

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1.2. 1 Learning Outcome 2 Use masonry tools and equipment

1.2.1.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to use masonry tools and
equipment. It entails use of PPEs as well as care, maintenance and storage of masonry
tools and equipment.

1.2.1.2 Performance Standard

2.1 Personal Protective Equipment is used in line with occupational safety and health
regulations.

2.2 Masonry tools and equipment are identified based on the requirements of the job.
2.3 Masonry tools and equipment are cared for and maintained based on manufacturer’s manual
and workplace place policy.
2 .4 Masonry tools and equipment are used based on manufacturer’s instructions.
2.5 Masonry tools and equipment are stored based on manufacturer’s instructions.

1.2.1.3 Information Sheet

1.2.1.3.1 Definition of terms

1.2.1.3.2 PPEs and their applications

 All PPE clothing and equipment should be of safe design and construction, and should be
maintained in a clean and reliable fashion.
 Employers should take the fit and comfort of PPE into consideration when selecting
appropriate items for their workplace.

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  PPE that fits well and is comfortable to wear will encourage employee use of PPE. Most
protective devices are available in multiple sizes and care should be taken to select the
proper size for each employee.
 If several different types of PPE are worn together, they should be compatible.
 If PPE does not fit properly, it can make the difference between being safely covered or
dangerously exposed. Therefore It may not provide the level of protection desired and
may discourage employee use.

1.2.1.3.3 Masonry standard operating procedures

Standard specification and work procedure for brickwork in masonry construction‘ provides
guidelines about quality of bricks, mortar, soaking of bricks, laying of bricks, curing, scaffolding
etc. The construction of brickwork in substructure and superstructure requires quality control on
various aspects of material and construction procedure.
1. Materials for Brickwork
i. Bricks

The quality of bricks to be used in masonry construction should be of standard

specifications (good brick earth, thoroughly burnt and deep cherry red or copper in
color). Bricks should be regular in shape and their edges should be sharp. Bricks should
emit a clear ringing sound on being struck and should be free from cracks, chips, flaws
and lumps of any kind.

Bricks should not absorb water more than one-sixth of their weight after one-hour
soaking by immersing in water. Standard bricks should have a crushing strength of 105
kg/sq.cm

ii. Mortar
Mortar should be of the specified grade and materials used for mortar should be of
standard specifications.

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 For cement mortar, cement should be fresh Portland cement or pozzolana Portland
cement of standard specifications. Sand should be sharp, clean, and free from organic and
foreign matters. Coarse or medium-sized sands should be used for rich mortar, and local
fine sand may be used for weak mortar.

The proportion of cement-sand for mortar can vary from 1:3 to 1:6 or as specified.
Materials of mortar should be measured to have required proportion with measuring box.
Cement and sand should first be dry-mixed to have a uniform color on a clean masonry
platform and then mixed by adding clean water slowly and gradually to have workable
consistency and mixed thoroughly by turning at least three times. Only freshly mixed
mortar should be used for construction; old and stale mortar should not be used. Mortar
for one hour’s work should only be mixed with water so that they can be used before
setting starts.
2. Soaking of Bricks
Bricks should be fully soaked in clean water by submerging in a tank for a period of 12
hours immediately before use. Soaking should be continued till the air bubbles have
ceased to appear.
3. Laying of Bricks
Bricks should be laid in English bond unless specified and should be well bonded. Every
course should be truly horizontal, and walls should be truly in plumb. Vertical joints of
consecutive course should not come directly over one another; vertical joints in the
alternate course should come directly over one another.

No damaged or broken bricks should be used. Closers should be of clean-cut bricks and
should be placed near the ends of walls but not at the other edge. Selected best-shaped
bricks should be used for face work.

Mortar joints should not exceed 6 mm (1/4 inch) in thickness and joints should be fully
filled with mortar. Bricks should be laid with frogs upward except in the top course
where frogs should be placed downwards.
Brickwork should be carried out for not more than 1 metre or 3 feet in height at a time.
When one part of the wall has to be delayed, stepping should be left at an angle of 45

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 degrees. Corbelling or projections, where made, should not be more than ¼ brick
projections in one course. All joints should be raked and faces of wall are cleaned at the
end of each day’s work.
4. Curing of Brickwork
The brickwork should be kept wet for a period of at least 20 days after laying. At the end
of day’s work, the tops of walls should be flooded with water by making small weak
mortar edging to contain at least 2.5cm or 1 inch deep water.
5. Protection for Brickwork
The brickwork should be protected from the effect of sun, rain, frost etc. during the
construction since it is green and likely to get damaged.
6. Scaffolding for Brickwork
Necessary and suitable scaffolding should be provided to facilitate the construction of a
brick wall. Scaffolding should be sound and strong with supports and members
sufficiently strong to withstand all loads likely to come upon them.
7. Measurement of Brickwork
Brickwork should be measured in cubic meter. Different kinds of brickwork with
different mortar should be taken under separate items. The thickness of the wall should
be taken as the multiple of half brick as 10cm, one brick as 20cm, 1.5 bricks as 30 cm
and so on. The rate should include the cost of complete work including scaffolding and
all tools and plants.

1.2.1.3.4 Masonry tools and equipment

TOOL ILLUSTRATION USES
1. Trowel Used to lift and spread
mortar in joints during
masonry construction

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2. Corner trowel Used for shaping corners
of the wall.

3. Mason’s Used to set out right

square angles at the corner of
masonry wall.

4. Plumb Rule Used to check the

and Bob verticality of walls.

5. Spirit Level Used to check the

horizontality and
verticality of the surfaces.
The surface is called
leveled when the bubble in
the tube settles at middle
of tube
6. Line and Pins It is used to level line and
the alignment of brick
course while brick laying
in brick masonry work.

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7. Water Level Used to transfer and check
levels

8. used for levelling from

Boning rods
two fixed points in
surveying

9. Spades they are used to mix

mortar and also used to
place cement, mortar and
concrete

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10. Mortar Pan It is a vessel made of rigid
plastic or steel used to
hold or carry sand,
cement, mortar and
concrete.

11. Jointer A jointer or brick jointer is

a hand tool designed to
imprint grooves into
recently filled mortar
joints at the stage when
they are starting to set.

12. Bevel Used to set out angles

13. Pick Axe Employed for rough

dressing of stones and to
split the stones in the
quarry

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14. Crow Bar Employed for dressing the
surface of stones.

15. Chisel A chisel is used for normal

splitting, roughing out and
shaping the stone.

16. Club Hammer Used to strike arrow -

headed chisels. It is also
useful for light demolition
work, driving masonry
nails, and for use with a
steel chisel when cutting
stone.

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17. Hand Saw Used to cut soft stones.

18. Circular Saw It runs on electricity and is

provided with a toothed or
abrasive blade/disc which
has the ability to cut
different materials
including wood, stone,
brick, metals, by using a
rotary motion that spins
around an arbor.

19. Cross-cut-saw Used to cut large blocks of

stones.

20. Brick Used for rough cutting of

Hammer bricks in different shapes
and sizes.

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21. Lump Used for light demolition
Hammer and work or to break masonry.
Bolster In order to cut brick
accurately, a steel chisel
with a very wide blade
called bolster is employed.

22. Straight Edge Act as extensors to

mason’s level. They are
used when levels are
shorter than the area that
needs to be measured or
assessed.

23. Brickwork It is used to confirm that

Gauge Rod courses are maintained at
correct levels

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24. Bricklaying Used in bricklaying for
Trowel cutting brick and
spreading mortar or
cement.

1.2.1.3.5 Safety, care and maintenance of masonry tools and equipment

Use and maintenance of a claw hammer

a) Ensure that the handle is firmly attached to the head of the hammer.
b) Replace worn out or broken parts.
c) Hold a nail onto a piece of wood as shown in the picture.
d) Hold the hammer firmly and hit the nail several times until it enters.
e) Store the hammer in a dry and safe place after use.

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Figure 1.7 Use of hammers

Use and maintenance of a Spirit Level

a) Wipe the surface of the spirit level to remove dust and dirt from it.
b) Hold the spirit level firmly and place it on the wooden surface that you want to check.
c) View and note the position of the bubble in the spirit level.

Figure 1.8 Using a spirit level

Chisel

A chisel has a sharp cutting edge. This edge can injure you if carelessly handled.
A chisel is driven into wood by a mallet. There is a danger of hitting your arm while hitting the
chisel head.

Health and safety measures

a) Always keep the cutting edge of the chisel sharp.

b) Always clamp the work securely on the work bench.
c) Wear gloves to protect hands.

Clamp/jointer

During clamping, you can accidentally trap your fingers or hands. If the parts being clamped are
loosely held, they may break and fall/drop on your hands or legs injuring them.

Health and safety measures

a) Hold the pieces of wood being glued together firmly.

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 b) Close the jaws of the clamp until the clamp is tight before using it.
c) Wear goggles or a face shield to protect your head.

Trowel

Use and maintenance of trowel

a) Ensure the handle of the trowel is in good condition.

b) Using a trowel mix the mortar.
c) Scoop and apply the mortar using the trowel as shown.
d) Clean and keep it dry after use.

Figure 1.9 Using a trowel

Plumb line

Use and maintenance of a plumb line

a) Hammer a nail into surface you want to check.

b) Tie the string of the plumb line to the nail.
c) Measure the distance from the vertical surface of the wall to the top of the string.
d) Mark the points you want to find with chalk.
e) Clean the plumb line, oil it and store in safely in a dry box.

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Figure 1.10 Using a plumb line

Water level

Use and maintenance of a water level

a) With your partner stand at the location you want to level.

b) Hold the water level against the surface you are levelling.
c) Use chalk to mark the spot on the wall where the water line inside the tube falls.
d) Clean the water level and store it when dry.

Figure 1.11 Using a water level

Float

Use and maintenance of float

a) Ensure the handle of the float is firm.

b) Spread concrete over the floor and wall as shown.
c) Clean it and oil the metallic parts of the float.
d) Store the float on a rack.

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Figure 1.12 Using a wood float

Metre ruler

Use and maintenance of metre ruler

a) Place a metre ruler on the wall.

b) Measure the length of the wall in meters.
c) Avoid knocking the edges of the ruler against objects.
d) Clean it after use.

Figure 1.13 Using a meter rule

Tape measure

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Use and maintenance of a tape measure

a) Hold the tape measure vertically on a wall.

b) Keep the edges straight.
c) Measure the distance and mark with a pencil as shown.
d) Avoid rubbing or scratching the tape measure.

Figure 1.14 Using a tape measure

Jointer

Use and maintenance of jointer

a) Ensure the nuts of a jointer are tight.

b) Run a jointer along a mortar joint and compact it.
c) Scrap excess mortar from the joint.
d) Clean, dry and store it in a dry place.

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Figure 1.15 Using a jointer

Brick frame

Use and maintenance of a brick frame

a) Place a brick frame carefully on a flat surface to avoid breaking it.

b) Pack wet concrete or soil into it to produce rectangular shaped bricks.
c) Clean and store brick frames in a dry rack.
d) Oil metallic frames to prevent rusting

Figure 1.16 Cleaning a brick frame

Wheelbarrow

Use and maintenance of a wheelbarrow

a) Ensure the handles are firm and the moving parts are greased.
b) Load sand, gravel, or stones into the wheelbarrow.
c) Push the wheelbarrow to where they are needed.
d) Clean it well and oil after use.

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 46

Figure 1.17 Maintenance of a wheelbarrow

Storage of masonry tools and equipment

Masonry tools need to be stored properly in a tool rack as shown below.

Figure 1.18 Tool rack

1.2.1.4 Learning Activities

1.2.1.4.1 Practical assessment

1. Carry out full maintenance on the wheelbarrow provided.
2. You have been provided with a tool rack. Arrange all the tools provided on the tool rack.
3. You have been provided with a water level. Transfer the level indicated by the instructor
to another point in the same building.
4. You have been provided with bricks and a plumb line. Using dry bonding and the plumb
line ensure that the wall is completely vertical

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 47

 Resource Requirements
i. A fully functional masonry workshop
ii. A tool rack
iii. Masonry tools and equipment

1.2.1.4.2 Self-Assessment questions

1. Which standard procedures govern the usage of bricks in the construction industry?
2. What is the work of a:
a) Trowel
b) Steel float
c) Wooden float
3. Sand and stones need to be delivered to a construction site.
a) Which suitable masonry tools are you going to use?
b) How would you ferry the sand and stones to the construction site?
c) How would you maintain the tool after use?
4. Describe briefly the maintenance of
a) A steel float
b) A wooden float.
5. What 3 dangers could arise during use of masonry tools?
6. How should brickwork be cured?
7. Why should brickwork be protected?
8. What is the general importance of masonry tools? Justify your answer using suitable
examples.
9. Outline uses of a mortar mixer.
10. Why should tools be stored safely in a tool rack?

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 1.2.1.4 .3 Response to self-assessment questions
1. Which standard procedures govern the usage of bricks in the construction industry?
i. Bricks should not absorb water more than one-sixth of their weight after one-hour
soaking by immersing in water.

ii. Standard bricks should have a crushing strength of 105 kg/sq.cm

iii. Bricks should be regular in shape and their edges should be sharp.

iv. Bricks should emit a clear ringing sound on being struck and should be free from
cracks, chips, flaws and lumps of any kind

2. What is the work of a:

a) Trowel - Used to lift and spread mortar in joints during masonry
construction
b) Steel float- used to spread concrete to obtain a smooth finish
c) Wooden float - used to spread concrete
3. Sand and stones need to be delivered to a construction site.
a) Which suitable masonry tools are you going to use?
b) How would you ferry the sand and stones to the construction site?
i. Spades
ii. Shovels

c) How would you maintain the tool after use?

i. Cleaning with plenty of water
ii. Oiling moving parts
4. Describe briefly the maintenance of
a) A steel float
i. Ensure the handle of the float is firm.
ii. Spread concrete over the floor and wall as shown.
iii. Clean it and oil the metallic parts of the float.
iv. Store the float on a rack.
b) A wooden float.
i. Ensure the handle of the float is firm.
ii. Spread concrete over the floor and wall as shown.
iii. Clean it and oil the metallic parts of the float.

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 49

 iv. Store the float on a rack.
5. What 3 dangers could arise during use of masonry tools?
i. Dropped tools could hurt feet
ii. Misplaced sharp tools can lead to bruises
iii. Poorly maintained tools can break down during use and cause injury
6. How should brickwork be cured?
Brickwork should be kept wet for a period of at least 20 days after laying. At the
end of day’s work, the tops of walls should be flooded with water by making small
weak mortar edging to contain at least 2.5cm or 1 inch deep water.
7. Why should brickwork be protected?
Brickwork should be protected from the effect of sun, rain, frost etc. during the
construction since it is green and likely to get damaged
8. What is the general importance of masonry tools? Justify your answer using suitable
examples.
i. They make work easier e.g wheelbarrows
ii. They make work convenient
iii. They save time

9. Outline uses of a mortar mixer.

A mixer is used to mix mortar and concrete to obtain a uniform mix capable of
being structurally sound
10. Why should tools be stored safely in a tool rack?
i. For safety purposes. If tools are left lying on the ground they could harm
people
ii. Storing tools properly ensures that they can be retrieved easily whenever
required.
Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
Tools, Equipment, Supplies, and Materials
• Club hammer
• Mason's hammer
• Chisel
• Trowels (Brick, pointing, window, corner and finishing trowels)

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 50

 • Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge
• Bolster
• Cold chisel
• Hawk (Hand board)
• Sandpaper/Sponge
• Jointing knife/rod
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Measuring tools (Tape measure)
• Power tools
• PPE’s
• Spade
• Sieve
• Brush
• Straight edge
• Sputter dash
• Vibrator
• Mixer
• Tamper
• Wheelbarrow
• Mason’s Square
• Helmet
• Dumper
• Sledge hammer

Supplies and Materials

• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Masonry units (e.g. quarry stones, bricks, concrete hallow brocks, precast
products, capped stones, dressed stones)
• Reinforcing steel
• Formworks
• Additives
• Quarry dust
• Gravel
• Anti- termite treatment
• DPM
• DPC
• Hoop iron

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 51

1.2.1.5 References

1. https://www.google.com/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjUqpz
phpTvAhUsDmMBHYAeBdwQFjAAegQIARAD&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.fm.virginia.edu%2Fdocs%2Foperations
%2FSOP_ConcreteandRelatedMasonryMaterials.pdf&usg=AOvVaw37lyWeOwqM
Kl-ayFrYi_sd
2. Lynch, G., Gauged Brickwork, A Technical Handbook, Gower Publishing Company,
Aldershot, Hants, England, 1990, 115 pp.
3. D. Walton, The Motivate Series Building Construction Principles
4. R. Chudley Building Construction Handbook

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1.3. 1 Learning Outcome 3: Produce masonry clay units

1.3. 1 .1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to produce masonry units. It entails
clay preparation, molding, moulds preparation and firing of clay.

1.3. 1 .2 Performance Standard

3.1 Clay is prepared based on international standards.
3.2 Clay molds boxes are identified and gathered based on job requirements.
3.3 Molding is carried out and molds allowed to dry under shed.
3.4 Dry molds are arranged in a kiln in readiness for firing.
3.5 Firing is carried out based on type of fuel available

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1.3. 1 .3 Information Sheet

1.3. 1.3.1 Definition of terms

Clay – this is a type of soil with ductile properties used for molding
Mold – a frame or model around which something is made or shaped
Firing – the process of applying heat or fire especially to clay to produce pottery

1.3. 1.3.2 Types of clays

The four types of clay are Earthenware clay, Stoneware clay, Ball clay, and Porcelain. All of
them can be used to make pottery, but the end result would differ a lot thanks to their different
textures, colors, and flexibilities.
1. Earthenware Clay
Earthenware clays are the oldest clays used by potters and happen to be the most common today.
Earthenware is very plastic and is beginner-friendly.
Color
The earthenware colors are mostly warm. The wet clay has a tone of Brown, red, orange,
or grey. After firing, earthenware shows brown, orange, red, grey, or white colors. Colors
in pottery show after being fired. Terracotta is the most popular color you can yield.
Earthenware can be easily decorated over with paints and glazes.

Uses
It is used for sculpting, hand-building and wheel throwing. You can create sculptures,
flowerpots, and other outdoor decorations. If it freezes, water can’t get trapped inside and
crack.

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Figure 1.19 Earthenware Clay
2. Ball Clay
Ball clays are the most plastic clays and contain very limited mineral impurities. They
contain a large percentage of kaolinite and quartz, with around 10-25% mica. Ball clays
occur naturally as sediments or deposits, containing very fine minerals. Materials like
lignite can also be found in ball clays.
Color
Ball clays lose color on firing. At the greenware stage, ball clays have a grey color. After
firing, they obtain a light buff color. They produce a fine white color when fired right,
making them popular among potters.
Uses
Because of the high plastic and high binding quality, Ball clays are commonly used for
floor tiles, toilet bowls, vases, kiln furniture, and tableware. Ball clay alone tends to be
too fine and slippery for use. It can be used for wheel throwing but is mainly used in slip
casting.

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Figure 1.20 Ball Clay

3. Stoneware Clay
Stoneware clays are moderately plastic, hard, and nonporous. Getting its name because of
its stone-like qualities.
Color
They vary in color from white, grey, and all the way to brown when wet. Stoneware clays
contain kaolinite with small quantities of mica and quartz. Illite and smectite are often
found as well. The type of firing and temperature affects the color, too.
Uses
This type of clay can be easily worked with and painted with underglazes, glazes, over
glazes, enamels, etc. Which makes Stoneware a popular clay to use for tableware.

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Figure 1.21 Stoneware clay

4. Porcelain Clay
Porcelain or China ceramics are incredibly popular, especially for dinnerware. They are
created with a large part of pure mineral kaolin, otherwise known as “China Clay.” and
other materials

Porcelains do have a color range, but all the colors are very subtle and light. At the
greenware stage, they’ll show a very light grey-ish tone. After firing, they are off-white
to white. Porcelain glazes, and enamels, can be applied to give color only and don’t need
glazing to repel water
Uses
Kaolin clays are the least plastic clays, hence quite hard to work with. They fire at high
temperatures. Porcelain is mixed with various minerals to lower its firing temperature
and increase workability. Mainly used in wheel throwing and cast slipping to create
tableware, vases, and other decorative objects.
There are three types of porcelain ceramics: Hard-Paste, Soft-Paste, and Bone China.

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  Hard-paste or “true” porcelain is the most common type. It contains an added mineral to
the kaolin, usually feldspar or mica. It’s fired at very high temperatures (2345 ℉ or
1285℃) Cone 10 and yields sturdier objects.
 Soft-paste porcelain is the least common type. It was invented by Europeans, who fired at
lower temperatures (about 2167℉ or 1186℃) Cone 5. It’s considered as weak porcelain.
It doesn’t need a fixed mineral to be created. Kaolin is mixed with bone ash, quartz,
glass, and soapstone to yield this type, with ball clay often added into the mix.
 Bone china has mostly replaced true porcelain in modern times. It’s the strongest kind of
porcelain. It’s very resistant to chip damage and has great physical strength. It usually
produces a white or translucent result. It contains kaolin, bone ash, feldspar, and
phosphates.

Figure 1.22 porcelain clay

The process of manufacturing of bricks from clay involves preparation of clay, molding and then
drying and burning of bricks. The bricks are building materials which are generally available as
rectangular blocks. The bricks do not require any dressing and brick laying is very simple
compared to stone masonry.

Site selection for manufacturing of bricks

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For the manufacturing of bricks, the site should be selected based on some important
considerations such as:
 The ground should be of plain surface.
 The site should be connected with communicating roads for transporting materials etc.,
 Good brick earth should be easily available.
 The site should offer all facilities to the worker
Manufacturing process of bricks
There are four different operations are involved in the process of manufacturing of bricks:
1. Preparation of clay
2. Molding
3. Drying
4. Burning

1. Preparation of clay
Preparation of clay for bricks manufacturing is done in six steps:
i. Removal of Top Soil: The removal of top soil involves the loose materials present at the
top of the soil for a depth of about 200 mm. These materials should be removed as they
contain a lot of impurities and are not used in the preparation of bricks.
ii. Digging and Spreading: After digging the soil for about 200 mm, the soil is spread on
the level ground, and the heaps of clay are about 600 to 1200 mm

Figure 1.23 digging of clay

iii. Cleaning: After spreading the soil on the ground, it should be cleaned of stones,
vegetable matter, pebbles, etc... If excess non-clay materials are present, the clay should

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 be washed and screened. This whole process will become expensive and clumsy. The
lumps in soil should be crushed into a powder form.

iv. Weathering: The soil is then exposed to the atmosphere for softening for a few weeks
depending on the nature of the soil, which imparts plasticity and strength to the soil.

v. Blending: To increase the quality of soil, additionally, sandy or calcareous clays may be
added in suitable proportions along with coal, ash, etc. and the whole mass is mixed
uniformly with water.

vi. Tempering: After adding the sufficient quantity of water, the soil is kneaded under the
feet of men or cattle to make it stiff and homogeneous. In general, for handmade bricks,
the soft plastic clay could be prepared by using about 25 to 30 per cent water. For making
superior bricks on a large scale of about 20,000, the earth is tempered in a pug mill.

Tools used in clay products preparation

i. Potter needles
ii. Cut – off wires
iii. Fettling knives
iv. Scrapers
v. Loop, wire and ribbon tools
vi. Sponges
vii. Brushes
viii. Calipers

2. Moulding of clay products

Moulding of Bricks

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 Bricks are made in metric sizes called modular bricks, as prescribed by the Bureau of Indian
Standards. Nominal size of the bricks is 20cm X 10cm X 10cm, which include the thickness of
the mortar and the actual size of modular brick is 19cm X 9cm X 9cm.

A brick mould is a rectangular box of steel or wood, which is open at the top and bottom of the
box and inside dimensions of the mould are 20cm X 10cm X 10cm.

Moulding of bricks can be done using either hand or machine.

Hand Moulding

There are two types in hand moulding, i.e. ground moulding and table moulding. In this type,
bricks are moulded manually and preferred where only a small quantity of bricks is needed.

Ground Moulding: The process of moulding bricks on the ground manually by labour is called
ground moulding. On an average, a moulder can mould about 750 bricks per day. When the
bricks have dried sufficiently, they are moved to the drying shed and placed in an orderly
manner.

Figure 1.24 hand molding of clay

Table Moulding: This moulding is done on a table of size 2m X 1m X 0.7m instead of on the
ground. This table moulding process is almost similar to ground moulding expect for some
minor changes.
Machine Moulding

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 Moulding machines are used when a large scale of bricks are to be manufactured in less time.
These types of bricks are heavier and stronger than the hand moulded ones and possess a sharp
regular shape, a smoother surface and sharp edges. There are two types in machine moulding

Plastic Method: In this method, pugged earth is used, which is placed in the machine that
contains a rectangular shape of size equal to the length and width of the brick. A beam of the
molded earth comes out of it and is cut into strips by wires fixed in the frames. These bricks are
also called wire-cut bricks.

Figure 1.25 machine molding

Dry Method: In this method, the machine first converts the hard earth into a powder form and a
small quantity of water is added to the powder to make it a stiff plastic paste. This paste is placed
in the mould and pressed by the machine to form hard and correct-shaped bricks. These bricks
are known as pressed bricks, which do not require any drying and can be sent directly to the
burning section.

3. Drying clay moulds

Molded bricks cannot be burnt directly, as they may get damaged. So before burning they should
be dried either naturally or artificially for about two weeks.
Natural Drying: It is also called hack drying, which comprises placing moulded bricks in rows
on their edges, slightly above the ground called a hack. These bricks are air and sun-dried that is
strong enough to use for the construction of small structures.

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Artificial Drying: When bricks are needed to dry on a large scale, then this artificial drying is
preferred. They are dried in special dryers which receive heat from specially made furnaces for
artificial drying.

4. Firing clay moulds

After the process of moulding and drying, bricks are burnt in kilns to impart hardness, strength
and to increase the density of the brick. Some physical and chemical changes take place in the
burning of bricks. Heating brick to about 640°C produces only physical changes. If a brick is
heated up to 700-1,000°C, it undergoes chemical changes. During this reaction, the materials
present in brick alumina and silica fuse together to make the brick strong and stable to prevent
from cracking and crumbling.
Clamp or Open Kiln: This is a temporary structure with some advantages like low initial cost,
low fuel cost and a few skilled laborers are sufficient to complete the process. The disadvantage
is only a small quantity of bricks is manufactured at a time and in that only 60% are good quality
bricks.

Figure 1.26 firing of clay

Intermittent Kiln: When a large number of good quality bricks are needed, intermittent or
continuous kilns are preferred. In this kilns, the process of burning is discontinuous.

Continuous Kilns: In this process, the burning is continuous and they are of three type’s i.e.,
Bull's Trench Kiln, tunnel Kiln and Hoffman's Kiln.

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 To get a good quality brick it has to be heated to the required temperature. The bricks begin to
lose their shape and materials get vitrified if heating of brick earth goes beyond 1,300°C

Figure 1.27 brick manufacturing flow chart

Storage of clay products

Stacking and Storing of Bricks at Site
 Stack the bricks close to the site of work so that less effort is required to unload and
transport the bricks again by loading on pallets or in barrows.
 Different types of bricks (such as clay bricks, clay fly ash bricks etc) shall be stacked
separately.

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  Bricks of different strengths and sizes (i.e. modular and non-modular) should be stacked
separately.
 Bricks of different types such as solid bricks, hollow bricks, and perforated bricks should
be stacked separately.

Figure 1.28 Stacking of bricks

While stacking the bricks, following guidelines must be followed for easy quality inspection and
counting.
1. Stack the bricks on dry firm ground.
2. Stack should be 50 bricks long, 10 bricks high and not more than 4 bricks in width.
3. Clear distance between adjacent stacks should not be less than 0.8m.
4. Put bricks of each truck load in one stack.

Quality control in clay products

Various types of tests on bricks are conducted to check the qualities of bricks for construction
purposes. Tests on bricks are conducted at construction site as well as in laboratory.
Types of Tests On Bricks for Construction Purpose
1. Absorption test
2. Crushing strength test

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 3. Hardness test
4. Shape and size
5. Color test
6. Soundness test
7. Structure of brick
8. Presence of soluble salts (Efflorescence Test)
1. Absorption Test on Bricks
Absorption test is conducted on brick to find out the amount of moisture content absorbed by
brick under extreme conditions. In this test, sample dry bricks are taken and weighed. After
weighing these bricks are placed in water with full immersing for a period of 24 hours. Then
weigh the wet brick and note down its value. The difference between dry and wet brick weights
will give the amount of water absorption. For a good quality brick the amount of water
absorption should not exceed 20% of weight of dry brick.

Figure 1.29 absorption test of bricks

Crushing Strength or Compressive Strength Test on Bricks

Crushing strength of bricks is determined by placing brick in compression testing machine. After
placing the brick in compression testing machine, apply load on it until brick breaks. Note down
the value of failure load and find out the crushing strength value of brick. Minimum crushing

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strength of brick is 3.50N/mm2.if it is less than 3.50 N/mm2, then it is not useful for
construction purpose.

Figure 1.30 Crushing test

Hardness Test on Bricks

A good brick should resist scratches against sharp things. So, for this test a sharp tool or finger
nail is used to make scratch on brick. If there is no scratch impression on brick then it is said to
be hard brick.

Figure 1.31 Hardness test of bricks

Shape and Size Test on Bricks

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Shape and size of bricks are very important consideration. All bricks used for construction
should be of same size. The shape of bricks should be purely rectangular with sharp edges.
Standard brick size consists length x breadth x height as 19cm x 9cm x 9cm.

To perform this test, select 20 bricks randomly from brick group and stack them along its
length , breadth and height and compare. So, if all bricks similar size then they are qualified for
construction work

Figure 1.32 size test of bricks

Color Test of Bricks

A good brick should possess bright and uniform color throughout its body.

Figure 1.33 Colour test of bricks

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Soundness Test of Bricks
Soundness test of bricks shows the nature of bricks against sudden impact. In this test, 2 bricks
are chosen randomly and struck with one another. Then sound produced should be clear bell
ringing sound and brick should not break. Then it is said to be good brick.

Figure 1.34 Soundness Test of Bricks

Structure of Bricks

To know the structure of brick, pick one brick randomly from the group and break it. Observe
the inner portion of brick clearly. It should be free from lumps and homogeneous.

Figure 1.35 structure test of bricks

Efflorescence Test on Bricks
A good quality brick should not contain any soluble salts in it. If soluble salts are there, then it
will cause efflorescence on brick surfaces.
To know the presence of soluble salts in a brick, placed it in a water bath for 24 hours and dry it
in shade. After drying, observe the brick surface thoroughly. If there is any white or grey color
deposits, then it contains soluble salts and not useful for construction.

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Figure 1.36 Efflorescence Test on Bricks

1.3. 1 .4 Learning Activities

Practical assessment
You are required to carry out the following tasks
1. Carry out crushing strength test on the brick provided
2. Carry out soundness test on the brick provided
3. Carry out absorption test on the brick provided

Resource Requirements
1. A fully functional masonry workshop
2. Soil test lab fully equipped

Self-Assessment questions
1. Why is earthenware clay important for beginners in molding industry?
2. How is porcelain clay used?
3. Which main processes are involved in brick manufacture?
4. How is clay prepared ready for brick making?

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 5. What is tempering?
6. What is meant by quality control of bricks?
7. How is absorption test carried out?
8. How should bricks be stored or stacked?
9. How would you fire bricks for best results?
10. Why are bricks dried before firing?

Response to self-assessment questions

1. Why is earthenware clay important for beginners in molding industry?
Earthenware is very plastic and easy to work with
2. How is porcelain clay used?
Mainly used in wheel throwing and cast slipping to create tableware, vases,
and other decorative objects
3. Which main processes are involved in brick manufacture?
i. Preparation of clay
ii. Molding
iii. Drying
iv. Burning
4. How is clay prepared ready for brick making?
i. Removal of Top Soil
ii. Digging and Spreading
iii. Cleaning:
iv. Weathering
v. Blending
vi. Tempering
5. What is tempering?
This is the process of kneading clay to make it stiff and homogenous
6. What is meant by quality control of bricks?
This is the process of checking the qualities of bricks for construction
purposes.
7. How is absorption test carried out?
Absorption test is conducted on brick to find out the amount of moisture
content absorbed by brick under extreme conditions. In this test, sample dry
bricks are taken and weighed. After weighing these bricks are placed in
water with full immersing for a period of 24 hours. Then weigh the wet brick
and note down its value. The difference between dry and wet brick weights
will give the amount of water absorption. For a good quality brick the
amount of water absorption should not exceed 20% of weight of dry brick.
8. How should bricks be stored or stacked?
i. Stack the bricks on dry firm ground.

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 ii. Stack should be 50 bricks long, 10 bricks high and not more than 4
bricks in width.
iii. Clear distance between adjacent stacks should not be less than 0.8m.
iv. Put bricks of each truck load in one stack.

9. How would you fire bricks for best results?

Firing a brick up to 700-1,000°C, makes it undergo chemical changes. During
this reaction, the materials present in brick alumina and silica fuse together
to make the brick strong and stable to prevent from cracking and crumbling.
10. Why are bricks dried before firing?
To avoid damage to the bricks

Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools

 Mixer
 Tamper
 Wheelbarrow
 Mason’s Square
 Helmet
 Dumper
 Spades

Supplies and Materials

 Bricks
 Water
 Additives
 Clay products

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1.3. 1 .5 References

1. https://www.google.com/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwj3mt7oiJT
vAhXEA2MBHWUMCZUQFjAFegQIBhAD&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fpotterycrafters.com%2Fwhat-are-the-four-types-of-clay
%2F&usg=AOvVaw3w0aG0mcp8JA1wvYWyYSSc
2. Hossain Faruque, (2020). The fundamentals of brick manufacturing
3. D. Walton, The Motivate Series Building Construction Principles

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1.4.1 Learning Outcome 4; Produce concrete masonry products

1.4.1 .1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to produce concrete masonry
products. It entails concrete preparation as well as identification, arrangement and curing
of concrete molds.

1.4.1 .2 Performance Standard

4.1 Concrete is prepared based on or job specification.
4.2 Concrete molding machine/molds boxes are identified and gathered based on job
requirements.
4.3 Molding is carried out and molds arranged in preparation for curing.
4.4 Molds are cured in accordance to best practice.

1.4.1 .3 Information Sheet

Definition of terms
Concrete – a building material formed by mixing cement, water and aggregates
Introduction
A concrete block is primarily used as a building material in the construction of walls. It is
sometimes called a concrete masonry unit (CMU). A concrete block is one of several
precast concrete products used in construction. The term precast refers to the fact that the
blocks are formed and hardened before they are brought to the job site. Most concrete
blocks have one or more hollow cavities, and their sides may be cast smooth or with a
design. In use, concrete blocks are stacked one at a time and held together with fresh
concrete mortar to form the desired length and height of the wall.

Raw materials for concrete products

The concrete commonly used to make concrete blocks is a mixture of powdered portland
cement, water, sand, and gravel. This produces a light gray block with a fine surface
texture and a high compressive strength. A typical concrete block weighs 17.2-19.5 kg. In
general, the concrete mixture used for blocks has a higher percentage of sand and a lower
percentage of gravel and water than the concrete mixtures used for general construction

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 purposes. This produces a very dry, stiff mixture that holds its shape when it is removed
from the block mold.

Lightweight concrete blocks are made by replacing the sand and gravel with expanded
clay, shale, or slate. Expanded clay, shale, and slate are produced by crushing the raw
materials and heating them to about 2000°F (1093°C). At this temperature the material
bloats, or puffs up, because of the rapid generation of gases caused by the combustion of
small quantities of organic material trapped inside. A typical light-weight block weighs
22-28 lb (10.0-12.7 kg) and is used to build non-load-bearing walls and partitions.
Expanded blast furnace slag, as well as natural volcanic materials such as pumice and
scoria, are also used to make lightweight blocks.
In addition to the basic components, the concrete mixture used to make blocks may also
contain various chemicals, called admixtures, to alter curing time, increase compressive
strength, or improve workability. The mixture may have pigments added to give the
blocks a uniform color throughout, or the surface of the blocks may be coated with a
baked-on glaze to give a decorative effect or to provide protection against chemical
attack. The glazes are usually made with a thermosetting resinous binder, silica sand, and
color pigments.

Types of tools used in concrete products production

i. Molds
ii. Shovels and spads
iii. Buckets
iv. Wheelbarrows
Batching
1. The sand and gravel are stored outside in piles and are transferred into storage
bins in the plant by a conveyor belt as they are needed. The portland cement is
stored outside in large vertical silos to protect it from moisture.
2. As a production run starts, the required amounts of sand, gravel, and cement are
transferred by gravity or by mechanical means to a weigh batcher which measures
the proper amounts of each material.

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 3. The dry materials then flow into a stationary mixer where they are blended
together for several minutes. There are two types of mixers commonly used. One
type, called a planetary or pan mixer, resembles a shallow pan with a lid. Mixing
blades are attached to a vertical rotating shaft inside the mixer. The other type is
called a horizontal drum mixer. It resembles a coffee can turned on its side and
has mixing blades attached to a horizontal rotating shaft inside the mixer.
4. After the dry materials are blended, a small amount of water is added to the
mixer. If the plant is located in a climate subject to temperature extremes, the
water may first pass through a heater or chiller to regulate its temperature.
Admixture chemicals and coloring pigments may also be added at this time. The
concrete is then mixed for six to eight minutes.

Moulding of concrete products

1. Once the load of concrete is thoroughly mixed, it is dumped into an inclined bucket
conveyor and transported to an elevated hopper. The mixing cycle begins again for
the next load.
2. From the hopper the concrete is conveyed to another hopper on top of the block
machine at a measured flow rate. In the block machine, the concrete is forced
downward into molds. The molds consist of an outer mold box containing several
mold liners. The liners determine the outer shape of the block and the inner shape of
the block cavities. As many as 15 blocks may be molded at one time.
3. When the molds are full, the concrete is compacted by the weight of the upper mold
head coming down on the mold cavities. This compaction may be supplemented by
air or hydraulic pressure cylinders acting on the mold head. Most block machines also
use a short burst of mechanical vibration to further aid compaction.
4. The compacted blocks are pushed down and out of the molds onto a flat steel pallet.
The pallet and blocks are pushed out of the machine and onto a chain conveyor. In
some operations the blocks then pass under a rotating brush which removes loose
material from the top of the blocks.

Curing of concrete moulds

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 1. The pallets of blocks are conveyed to an automated stacker or loader which places
them in a curing rack. Each rack holds several hundred blocks. When a rack is
full, it is rolled onto a set of rails and moved into a curing kiln.

2. The kiln is an enclosed room with the capacity to hold several racks of blocks at a
time. There are two basic types of curing kilns. The most common type is a low-
pressure steam kiln. In this type, the blocks are held in the kiln for one to three
hours at room temperature to allow them to harden slightly. Steam is then
gradually introduced to raise the temperature at a controlled rate of not more than
60°F per hour (16°C per hour). Standard weight blocks are usually cured at a
temperature of 150-165°F (66-74°C), while lightweight blocks are cured at 170-
185°F (77-85°C). When the curing temperature has been reached, the steam is
shut off, and the blocks are allowed to soak in the hot, moist air for 12-18 hours.
After soaking, the blocks are dried by exhausting the moist air and further raising
the temperature in the kiln. The whole curing cycle takes about 24 hours.

3. Another type of kiln is the high-pressure steam kiln, sometimes called an

autoclave. In this type, the temperature is raised to 300-375°F (149-191°C), and
the pressure is raised to 80-185 psi (5.5-12.8 bar). The blocks are allowed to soak
for five to 10 hours. The pressure is then rapidly vented, which causes the blocks
to quickly release their trapped moisture. The autoclave curing process requires
more energy and a more expensive kiln, but it can produce blocks in less time.

Storage of concrete products

1. The racks of cured blocks are rolled out of the kiln, and the pallets of blocks are
unstacked and placed on a chain conveyor. The blocks are pushed off the steel
pallets, and the empty pallets are fed back into the block machine to receive a new
set of molded blocks.
2. If the blocks are to be made into split-face blocks, they are first molded as two
blocks joined together. Once these double blocks are cured, they pass through a
splitter, which strikes them with a heavy blade along the section between the two

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 halves. This causes the double block to fracture and form a rough, stone-like
texture on one face of each piece.
3. The blocks pass through a cuber which aligns each block and then stacks them
into a cube three blocks across by six blocks deep by three or four blocks high.
These cubes are carried outside with a forklift and placed in storage.

Quality control in concrete products

The manufacture of concrete blocks requires constant monitoring to produce blocks that
have the required properties. The raw materials are weighed electronically before they are
placed in the mixer. The trapped water content in the sand and gravel may be measured
with ultrasonic sensors, and the amount of water to be added to the mix is automatically
adjusted to compensate. In areas with harsh temperature extremes, the water may pass
through a chiller or heater before it is used.

As the blocks emerge from the block machine, their height may be checked with laser
beam sensors. In the curing kiln, the temperatures, pressures, and cycle times are all
controlled and recorded automatically to ensure that the blocks are cured properly, in
order to achieve their required strength.

1.4.1 .4 Learning activities

Practical assessment
You are required to carry out the following tasks
1. Prepare a standard concrete mold
2. Use the concrete mold to prepare concrete blocks
Resource Requirements
1. A fully functional masonry workshop
2. Molds

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 Self-Assessment questions
1. Which are the main raw materials used for concrete making?
2. What is batching?
3. How should concrete be mixed to ensure uniformity?
4. What is a concrete mold?
5. How is quality of concrete blocks controlled?
6. How are concrete blocks cured?
7. What is meant by hollow blocks and how are they used?
8. Which two methods are used for concrete batching?
9. Which type of water should be used for concreting?
10. When is rapid hardening cement used?

Response to self-assessment questions

1. Which are the main raw materials used for concrete making?

i. Coarse aggregates
ii. Sand
iii. Cement
iv. Water
2. What is batching?
This is the process of measuring concrete mix ingredients either by volume or
mass.
3. How should concrete be mixed to ensure uniformity?
Concrete should be mixed with a concrete mixer or else if by hand it should be
turned over at least thrice.
4. What is a concrete mold?
A concrete mold is a frame or model on which concrete is poured so as to set and
produce a block with the desired shape
5. How is quality of concrete blocks controlled?
The manufacture of concrete blocks requires constant monitoring to produce
blocks that have the required properties. The raw materials are weighed

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 electronically before they are placed in the mixer. The trapped water content in
the sand and gravel may be measured with ultrasonic sensors, and the amount of
water to be added to the mix is automatically adjusted to compensate. In areas
with harsh temperature extremes, the water may pass through a chiller or
heater before it is used.

As the blocks emerge from the block machine, their height may be checked with
laser beam sensors. In the curing kiln, the temperatures, pressures, and cycle
times are all controlled and recorded automatically to ensure that the blocks are
cured properly, in order to achieve their required strength.
6. How are concrete blocks cured?
Blocks are held in the kiln for one to three hours at room temperature to allow
them to harden slightly. Steam is then gradually introduced to raise the
temperature at a controlled rate of not more than 60°F per hour (16°C per
hour). Standard weight blocks are usually cured at a temperature of 150-165°F
(66-74°C), while lightweight blocks are cured at 170-185°F (77-85°C). When the
curing temperature has been reached, the steam is shut off, and the blocks are
allowed to soak in the hot, moist air for 12-18 hours. After soaking, the blocks
are dried by exhausting the moist air and further raising the temperature in the
kiln. The whole curing cycle takes about 24 hours
7. What is meant by hollow blocks and how are they used?
These are blocks which are hollow inside
They are lightweight and mostly used for thermal insulation.
8. Which two methods are used for concrete batching?
i. Batching by weight
ii. Batching by volume
9. Which type of water should be used for concreting?
Water used for concrete mixing should be clean and fit for drinking
10. When is rapid hardening cement used?
Rapid hardening cement is used to produce good strength concrete blocks
despite poor gradation.

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 80

 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
Tools
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Measuring tools (Tape measure)
• Power tools
• PPE’s
• Spade

Supplies and materials

• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Masonry units (e.g. quarry stones, bricks, concrete hallow brocks, precast
products, capped stones, dressed stones)
• Reinforcing steel
• Formworks
• Additives
• Quarry dust
• Gravel
• Anti- termite treatment
• DPM
• DPC
• Hoop iron

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 81

1.4.1 .5 References
1. http://www.madehow.com/Volume-3/Concrete-Block.html#ixzz6o3JqpTLe
2. D. Walton, The Motivate Series Building Construction Principles
3. R. Chudley Building Construction Handbook

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 82

1.5.1 Learning Outcome 5 Produce hand dressed stones

1.5.1.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to produce hand dressed
stones. It entails identification, selection and dressing of stones based on specifications.

1.5.1.2 Performance Standard

5.1 Stones for dressing are identified and gathered based on job requirements.
5.2 Working drawings are identified based on specifications.
5.3 Stones for dressing are selected based on size, shape and specifications.

5.4 Safety precautions are taken as per OSHA requirements.

5.5 Stones are dressed based on working drawings

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 83

1.5.1.3 Information Sheet
Definition of terms
Dressing is a process of surfacing and shaping of rocks available naturally
Introduction
Stone dressing is a process of surfacing and shaping of rocks available naturally. The place
where the rocks are abundantly available is called as a quarry. The process of taking stones from
the natural bed is known as ‘Quarrying’.
The operation of stone dressing is generally carried out at the site of quarry so as to reduce the
transportation cost.
The dressing of stone is generally done using hand tools like Chisel, Pickaxe etc using heavy
machines or blasting using explosives. Once quarried, the stones are cut into the suitable size and
surface finishes. This process is termed as dressing of stones. The effective dressing of stones
would help in making your structure attractive and economical.
Various objectives of dressing are below;

(a) To reduce the size of the big blocks of stones so that they are converted to easily lift-
able pieces. This reduction in size is generally carried out at the quarry itself because that
saves a lot of transportation costs.

(b) To give a proper shape to the stone. It is known that stones can be used at different places in
the building, e.g., in foundations, in walls, in arches, or for flooring, each situation will require a
proper shape.
(c) To obtain an appealing finish. In a residential building, stones are used not only because of
their extra strength, hardness, and durability but also because of their aesthetic value.

Stone surfaces can be made very decorative and of appealing appearance, which will last for a
considerable time. A stone house has its distinct individuality in a city of concrete structures.
Stages in the Dressing of Stone

The different stages of dressing of stones are:

1. Sizing:

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 84

It is the process of inducing the irregular blocks to the desired dimensions by removing extra
portions. It is done with the help of hand hammers and chisels.
2. Shaping:

This follows sizing and involves removing the sharp projections. Many stones are used in
common construction after shaping.
3. Planing:

This is rather an advanced type of dressing in which the stone is cleared off all the irregularities
from the surface.
4. Finishing:

This is done only in case of specially dressed stones and consists of rubbing of the surface of
stones with suitable abrasive materials such as silicon carbide.
5. Polishing:

This is the last stage in dressing and is only done on marbles, limestone, and granite.

Methods / Types of Dressing of Stones.

Dressing of stone can be done both manually as well as mechanically.

Manually, skilled stone-smiths can work wonders on the suitable type of stones with chisels and
hammers and abrasives.

Mechanically, machines can cut the stone to any desired size and shape. Their surfaces can be
made extra smooth by polishing through machines.
Different Types of Stone Dressing

The types of dressing of stone may vary from place to place. Now a days mechanical
tools are used for dressing of stones as more time is saved. Most common type of stone
dressing used in the construction field are as followed :
1. Hammer Dressing :

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 85

 Hammer dressed stones do not contain any sharp and irregular corners these stones suit
well for masonry construction. These are most adopted type of dressing of stones.
2. Chisel Drafting :

In this method the stone is made of drafts or groups with the help of chisels at different
stages of dressing of stones. In this type of dressing excessive stones at the center are also
removed. These stones are used commonly in plinths and corner of the building.
3. Fine Tooling :

In this type of dressing most of the projections of the stones are removed and a fairly
smooth surface is gained. Due to this the apperance of the stone improves.
4. Rough Tooling :

In this type of dressing a rough tooled surface that has a series of bends are made of the
stone. The bends are more or less parallel to tool marks make all over the surface.
5. Punched Dressing :

This type of dressing is an extension of rough tool dressing. In this type of dressing a
rough tooled surface is further dressed with the series of parallel ridges. The chisel marks
are visible on the face.
6. Closed Picked Dressing :
In this type of dressing of stone a punched stone is further dressed to obtain a finer surface.

Safety precautions
1. PPE and safety equipment
Workers have a duty to use correctly any personal protective equipment (PPE) or safety
equipment provided by their employer. Examples include hearing protection, respiratory
protection, hard hats, steel toe-capped boots, seat belts in vehicles, gloves, safety
harnesses and lanyards
2. High-visibility clothing

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 86

 The use of high-visibility clothing greatly improves the visibility of workers in a quarry
and reduces their exposure to the risk of an accident. The high-visibility clothing
provided by employers include vests, t-shirts, trousers, jackets, hats and coveralls.
3. Designated pedestrian routes
Quarry operators should provide designated pedestrian routes or prohibit pedestrian
access to areas where pedestrian routes cannot be provided

Figure 1.37 Pedestrian routes

4. Vehicle checks
Workers who operate a vehicle should carry out a daily check of that vehicle before use.
This check should include testing:
• tyres,
• reversing and visibility aids,
• lights,
• access steps,
• oil and water levels, and
• brakes.
5. Defects and safety issues

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 87

 Workers have a legal duty to report any defects or safety, health and hygiene issues at the
quarry unless they are able to remedy the defect/issue safely. They should report the
defect/issue to their supervisor.
6. Removing and replacing guards
Any guard or safety device removed (during maintenance work, for example) must be
replaced before the equipment can be used again.

1.5.1.4 Learning Activities

Practical assessment
You are required to carry out the following tasks
1. Select a suitable quarry stone.
2. Carry out dressing of the given quarry stone to the given specifications

Resource Requirements
1. A masonry workshop
2. Stone dressing tools
Self-Assessment questions
1. What is stone dressing?
2. What is quarrying?
3. Which main steps are used during dressing of stones?
4. What is hammer dressing?
5. Which are some tools you would find handy during dressing of stones?
6. How would you ensure safety in a quarry?
7. Which are the main objectives of stone dressing?
8. What is fine tooling?

Response to self-assessment questions

1. What is stone dressing?

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 88

 Stone dressing is a process of surfacing and shaping of rocks available naturally
2. What is quarrying?
This is the process of taking stones from the natural bed
3. Which main steps are used during dressing of stones?
i. Sizing
ii. Shaping
iii. Planing
iv. Finishing
v. Polishing
4. What is hammer dressing?
This is the process of dressing stones so as to remove all sharp and irregular
corners.
5. Which are some tools you would find handy during dressing of stones?
i. Chisels
ii. Mallets
iii. Pick axes
6. How would you ensure safety in a quarry?
i. Wear reflective clothing
ii. Wear safety boots
iii. Wear full PPEs
iv. Avoid hazardous areas
7. Which are the main objectives of stone dressing?
a) To reduce the size of the big blocks of stones so that they are converted to
easily lift-able pieces. This reduction in size is generally carried out at the quarry
itself because that saves a lot of transportation costs.
(b) To give a proper shape to the stone. It is known that stones can be used at
different places in the building, e.g., in foundations, in walls, in arches, or for
flooring, each situation will require a proper shape.
(c) To obtain an appealing finish. In a residential building, stones are used not
only because of their extra strength, hardness, and durability but also because of
their aesthetic value.
8. What is fine tooling?

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 89

 This is a type of dressing where most of the projections of the stones are
removed and a fairly smooth surface is gained

Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Club hammer
• Mason's hammer
• Chisel
• Trowels (Brick, pointing, window, corner and finishing trowels)
• Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge
• Bolster
• Cold chisel
• Hawk (Hand board)
• Sandpaper/Sponge
• Jointing knife/rod
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Measuring tools (Tape measure)
• Power tools
• PPE’s  Spade
• Sieve
• Brush
• Straight edge
• Sputter dash
• Vibrator
• Mixer
• Tamper
• Wheelbarrow
• Mason’s Square
• Helmet
• Dumper
• Sledge hammer

Supplies and Materials

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 90

 • Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Masonry units (e.g. quarry stones, bricks, concrete hallow brocks, precast products,
capped stones, dressed stones)

1.5.1.5 References

1. https://www.google.com/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjjxPLClZ
TvAhWPGBQKHUpKB9IQFjAAegQIARAD&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.designingbuildings.co.uk%2Fwiki
%2FStone_dressing&usg=AOvVaw3W0nqJB9yBmeeSe8NpkHDP
2. B G C Sahu and Joygopal Jena, uilding Materials and Construction”
3. Sushil Kumar, “Building Construction And Material”
4. S K Sharma “A Textbook of Building Construction”

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 91

1.6.1 Learning Outcome 6; Produce stabilized soil masonry units

1.6.1.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to produce stabilized soil masonry
units. It entails materials preparation as well as identification, arrangement and curing of molds
in accordance to construction practices.

1.6.1.2 Performance Standard

6.1 Materials are prepared based on international standards or job specification.

6.2 Molding machine/ boxes are identified and gathered based on job requirements.
6.3 Molding is carried out and molds arranged in preparation for curing.
6.4 Molds are cured in accordance to best practice

1.6.1.3 Information Sheet

Definition of terms

Types of soil
soil is a naturally occurring, loose/un-cemented/weakly cemented/relatively unconsolidated
mineral particles, organic or inorganic in character, lying over the bed rock which is formed by
weathering of rocks. Soil is formed by different particles such as gravel, rock, sand, silt, clay,
loam, and humus.

Sand soils

Sand

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It is most extensively used construction material. It consists of particles of rock and hard
minerals, such as silicon dioxide. They are the largest type of soil particles, where each particle
is visible to naked eye. The large, relatively stable sand-particle size increases soil aeration,
improves drainage in tight soils and creates plant-growth supporting qualities, or tilt.

Silt

Silt is a sediment material with an intermediate size between sand and clay. Carried by water
during flood it forms a fertile deposit on valleys floor. The particle size of silt ranges from 0.002
and 0.06 mm.

Silt is a non-plastic or low plasticity material due to its fineness. Due to its fineness, when wet it
becomes a smooth mud that you can form easily into balls or other shapes in your hand and when
silt soil is very wet, it blends seamlessly with water to form fine, runny puddles of mud.

Advantages of Silty Soils

i. Fertile soils that hold onto nutrients better than sandy soils
ii. Better water holding capacity than sandy soils
iii. Easier to work with than clay soils

Disadvantages of Silty Soils

i. Water filtration can be poor

ii. Has a greater tendency to form a crust
iii. Can become compact and hard

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 93

Clay

Clay particles are the finest of all the soil particles, measuring fewer than 0.002 mm in size. It
consists of microscopic and sub-microscopic particles derived from the chemical decomposition
of rocks. Clay is a fine grained cohesive soil. They stick together readily and form a sticky or
gluey texture when they are wet or dry.

Clay is made of over 25 percent clay, and because of the spaces found between clay particles,
clay soils hold a high amount of water. Clay expand when in contact with water and shrink when
getting dry. Compared to sand particles, which are generally round, clay particles are thin, flat
and covered with tiny plates. Organic clay is highly compressible and its strength is very high
when dry, which is why it is used in construction as mud mortar
Advantages of Clay Soils

i. Clay soils hold onto nutrients so the plant has the food it needs
ii. Great for growing things that need a lot of water

Disadvantages of Clay Soils

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 94

 i. Holds onto water, slow to drain
ii. Slow to warm in the spring
iii. Compacts easily
iv. Tends to be alkaline

Loam

Loam is a mixture of clay, sand and silt and benefits from the qualities of these 3 different
textures, favouring water retention, air circulation, drainage and fertility. These soils are fertile,
easy to work with and provide good drainage. Depending on their predominant composition they
can be either sandy or clay loam.

The way the other particles combine in the soil makes the loam. For instance, a soil that is 30 per
cent clay, 50 per cent sand and 20 per cent silt is a sandy clay loam, with the soil types before
“loam” listed in the order their particles are most dominant in the loam. The labels “clay loam,”
“silt loam” and “sand loam” are used to refer to soils that are composed predominantly of those
ingredients.

Advantages of Loamy Soils

i. Drought resistant due to water-holding capacity

ii. Faster to warm up in the spring, compared to clay
iii. Can hold nutrients, making soils fertile

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 95

 iv. Good infiltration of air and water

Disadvantages of Loamy Soils

Depending on how it was formed, some loamy soils can contain stones that may affect
harvesting of some crops.

Tools and equipment for soil stabilization

i. Self-Propelled Stabilization Mixers (Writgen WR240i)

A soil stabilizer is a construction vehicle with a powered metal drum that has rows of
mixing blades or paddles. It makes soil cement by blending soil, a binder agent (usually
Portland cement or lime) and water together with paddles in the mixing chamber instead
of a concrete mixer and usually does not cut or mill hard or very thick asphalt or
concrete.

Figure 1.38 Stabilisation Mixer

ii. Road pavement mill

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 96

A Wirtgen road pavement profiler (mill) removes the top surface of the road so that a new one
can be laid.
A road pavement mill is a construction vehicle with a powered metal drum that has rows of
tungsten carbide tipped teeth that cut off the top surface of a paved concrete or asphalt road.
Usually (since sustainability is now very important) extracts the material for recycling into new
asphalt. In some applications the entire road pavement can be removed. The reasons for removal
may be that the road surface has become damaged and needs replacing.

iii. Road recycler

A road recycler or road reclaimer is an asphalt pavement grinder or a combination grinder and
soil stabilizer when it is equipped to blending cement, foamed asphalt and/or lime and water with
the existing pavement (usually only very thin asphalt) to create a new, recycled road surface. It
usually refers to the process of blending the asphalt road with a binder and base course in a
single pass

Stabilization of soil
Soil stabilization is a method of improving soil properties by blending and mixing other
materials.
Benefits of soli stabilization
 Strength improvement including shearing strength and compressive strength
 Mitigating and reducing volume instability and swelling potential and controlling
shrinkage
 Reducing plasticity index (PI)
 Reducing permeability
 Reducing soil compressibility, deformation and settlement
 Reducing clay/silt sized particles
 Improving resilient modulus
 Improving durability to resist unfavourable environmental conditions such as freeze-thaw
or wet-dry cycles, erosion and weathering
 Dust control
 Waterproofing

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 97

Soil Stabilization with Cement
The soil stabilized with cement is known as soil cement. The cementing action is believed to be
the result of chemical reactions of cement with siliceous soil during hydration reaction. The
important factors affecting the soil-cement are nature of soil content, conditions of mixing,
compaction, curing and admixtures used.
The appropriate amounts of cement needed for different types of soils may be as follows:
 Gravels – 5 to 10%
 Sands – 7 to 12%
 Silts – 12 to 15%, and
 Clays – 12 – 20%
The quantity of cement for a compressive strength of 25 to 30 kg/cm2 should normally be
sufficient for tropical climate for soil stabilization.
If the layer of soil having surface area of A (m2), thickness H (cm) and dry density rd
(tonnes/m3), has to be stabilized with p percentage of cement by weight on the basis of dry soil,
cement mixture will be and, the amount of cement required for soil stabilization is given by
Amount of cement required, in tonnes =

Lime, calcium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium sulphate and fly ash are some of the additives
commonly used with cement for cement stabilization of soil
Soil Stabilization using Lime

Slaked lime is very effective in treating heavy plastic clayey soils. Lime may be used alone or in
combination with cement, bitumen or fly ash. Sandy soils can also be stabilized with these
combinations. Lime has been mainly used for stabilizing the road bases and the subgrade.

Lime changes the nature of the adsorbed layer and provides pozzolanic action. Plasticity index of
highly plastic soils are reduced by the addition of lime with soil. There is an increase in the
optimum water content and a decrease in the maximum compacted density and the strength and
durability of soil increases.
Normally 2 to 8% of lime may be required for coarse grained soils and 5 to 8% of lime may be
required for plastic soils. The amount of fly ash as admixture may vary from 8 to 20% of the

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 98

weight of the soil.
Soil Stabilization with Bitumen
Asphalts and tars are bituminous materials which are used for stabilization of soil, generally for
pavement construction. Bituminous materials when added to a soil, it imparts both cohesion and
reduced water absorption. Depending upon the above actions and the nature of soils, bitumen
stabilization is classified in following four types:
 Sand bitumen stabilization
 Soil Bitumen stabilization
 Water proofed mechanical stabilization, and
 Oiled earth.
Chemical Stabilization of Soil

Calcium chloride being hygroscopic and deliquescent is used as a water retentive additive in
mechanically stabilized soil bases and surfacing. The vapor pressure gets lowered, surface
tension increases and rate of evaporation decreases. The freezing point of pure water gets
lowered and it results in prevention or reduction of frost heave.

The depressing the electric double layer, the salt reduces the water pick up and thus the loss of
strength of fine grained soils. Calcium chloride acts as a soil flocculent and facilitates
compaction.

Frequent application of calcium chloride may be necessary to make up for the loss of chemical
by leaching action. For the salt to be effective, the relative humidity of the atmosphere should be
above 30%.
Sodium chloride is the other chemical that can be used for this purpose with a stabilizing action
similar to that of calcium chloride.

Sodium silicate is yet another chemical used for this purpose in combination with other
chemicals such as calcium chloride, polymers, chrome lignin, alkyl chlorosilanes, siliconites,
amines and quarternary ammonium salts, sodium hexametaphosphate, phosphoric acid combined
with a wetting agent.
Electrical Stabilization of Clayey Soils

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 99

Electrical stabilization of clayey soils is done by method known as electro-osmosis. This is an
expensive method of soil stabilization and is mainly used for drainage of cohesive soils.
Soil Stabilization by Grouting
In this method, stabilizers are introduced by injection into the soil. This method is not useful for
clayey soils because of their low permeability. This is a costly method for soil stabilization.
This method is suitable for stabilizing buried zones of relatively limited extent. The grouting
techniques can be classified as following:
 Clay grouting
 Chemical grouting
 Chrome lignin grouting
 Polymer grouting, and
 Bituminous grouting
Soil Stabilization by Geotextiles and Fabrics

Geotextiles are porous fabrics made of synthetic materials such as polyethylene, polyester,
nylons and polyvinyl chloride. Woven, non-woven and grid form varieties of geotextiles are
available. Geotextiles have a high strength.

When properly embedded in soil, it contributes to its stability. It is used in the construction of
unpaved roads over soft soils.

Reinforcing the soil for stabilization by metallic strips into it and providing an anchor or tie back
to restrain a facing skin element.
Moulding of blocks

Curing stabilized blocks

Cement Stabilized Soil Blocks need moisture for the development of hydration products
responsible for establishing water insoluble bonds, and therefore they require curing. Such
blocks are stacked one above the other and water is sprinkled three to four times daily for four
weeks After completion of curing, the blocks are allowed to dry in the stack before being used
for construction. In order to reduce the curing period and to achieve higher strengths, steam

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 100

curing at low temperatures (80 °C) is often undertaken, at atmospheric pressure for 10–12 hours.
Lime–clay reactions are slow at ambient temperatures and hence need a longer curing period to
achieve meaningful strengths; these blocks can also be cured using steam curing techniques

Figure 1.39 Curing stabilized blocks

Quality control
The manufacture of stabilized blocks requires constant monitoring to produce blocks that have
the required properties. The raw materials are weighed electronically before they are placed in
the mixer. The trapped water content in the sand and gravel may be measured with ultrasonic
sensors, and the amount of water to be added to the mix is automatically adjusted to compensate.
In areas with harsh temperature extremes, the water may pass through a chiller or heater before it
is used.

As the stabilized blocks emerge from the block machine, their height may be checked with laser
beam sensors. In the curing kiln, the temperatures, pressures, and cycle times are all controlled
and recorded automatically to ensure that the blocks are cured properly, in order to achieve their
required strength.

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 101

1.6.1.4 Learning Activities

Practical assessment
You are required to carry out the following tasks
1. Collect adequate soil samples in the field provided
2. Carry out soil stabilization on the soil samples

Resource Requirements
1. A fully functional soil laboratory
2. Soil stabilizers
3. A trained technician

Self-Assessment questions
1. What is soil stabilization?
2. Which are the main objectives of soil stabilization?
3. Which are some equipment used in soil stabilization?
4. What is entailed by chemical soil stabilization?
5. Which are some ingredients added in soil during stabilization?
6. What are the benefits of soil stabilization?
7. How would you stabilize a soil sample using cement?
8. How are stabilized soil blocks cured?
9. Which are some grouting techniques used in soil stabilization?
10. Which are some types of bitumen stabilization of soil?

Response to self-assessment questions

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 102

 1. What is soil stabilization?
Soil stabilization is a method of improving soil properties by blending and
mixing other materials
2. Which are the main objectives of soil stabilization?
i. Strength improvement
ii. Mitigating and reducing volume instability and swelling potential and controlling
shrinkage
iii. Reducing plasticity index (PI)
iv. Reducing permeability
v. Reducing soil compressibility, deformation and settlement

3. Which are some equipment used in soil stabilization?

i. Road recycler

ii. Road pavement mill

iii. Self-Propelled Stabilization Mixers

4. What is entailed by chemical soil stabilization?
Calcium chloride being hygroscopic and deliquescent is used as a water retentive
additive in mechanically stabilized soil bases and surfacing. The vapor pressure
gets lowered, surface tension increases and rate of evaporation decreases. The
freezing point of pure water gets lowered and it results in prevention or
reduction of frost heave.
5. Which are some ingredients added in soil during stabilization?
i. Lime,
ii. Calcium chloride
iii. Sodium carbonate
iv. Sodium sulphate
v. Fly ash
6. What are the benefits of soil stabilization?
i. Reducing clay/silt sized particles
ii. Improving resilient modulus
iii. Improving durability to resist unfavourable environmental conditions
such as freeze-thaw or wet-dry cycles, erosion and weathering

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 103

 iv. Dust control
v. Waterproofing

7. How would you stabilize a soil sample using cement?

Lime, calcium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium sulphate and fly ash are some
of the additives commonly used with cement for cement stabilization of soil
8. How are stabilized soil blocks cured?
Cement Stabilized Soil Blocks need moisture for the development of hydration
products responsible for establishing water insoluble bonds, and therefore they
require curing. Such blocks are stacked one above the other and water is
sprinkled three to four times daily for four weeks After completion of curing, the
blocks are allowed to dry in the stack before being used for construction.
9. Which are some grouting techniques used in soil stabilization?
i. Clay grouting
ii. Chemical grouting
iii. Chrome lignin grouting
iv. Polymer grouting
v. Bituminous grouting
10. Which are some types of bitumen stabilization of soil?
i. Sand bitumen stabilization
ii. Soil Bitumen stabilization
iii. Water proofed mechanical stabilization, and
iv. Oiled earth.

Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Club hammer
• Mason's hammer
• Chisel
• Trowels (Brick, pointing, window, corner and finishing trowels)
• Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 104

 • Bolster
• Cold chisel
• Hawk (Hand board)
• Sandpaper/Sponge
• Jointing knife/rod
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Measuring tools (Tape measure)
• Power tools
• PPE’s  Spade
• Sieve
• Brush
• Straight edge
• Sputter dash
• Vibrator
• Mixer
• Tamper
• Wheelbarrow
• Mason’s Square
• Helmet
• Dumper
• Sledge hammer

Supplies and Materials

• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Soil stabilizers

1.6.1.5 References
1. https://www.google.com/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjZ46DY-

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 105

 ZTvAhWSo3EKHeebBUwQFjALegQIFxAD&url=https%3A%2F%2Fsiteproxy.ruqli.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttps%2Ftheconstructor.org
%2Fgeotechnical%2Fsoil-stabilization-methods-and-materials
%2F9439%2F&usg=AOvVaw2qcrpEG_sW4AOFmghEF1YV
2. https://www.google.com/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjZ46DY-
ZTvAhWSo3EKHeebBUwQFjAQegQIBRAD&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Ftopics%2Fengineering%2Fsoil-
stabilization&usg=AOvVaw0p5R6-kURA4FdxxXqUO5eN
3. https://www.google.com/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjZ46DY-
ZTvAhWSo3EKHeebBUwQFjAOegQIBxAD&url=https%3A%2F%2Fsiteproxy.ruqli.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%2Fwiki%2FSoil_stabilization&usg=AOvVaw3F-tjRzLp-45zgmPInWriN

Masonry level Level 3 learning guide By H.N. GATHIAKA Page 106