COMPUTER NETWORKING

A Computer Network, or simply a Network, is a collection of computers and other

hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of
resources and information

Advantages for Networking

• Resource sharing – All programs, data and peripherals are available to everyone
irrespective of the location of the resource and the user.
• Reliability – Backup copy of a file is kept on different machines, which is available in
case of hardware crash or any other problem.
• Cost factor –Cost is reduced since the resources can be shared
• Communication Medium - Changes done by a user on a shared resource are conveyed to
all.

Disadvantages of Networking
• Threat to data: A computer network may be used by unauthorized users to steal or
corrupt the data and even to deploy computer virus or worms on the network.
• Difficult to set up
ARPANET :
• Stands for Advanced Research Project Agency Network.
• It is a project sponsored by U. S. Department of Defense.
• Planted in 1969 to connect computers at U. S. defense & different universities.
• In 1980s, NSFnet was started to make high capacity network, which are more
capable than ARPANET.
• In 1990s the internetworking of ARPANET, NSFnet and other private networks
resulted into internet.

NSFNET:
• NSFNET is a wide area network started by the NSF (National Science Foundation)
that handled a bulk of early Internet traffic.
• It went online in 1986 and during the late 1980s and early 1990s was a crucial
backbone to ARPANET and the Internet. During 1990 and 1991.
• NSFNET was restructured and created a not-for-profit entity and a for-profit
subsidiary for commercial development of the network.
The Internet :
• The internet is a network of the interlinked computer networking
worldwide.
• It is a super-network.
• Connects many smaller networks together.
• Allows all the computer to exchange information with each other.
• Uses set of protocols called TCP/IP.
 Concept of Communication
A computer network is a set of computers sharing resources located on or provided
by network nodes. The computers use common communication protocols over
digital interconnections to communicate with each other. These interconnections
are made up of telecommunication network technologies, based on physically
wired, optical, and wireless radio-frequency methods that may be arranged in a
variety of network topologies.
The nodes of a computer network may include personal computers, servers,
networking hardware, or other specialized or general-purpose hosts. They are
identified by network addresses, and may have hostnames. Hostnames serve as
memorable labels for the nodes, rarely changed after initial assignment. Network
addresses serve for locating and identifying the nodes by communication protocols
such as the Internet Protocol.
Sender: A sender is a computer or any such device which is capable of sending data
over a network. It can be a computer, mobile phone, smartwatch, walkietalkie, video
recording device, etc.

Receiver: A receiver is a computer or any such device which is capable of receiving

data from the network. It can be any computer, printer, laptop, mobile phone,
television, etc. In computer communication, the sender and receiver are known as
nodes in a network.

Message: It is the data or information that needs to be exchanged between the

sender and the receiver. Messages can be in the form of text, number, image, audio,
video, multimedia, etc.

Communication media: It is the path through which the message travels between
source and destination. It is also called medium or link which is either wired or
wireless. For example, a television cable, telephone cable, ethernet cable, satellite
link, microwaves, etc.

Protocols: It is a set of rules that need to be followed by the communicating parties

in order to have successful and reliable data communication.
Measuring Capacity of Communication Media In data communication, the transmission
medium is also known as channel. The capacity of a channel is the maximum amount of
signals or traffic that a channel can carry. It is measured in terms of bandwidth and
data transfer rate as described below:

Bandwidth
Bandwidth of a channel is the range of frequencies available for transmission of data
through that channel. Higher the bandwidth, higher the data transfer rate. Bandwidth is
measured in Hertz (Hz).
• 1 KHz =1000 Hz
• 1 MHz =1000 KHz = 1000000 Hz

Data Transfer Rate

Data travels in the form of signals over a channel. One signal carries one or more bits over
the channel. Data transfer rate is the number of bits transmitted between source and
destination in one second. It is also known as bit rate. It is measured in terms of bits per
second (bps). The higher units for data transfer rates are:
• 1 Kbps=210 bps=1024 bps
• 1 Mbps=220 bps=1024 Kbps
• 1 Gbps=230 bps=1024 Mbps
• 1 Tbps=240 bps=1024 Gbps
IP address: It is an unique address that identifies a device on the internet or a local
network. IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which is the set of rules governing the format of
data sent via the internet or local network.
Following are the important differences between MAC Address and IP Address.
Sr.No. Key MAC Address IP Address
1 Definition MAC Address stands for Media IP Address stands for Internet
Access Control Address. Protocol Address.

2 Usage MAC Address ensure that physical IP Address is a logical address

address of the computer is unique. of the computer and is used to
uniquely locate computer
connected via a network.

3 Format MAC Address is of six byte IP Address is of 4 bytes or of

hexadecimal address. 16 bytes.
4 Provider Chip maker manufacturer provides Internet Service Provider, ISP
the MAC Address. provides the IP Address.
IP address: It is an unique address that identifies a device on the internet or a local network.
IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which is the set of rules governing the format of data sent
via the internet or local network.
Switching Techniques: Switching techniques are used for transmitting data across networks.
Different ways of sending data across the network are
Circuit Switching:
• First the complete end-to-end transmission path is established between the source and
the destination computers.
• Then the message is transmitted through the path.
• The main advantage of this technique is guaranteed delivery of the message.
• Mostly used for voice communication.
Packet Switching:
• Using the TCP protocol a single large message is divided into a sequence of packets of
size limits from 128 to 4096 bytes.
• Each packet is independent and has the address of sender and destination.
• The IP (Internet protocol) does the routing for the packets. It keeps track of all the
different routes available to the destination. If one route is not available it finds the
alternate route to the destination.
• At the destination, the TCP protocol re-assembles the packets into the complete message.
• If any packets are lost or damaged, a request is sent to retransmit the same message.
wired and wireless networks
Types of Transmission Media
In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the
transmitter and the receiver i.e it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to
another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
 Transmission Media – Wired Media
Twisted Pair Cable Co-axial Cable Optical Fiber

It consists of two identical 1mm It consists of a solid wire core An optical fiber consists of thin glass
thick copper wires insulated and twisted surrounded by one or more foil or braided fibers that can carry information in the
together. The twisted pair cables are twisted in wire shields, each separated from the other form of visible light.
orderto by some kind of plastic
reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic insulator. It is mostly used in the cable
induction wires.
Very Inexpensive Expensive than twisted pair cables. Very Expensive as compared to
other guided media.
Easy to install and maintain Difficult to manage and reconfigure. Need special care and training
while installation
Attenuation is very high. Attenuation is low. Data transmission rate Attenuation is very low. Transmit data
It is incapable to carry a signal over long is better than twisted pair cables. over very long distance with high
distances (only 100m) without the use of Carries signal up to 150m to 500 m security.
repeaters.
Due to low bandwidth, these are Moderate bandwidth Very High Bandwidth is up to 10
unsuitable for broadband It provides a cheap means of transporting Gbps. Data transmission speed is very
applications multi-channel television signals around high.
metropolitan areas.
Low noise immunity. Higher noise immunity than twisted Immune to noise as light rays are
Susceptible to electromagnetic interference pair. unaffected by electrical noise.
Less Susceptible to Not Susceptible to electromagnetic
electromagnetic interference interference.
 Transmission Media – Wireless Media
Infrared Wave Transmission Radio Wave Transmission Micro Wave Transmission Satellite Link

Short Range Long Range Long Range Very Long Range

Communication: Infrared Communication : Radio Communication Communication : Satellite
waves can travel from a few centimetres to waves can cover distances ranging from a Microwave signals travel at ahigher is arelay station in orbit abovethe earth
several meters.(Approx. 5m) few meters (in walkie-talkies) upto frequency than radio wavesand are used that receive from one end of earth
covering an entire city for transmitting dataover several miles or (uplink) regenerates, andredirects signals
kilometres. to other end of earth(downlink).

Line of Sight Propagation: Omnidirectional: Radio Line of Sight Propagation: Line of Sight Propagation
Infrared uses point to point waves are propagatedin all directions. Microwaves towers transmitting and Since microwave signals cannot bend
communication, both transmitter and Therefore sending and receiving receiving antennas need to be properly aroundthe curvatureofearth.
receiver should beplaced antennas do not haveto aligned. Satellite act asarelay between the
in line of sight of each other and there be aligned. Radio waves can easily bend transmitting earthstations coveringthe
should not be any obstacle in- between. along mountains and reach valleys. entire surface ofearth

Cannot Penetrate Solid Penetrates Solid Objects: Cannot Penetrate Solid Cannot Penetrate Solid
Objects : Infrared waves can propagate Radio receivers can catch the signal Objects: High towersare built and Objects: Signals can get blocked by
throughout aroombut could not cross the inside buildings also. Thus it can be used microwave antennas are put on their solid material or objects such asrocks,
walls of the room, so that the remote does for both indoor and outdoor topsso that signal does not getblocked woodor solid building structures
not interfere with appliances in other communication by building structures
room
Inexpensive mode of Inexpensive mode of Very Expensive mode of Very Expensive: Placing
communication: communication communication: Signals the satellite into orbit involves
Infrared communication is a Radio waves are the most become weak after travelling as it very high cost. Installation is
common, inexpensive, and easy to economical way gets absorbed by atmosphere. So extremely complex. But, satellite
use wireless communication of communicating. It is cheaper repeaters are used at regular communication is very
technology. than laying cables andfibres. intervals (25-30 km). Towers are economical keeping in mind the
expensive to build. fact that the area covered quite
large.
Secure : At a time only two Insecure: Radio wave Insecure: Microwave Insecure: Signals sent to a
devices can communicate communication is insecure communication isan satellite arebroadcasted
therefore information passed to communication. insecure communication. to all receivers, so necessary
one device is not leaked to another Multiple channels are available. security measures have to be
device It can carry 25000 voice channels taken to prevent tampering
at the sametime. of data.
Could not be used for long Communication over Communication over No restrictions of difficult
and difficult terrains difficult terrains: Since no difficult terrains: Since no terrains such as natural
cables are to be laid down and no cables are to be laid down and no mountains, tall building, towers
digging is to be done, it offers ease digging is to be done so it offers etc.
of communication over difficult ease of communication over
terrains like hilly areas. difficult terrains like hilly areas.
Not Susceptible To Susceptible To Weather : Susceptible To Weather: Susceptible To Weather
Weather Conditions Radio wave propagation is Microwave propagation is Transmission is affectedby
susceptible to weather effects like susceptible to weather effects like weather conditions like rain,
rains,thunder rains,thunder thunderstorm etc.
storms etc. storms etc.
USES:TVremotes, USES:Cordlessphones, USES:It is used forlong USES:Communicate
Cordless mouse, and Intrusion AM and FM radio broadcast, distance telephonic anywhere in theworld
detectors, automotive garage Garage door openers etc. communications.
doors, wireless speakers etc.
Radio Waves
1. Waves of frequency range 3 KHz - 1 GHz
2. Omni-directional, these waves can move in all directions
3. Radio waves of frequency 300KHz-30MHz can travel long distance
4. Susceptible to interference
5. Radio waves of frequency 3-300KHz can penetrate walls
6. These waves are used in AM and FM radio, television, cordless phones.

Microwaves
1. Electromagnetic waves of frequency range 1GHz - 300GHz.
2. Unidirectional, can move in only one direction.
3. Cannot penetrate solid objects such as walls, hills or mountains.
4. Needs line-of-sight propagation i.e. both communicating antenna must be in the direction of each
other.
5. Used in point-to-point communication or unicast communication such as radar and satellite.
6. Provide very large information-carrying capacity.

Infrared waves
1. Electromagnetic waves of frequency range 300GHz - 400THz.
2. Very high frequency waves.
3. Cannot penetrate solid objects such as walls.
4. Used for short-distance point-to-point communication such as mobile-to-mobile, mobile-to-printer,
remote-control-to-TV, and Bluetooth enabled devices to other devices like mouse, keyboards etc.
 Network Devices

Modem (Modulator DEModulator): It is an electronic device which converts digital

signals into analog signals for transmission over telephone lines (Modulation). At the
receiving end, a modem performs the reverse function and converts analog signal into
digital form (Demodulation) A modem can also amplify a signal so that it can travel a long
distance without attenuation.

Ethernet card: It is a kind of network adapter and is also known as Network Interface
Card (NIC). These adapters support the Ethernet standard for high-speed network
connections via cables. An Ethernet Card contains connections for either coaxial or twisted
pair cables or fiber optic cable

RJ-45 (Registered Jack – 45): It is an eight wired connector that is used to connect
computers on a local area network (LAN), especially Ethernet.
Repeater: It is a device that amplifies and restores the power of a signal being transmitted
on the network. Can be installed along the way to ensure that data packets reach their
destination. Used in long network lines.
Two types of Repeaters:
• Amplifier : amplifies the incoming signals over the network.
• Signal repeater : collects the inbound packet and retransmits them.
Hub:
In computer networking, a hub is a small, simple, inexpensive device that joins multiple
computers together.
Works at physical layer in OSI model.
A hub includes a series of ports that each accept a network cable.
There are two types of hub: Active Hub and Passive Hub
How a Hub functions :
• Hubs forward data packets which can be e-mail, documents, graphics etc.
• These data receive over one port from one workstation to all of their remaining ports.
• All users connected to a hub are in same segment and they can share hub’s data-carrying
capacity.
• As more users are added to the segment, they can fight for a limited amount of
bandwidth.
Switch :
A Switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together within one local
area network (LAN).
• Responsible for transforming data in a specific way and forwarding packets between
LAN segments.
• Support any packet protocol.
• LANs which are segmented through switches are called Switched LANs.
• Unlike a hub, instead of broadcasting the received information, a switch sends the
information selectively only to those computers for which it is intended.
How a Switch functions :
• Establish a temporary connection between the source and destination.
• Terminates the connection after the conversation is done.
• Like a phone system with private lines.
• Allows more conversation at any one time.
Router :
A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks.
Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet. Data sent through the internet,
such as a web page or email, is in the form of data packets. A router is connected to two or
more data lines from different IP networks.
How Router functions :
• Use more complete packet address to determine which router should receive each packet
next.
• Based on routing table, routers can help to ensure that packets are travelling in correct
direction.
• The sending router can determine an alternate route in case of link failure between two
routers.
Gateway :
A gateway is a network node used in telecommunications that connects two networks with
different transmission protocols together. Gateways serve as an entry and exit point for a
network as all data must pass through or communicate with the gateway prior to being routed.
WIFI Card

• Wi-Fi cards are small and portable cards that allow your computer to connect to the
internet through a wireless network.
• Wi-Fi transmission is through the radio waves, these signals are picked up by Wi-Fi
receivers such as computers and cell phones equipped with Wi-Fi cards. The devices need
to be within the range of a Wi-Fi network to receive the signals and produces a wireless
internet connection. Once a connection is established between user and the network, the
user is prompted with a login screen and password for establishing is a secure connection.
• Wi-Fi cards can be external or internal. If a Wi-Fi card is not installed inside your
computer, you may purchase an external USB antenna attachment and connect it to your
device. Many computers and mobile devices are now a days equipped with wireless
networking capability and do not require a Wi-Fi card.
There are three types of networks :
1. Local Area Networks (LANs) :
• Group of computers and network
• Communication devices interconnected within a geographically limited area, such
as a building or a campus. Owned by single organization
• transfer data at high speeds
• Key purpose is to serve its users in resource sharing.
• Hardware and software resources are shared.
• Covers area up to 1 km.
• Speed from 0.2 to 100 Mb/sec
• E.g. Network in an office

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) :

• Spread over city
• Covers area up to 50 km.
• Purpose is sharing hardware and software resource among it’s users.
• E.g. Cable TV Network
3. Wide Area Networks (WAN) :
• Spread across countries.
• Group of LANs that are spread across several locations and connected together to
look like one big LAN.
• Facilitate fast and efficient exchange of information at lesser cost and higher speed.
• Covers area up to 100,000 km.
• E.g. The largest WAN in existence is internet.

4. Personal Area Network (PAN):

• This type of network include technologies like Bluetooth and WiFi.
• PAN is basically for small range of distance of like 10 m
PAN (Personal Area LAN (LocalAreaNetwork): MAN (Metropolitan Area WAN (WideArea
Network): Network): Network):

Spread in the proximity of an Spread across a room, Spread within a city Spread across a city,
individual building, or campus country, or continent.
Cover an area of a few Cover an area of a few Cover an area of afew Cover an area of over
meters radius. meters to a few kilometres kilometres to a few hundred hundreds of kilometres
radius. kilometres radius radius.
Set up using guided media Set up using wired media Set up using all types of all Set up using all types of all
(USB cable) or unguided (UTP cables, Co-axial cables guided and unguided media guided and unguided
media (Bluetooth, etc.) or wireless media( media
Infrared). Infrared, radio waves) i.e.
WLAN (wirelessLAN)
Owned, controlled, and Owned, controlled, and Owned and operated bya Not owned by anyone,
managed by a single managed by a single person or government body or a large WANs is interconnected
person organization. corporation computers, LANs, MANs, and
maybeother WANs.
Examples: A network of Examples: Anetworked Examples: A network of Examples: A network of
devices such as computer, Phone, office building, school or home. schools, or banks, or Government ATMs, BANKs, National
MP3/MP4 Player, Camera etc. Sometimes one building can offices etc. within a city. A MAN Government Offices,
Transferring songs from one cell contain a few small LANs (Like is usually formed by International Organizations'
phone to another is a PAN of two some schools have independent interconnecting a number of LANs Officesetc., spread over a
phones. Transferring files from a LANs in each computer lab.). and individual computers. country, continent, or covering
PC to an MP3 player is a PAN many continents.
between the two.
 BusTopology Star Topology TreeTopology

In bus topology all the nodes are connected In star topology each node is directly Tree topology is a
to a main cable called backbone. connected to a hub/switch. combination of bus and star
If any node has to send some information to any other If any node has to send some information to topologies. It is used to combine
node, it sends the signal to the backbone. any other node, it sends the signal to the multiple star topology networks.
The signal travels through the entire length of hub/switch. All the stars are connected together
the backbone and is received by the node for In the case of a switch the signal is sent like a bus. This bus-star hybrid
which it isintended. directly to the intended node(s). In case of a approach supports future
A small device called terminator is attached at each hub this signal is broadcast to all the nodes but expandability of the network
end of the backbone. When the signal reaches the is accepted by the intended node(s).
end of backbone, it is absorbed by the
terminator and the backbone gets free to
carry another signal. This prevents the reflection
of signal back on the cable and hence eliminates the
chances of signal interference.
Characteristics of Bus topology: Characteristics of Star topology: Characteristics of Tree topology:
• Linear architecture is easy to install. •Easy to install and easy to expand • It offers easy way of network
Additional nodes can be easily connected to Additional nodes can be easily connected to expansion
the existing bus network at any point along the existing star network according to the • Even if one network (star) fails, the other
the length of the backbonecable specifications of central hub/switch networks remains connected andworking.
• Requires less cable length and hence it is • Requires more cable length hence it
less costly: All the nodes are connected is more costly than Bus: Every node is
through drop cables to the main backbone directly connected to the central
cable. hub/switch.
• Fault diagnosis and isolation is difficult in •Fault diagnosis and isolation is easy in
Bus Topology. If a node is faulty on the bus, Star topology. Failure of a node involves
detection of fault may have to be performed at disconnecting the node from otherwise
many points on the network. functional network.
•Backbone cable or terminator fault •Hub or switch fault leads to failure of
leads to failure of entire network: But entire network: But, failure of onenode
failure of one node does not affect the does not affect the network.
network.
 Communication Protocols
A communication protocol is a description of the rules and message formats that computers
must follow to communicate with each other. Defines standardized formats for data packet,
techniques for detecting and correcting errors.
Following are the some of communication protocol which are used commonly :
• HTTP
• FTP
• TCP/IP
• SLIP/PPP

HTTP:

• HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. It is the primary protocol used to access the
World Wide Web. Tim Berners-Lee led the development of HTTP at CERN in 1989 in
collaboration with Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C).
• HTTP is a request-response (also called clientserver) protocol that runs over TCP. The
common use of HTTP is between a web browser (client) and a web server (server). HTTP
facilitates access of hypertext from the World Wide Web by defining how information are
formatted and transmitted, and how the Web servers and browsers should respond to
various commands
• A web page is written using a markup language like HTML and is stored on a web server
for access via its URL. Once a user opens a web browser and types in the URL of the
intended web page, a logical communication link between the user machine (client) and the
web server is created using HTTP.
• For example, whenever we enter the URL http// www.ncert.nic.in in a browser, it sends
HTTP request to the web-server where ncert.nic.in is hosted. The HTTP response from the
web-server fetches and sends the requested Web-page, which is displayed on your browser.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• It is the protocol used for transferring files from one machine to another. Like HTTP, FTP
also works on a client-server model.
• When a user requests for a file transfer with another system, FTP sets up a connection
between the two nodes for accessing the file. Optionally, the user can authenticate using
user ID and password. The user then specifies the file name and location of the desired file.
After that, another connection sets up and the file transfer happens directly between the two
machines.
• However, some servers provide FTP logins without authentication for accessing files.
• File transfer between two systems seems simple and straight forward because FTP takes
care
of issues between two communicating devices, such as:
• use of different conventions while naming files.
• representation of text and data in different formats.
• having different directory structure
PPP:
• Stands for Point-to-Point Protocol
• Point - to - Point Protocol (PPP) is a communication protocol of the data link layer that
is used to transmit multiprotocol data between two directly connected (point-to-point)
computers.

POP3:
• Stands for Post Office Protocol (Version-3.0)
• POP3 is a client/server protocol in which e-mail is received and held for you by your
Internet server.
• It also allows us to download the received messages on local machine using tool like
Outlook so that user can read them even when they are not connected to the Internet.

HTTPs
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is an extension of the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP).
• It is used for secure communication over a computer network, and is widely used on the
Internet. In HTTPS, the communication protocol is encrypted using Transport Layer
Security (TLS) or, formerly, Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). The protocol is therefore also
referred to as HTTP over TLS or HTTP over SSL.
TCP/IP
• It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
• It is a set of standardized rules that uses a client-server model of communication in
which a user or machine (a client) requests a service by a server in the network.
• The IP protocol ensures that each computer or node connected to the Internet is assigned
an IP address, which is used to identify each node independently. It can be considered to
be the adhesive that holds the whole Internet together.
• TCP ensures that the message or data is broken into smaller chunks, called IP packets.
Each of these packets are routed (transmitted) through the Internet, along a path from
one router to the next, until it reaches the specified destination. TCP guarantees the
delivery of packets on the designated IP address. It is also responsible for ordering the
packets so that they are delivered in sequence. There are many redundant connection
paths in the Internet, with backbones and ISPs connecting to each other in multiple
locations. So, there are many possible paths between two hosts. Hence, two packets of
the same message can take two different routes depending on congestion and other
factors in different possible routes. When all the packets finally reach the destination
machine, they are reassembled into the original message at the receiver’s end.
 SMTP:

• SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.

• SMTP is a set of communication guidelines that allow software to transmit an
electronic mail over the internet is called Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
• It is a program used for sending messages to other computer users based on e-mail
addresses.
• It provides a mail exchange between users on the same or different computers, and
it also supports:
– It can send a single message to one or more recipients.
– Sending message can include text, voice, video or graphics.
– It can also send the messages on networks outside the internet.
• The main purpose of SMTP is used to set up communication rules between servers.
The servers have a way of identifying themselves and announcing what kind of
communication they are trying to perform. They also have a way of handling the
errors such as incorrect email address. For example, if the recipient address is
wrong, then receiving server reply with an error message of some kind.
 Remote Login
• Remote login is a network application that permits a user sitting at a different location to
work on a specific program on anotherprogram.
• The user needs the I D of that computer generated by remote login application
• Telnet is one of the earliest remote login protocols on the Internet.
The main programs are:
• Telnet
• AnyDesk
• Team Viewer
TELNET
• It stands for Terminal Network
• It is a type of protocol that enables one computer to connect to local computer. It is a used
as a standard TCP/IP protocol for virtual terminal service which is given by ISO.
• Computer which starts connection known as the local computer. Computer which is being
connected to i.e. which accepts the connection known as remote computer.
• During telnet operation whatever that is being performed on the remote computer will be
displayed by local computer. Telnet operates on client/server principle. Local computer
uses telnet client program and the remote computers uses telnet server program.
VoIP
Voice over InternetProtocol
• It is a protocol that enables voice communication over the Internet through the
compression of voice into data packets that can be efficiently transmitted over data
network and then convert back into voice at receiving end.
• It uses packet switching (store and forward)

• It is an alternate to traditional telephone network

 Introduction to web Services

The World Wide Web (WWW):

• The World Wide Web (WWW) is an ocean of information, stored in the form of trillions
of interlinked web pages and web resources. The resources on the web can be shared or
accessed through the Internet.
• Sir Tim Berners-Lee — a British computer scientist invented the revolutionary World
Wide Web in 1990.
HTML
• Stands for HyperText Markup Language.
• It is a language which is used to design standardized Web Pages so that the Web contents
can be read and understood from any computer. Basic structure of every webpage is
designed using HTML.

XML
• Stands for Extensible Markup Language.
• It is a language which is used to design standardized Web Pages so that the Web contents
can be read and understood from any computer. Basic structure of every webpage is
designed using HTML.
Web Site: Related webpages from a single web domain is termed as a website. A website has
multiple webpages providing information about a particular entity.

Web Browser: It is a www client that navigates through the World Wide Web and displays Web pages.
Web Server: It is a www server that responds to the requests made by web browsers.
Web Hosting : Means of hosting web – server application on a computer system through
which electronic content on the Internet is readily available to any web browser client.
 Domain Name System

The Internet is a vast ocean where information is available in the form of millions of
websites. Each website is stored on a server which is connected to the Internet, which means
each server has an IP address. Every device connected to the Internet has an IP address. To
access a website, we need to enter its IP address on our web browser. But it is very difficult
to remember the IP addresses of different websites as they are in terms of numbers or
strings. However, it is easier to remember names, and therefore, each computer server
hosting a website or web resource is given a name against its IP address. These names are
called the Domain names or hostnames corresponding to unique IP addresses assigned to
each server.
For example, IP addresses and domain names of some websites are as follows:
Examples of domain names and their mapped IP addresses
ncert.nic.in 164.100.60.233
wikipedia.org 198.35.26.96
URL
Uniform Resource Identifier. It is a unique address or path for each resource located on the
web. It is also known as Uniform Resource Locator (URL). Every page on the web has a
unique URL.
Examples are: https://www.mhrd.gov.in,http://www.ncert.nic.in,http://www.airindia.in, etc.
URL is sometimes also called web address. However, a URL is not only the domain name. It
contains other information that completes a web address.