STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

BCV301

Dr.Sachin Patil
Associate Professor, 2023-24
Department of Civil Engineering,
RYMEC, Ballari
 PAGE
SL NO CONTENTS
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1 Module 1: Simple Stresses and Strains 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Properties of Materials 2
1.3 Stress 4
1.4 Strain 5
1.5 Types of Stress and Strain 5
1.6 Hooke's Law 9
1.7 Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Modulus) 9
1.8 Modulus of Rigidity (Shear Modulus) 9
1.9 Poisson's Ratio 10
1.10 Stress - Strain Relationship 10
1.11 Analysis of Bars of Varying Sections 22
1.12 Principle of Superposition 27
1.13 Total Elongation of Tapering bars of Circular and Rectangular Cross Sections 34
1.14 Analysis of Composite Sections 42
1.15 Thermal Stresses and Strain 54
1.16 Elastic Constants 63
2 Module 2: Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagrams in Beams 93
2.1 Types of Beam Supports 93
2.2 Types of Loads on Beams 95
2.3 Types of Beams 96
2.4 Shear Force, Bending Moment and Sign Convention 99
2.5 Relationship between Loading, Shear Force and Bending Moment 101
2.6 Shear Force Diagram and Bending Moment Diagram 102
Shear Force and Bending Moment Equations and Development of Shear Force
2.7 104
Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
Module 3: Bending and Shear Stress in Beams & Torsion in
3 225
Circular Shaft
Bending and Shear Stress in Beams
3.1 Introduction 225
3.2 Pure Bending Theory or Simple bending Theory 225
3.3 Expression for Transverse Shear Stress in Beams 257
3.4 Bending and Shear Stress Distribution Diagrams 260
Torsion in Circular Shaft
3.5 Introduction 277
Assumptions Made in the Derivation of Shear Stress Produced in A Circular Shaft
3.6 277
Subjected to Torsion
3.7 Derivation of Torsion Equation 278
3.8 Maximum Torque Transmitted by A Circular Solid Shaft 283
3.9 Torque Transmitted by A Hallow Circular Shaft 286
3.10 Power Transmitted by Shafts 288
3.11 Polar Modulus 300
3.12 Strength of a Shaft and Torsional Rigidity 300
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4 Module 4: Columns and Struts & Deflection of Beams 309
Columns and Struts
4.1 Introduction 309
4.2 Short and Long Columns 309
4.3 Assumptions of Euler's Theory 310
4.4 Sign Conventions 310
4.5 End Conditions for Long Columns 311
4.6 Derivation for Euler's Buckling Load for Different End Conditions 311
4.7 Effective Length (or Equivalent Length) of a Column 324
4.8 Limitations of Euler's Theory 324
4.9 Rankine-Gordon's Formula for Columns 324
Deflection of Beams
4.10 Introduction 338
4.11 Slope, Deflection and Curvature 338
4.12 Sign Conventions 339
4.13 Derivation of Moment-Curvature Equation 339
4.14 Double Integration Method 341
4.15 Macaulay's Method 387
5 Module 5: Thin and Thick Cylinders & Compound Stresses 403
Thin and Thick Cylinders
5.1 Introduction 403
5.2 Thin Cylinders Subjected to Internal Pressure 403
5.3 Thick Cylinders Subjected to Both Internal and External Pressure 423
Compound Stresses
5.4 Introduction 436
5.5 Analytical Method 436
5.6 Graphical Method (Mohr's Circle of Stresses) 452
 Module 1:
Simple Stresses and Strains
 Module-1
Simple Stresses and Strains
· Introduction
· Properties of Materials
· Stress
· Strain
· Types of Stresses and Strains
· Hooke’s Law
· Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Modulus)
· Modulus of Rigidity (Shear Modulus)
· Poisson’s Ratio
· Stress – Strain Relation
· Analysis of Bars of Varying Sections
· Principle of Superposition
· Total Elongation of Tapering Bars of Circular and Rectangular Cross Sections.
· Composite Section
· Thermal Stresses and Strains
Compound bars subjected to thermal stresses, state of simple shear.
· Elastic Constants, relationship among elastic constants
· Volumetric Strain, expression for volumetric strain

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Three fundamental areas of engineering mechanics (or applied mechanics) are

(i) Statics
(ii) Dynamics and
(iii) Mechanics (or strength) of materials.

Statics and dynamics are devoted primarily to the study of the extended effects of forces on
rigid bodies, ie. the bodies for which the change in shape (or deformations) can be neglected.
Mechanics of materials, commonly known as strength of materials deals with the relation
between externally applied loads and their internal effects on solid bodies. The solid bodies include
axially loaded members, shaft in torsion, thin and thick cylinders, shells, beams, and columns, as well
as structures that are assemblies of these components.
These bodies are no longer assumed to be rigid ; the deformation, however small, are of major
interest.
In actual design, the engineer must consider both dimensions and material properties to satisfy
the requirements of strength and rigidity. A machine part or structure should neither break nor deform
excessively.
The purpose of studying strength of materials is to ensure that the structure used will be safe
against maximum internal effects that may be produced by any combination of loading.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 1

 1.2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
The following are the most important mechanical properties of engineering materials:
(i) Elasticity
(ii) Plasticity
(iii) Ductility
(iv) Brittleness
(v) Malleability
(vi) Toughness
(vii) Hardness, and
(viii) Strength

1.2.1 Elasticity
When external forces are applied on a body, made of engineering materials, the external forces
tend to deform the body while the molecular forces acting between the molecules offer resistance
against deformation.
The deformation or displacement of the particles continues till full resistance to the external
forces is setup. If the forces are now gradually diminished, the body will return, wholly or partly to its
original shape. Such a property of material is called as elasticity.
Elasticity is the property by virtue of which a material deformed under the load is enabled to
return to its original dimension when the load is removed. If a body regains completely its original
shape, it is said to be perfectly elastic. Steel, aluminium, copper, stone, concrete etc. may be considered
to be perfectly elastic, within certain limits.
For any particular material, a critical value of the load, known as the elastic limit marks the
partial break down of elasticity beyond which removal of load results in a degree of permanent
deformation or permanent set.

1.2.2 Plasticity
Plasticity is the converse of elasticity. A material in plastic state is permanently deformed by
the application of load, and it has no tendency to recover.
Every elastic material possesses the property of plasticity. Under the action of large forces, most
engineering materials become plastic and behave in a manner similar to a viscous liquid.
The characteristic of the material by which it undergoes inelastic strains beyond those at the
elastic limit is known as plasticity.
1.2.3 Ductility
Ductility is the characteristic which permits a material to be drawn out longitudinally to a
reduced section, under the action of a tensile force. In a ductile material, therefore, large deformation
is possible before absolute failure or rupture takes place.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 2

 A ductile material must of necessity, possess a high degree of plasticity and strength. During
ductile extension, a material shows a certain degree of elasticity, together with a considerable degree
of plasticity.
Ductility is measured in the tensile test of specimen of the material, either in terms of percentage
elongation or in terms of percentage reduction in the cross-sectional area of the test specimen.

1.2.4 Brittleness
Brittleness implies lack of ductility. A material is said to be brittle when it cannot be drawn out
by tension to smaller section. In a brittle material, failure takes place under load without significant
deformation.
Brittle fractures take place without warning and the property is generally highly un-desirable.
Examples of brittle materials are
(i) cast-iron (ii) high carbon steel, (iii) concrete (iv) stone, (v) glass, (vi) ceramic materials, and (vii)
many common metallic alloys.

1.2.5 Malleability
Malleability is a property of a material which permits the materials to be extended in all
directions without rupture. A malleable material possesses a high degree of plasticity, but not
necessarily great strength. This property is utilised in many operations such as forging, hot rolling,
drop-stamping etc.

1.2.6 Toughness
Toughness is the property of a material which enables it to absorb energy without fracture.
This property is very desirable in components subject to cyclic or shock loading. Toughness is
measured in terms of energy required per unit volume of the material, to cause rupture under the action
of gradually increasing tensile load.
This energy includes the work done up to the elastic limit which is small in comparison with
the energy subsequently expanded.

1.2.7 Hardness
Hardness is the ability of a material to resist indentation or surface abrasion. Since these
resistances are not necessarily synonymous, it is usual to base the estimation of the hardness of a
material on resistance to indentation only.
1.2.8 Strength
This is the most important property of a material from design point of view. The strength of a
material enables it to resist fracture under load. The ability of a structure to resist loads is called
strength.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 3

 1.3 STRESS

When a body (i.e. structural element) is acted upon by external force or load, internal resisting
force is set up. Such a body is then said to be in a state of stress, where stress is the resistance offered
by the body to deformation.
For example consider a prismatic bar AB subjected to axial forces at the ends as shown in Fig
below

A prismatic bar is a straight structural member of uniform cross-section A throughout its length
L. In order to know the internal stresses produced in the prismatic bar, take a section m-n normal to
the longitudinal axis of the bar, such a section is known as a cross-section. If we consider the
equilibrium of either the left part or the right part at section m-n, taken as a free body, the internal
resistance or the stress (σ) offered by the molecules against the external force may be assumed to be
uniformly distributed over the whole area of cross-section. Then
σ = P/A
where, σ = Stress (also called intensity of stress),
P = External force or load, and
A = Cross-sectional area.
The unit of stress depends upon the unit of load (or force) and unit of area. In the S.I. units, the
force is expressed in newtons (written as N) and area is expressed as m2. Hence unit of stress becomes
as N/m2. The area is also expressed in millimetre square then unit of force becomes as N/mm2.
1 N/mm2 = 106 N/m2
1 N/m2 = 1 Pascal = 1 Pa.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 4

 1.4 STRAIN

When a prismatic bar is subjected to axial load, it undergoes a change in length, as indicated in
Fig below.

This change in length is usually called deformation. If the axial force is tensile, the length of
the bar is increased, while if the axial force is compressive, there is shortening of the length of the bar.
The deformation (i.e. elongation or shortening) per unit length of the bar is termed as strain (ε or e). In
general, strain is the measure of the deformation caused due to external loading, which is given by
ε = change in length /original length
where, ε = Strain

1.5 TYPES OF STRESSES AND STRAINS

The stress/strain may be normal stress/strain or a shear stress/strain. Normal stress/strain is

the stress/strain which acts in a direction perpendicular to the area. The normal stress/strain is further
divided into tensile stress/strain and compressive stress/strain.
1.5.1 Tensile Stress/strain
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pulls resulting in
increase of length, is known as tensile stress. The ratio of increase in length to the original length is
known as tensile strain. The tensile stress acts normal to the area and it pulls on the area.
Fig. 1.1 (a) shows a bar subjected to a tensile force P at its ends. Consider a section x-x, which
divides the bar into two parts. The part left to the section x-x, will be in equilibrium if P = Resisting
force (R). This is shown in Fig. 1.1 (b). Similarly the part right to the section x-x, will be in equilibrium
if P = Resisting force as shown in Fig. 1.1 (c). This resisting force per unit area is known as stress or
intensity of stress.
Let P= Pull (or force) acting on the body,
A = Cross-sectional area of the body,
L = Original length of the body,
dL = Increase in length due to pull P acting on the body,
σ = Stress induced in the body, and
e = Strain (i.e., tensile strain).

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 5

 1.5.2 Compressive Stress/strain
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pushes as shown in
Fig. 1.2 (a) as a result of which there is a decrease in length of the body, is known as compressive
stress. And the ratio of decrease in length to the original length is known as compressive strain. The
compressive stress acts normal to the area and it pushes on the area.
Let an axial push P is acting on a body is cross-sectional area A. Due to external push P, let the
original length L of the body decreases by dL

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 6

 1.5.3 Shear Stress/Strain
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite forces which are acting
tangentially across the resisting section as shown in Fig. 1.3 as a result of which the body tends to shear
off across the section, is known as shear stress. The corresponding strain is known as shear strain. The
shear stress is the stress which acts tangential to the area. It is represented by τ.

Consider a rectangular block of height h, length L and width unity. Let the bottom face AB of
the block be fixed to the surface as shown in Fig. 1.4 (a). Let a force P be applied tangentially along
the top face CD of the block. Such a force acting tangentially along a surface is known as shear force.
For the equilibrium of the block, the surface AB will offer a tangential reaction P equal and opposite
to the applied tangential force P.

Consider a section x-x (parallel to the applied force), which divides the block into two parts.
The upper part will be in equilibrium if P = Resistance (R). This is shown in Fig. 1.4 (b). Similarly the
lower part will be in equilibrium if P = Resistance (R) as shown in Fig. 1.4 (c). This resistance is known
as shear resistance. And the shear resistance per unit area is known as shear stress which is represented
by τ.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 7

 Problem 1: A prismatic bar has a cross-section of 25 mm x 50 mm and a length of 2 m. Under an axial
tensile force of 90 kN, the measured elongation of the bar is 1.5 mm. Compute the tensile stress and
strain in the bar.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 8

 1.6 HOOKE'S LAW

Hooke’s Law states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is proportional
to the strain produced by the stress. This means the ratio of the stress to the corresponding strain is a
constant within the elastic limit. This constant is known as Modulus of Elasticity or Modulus of
Rigidity.
σ∝ε
σ = E⋅ ε
σ = G⋅ ε

where: σ is the stress,

ε is the strain.
E is the modulus of elasticity (also known as Young's modulus), and
G is the modulus of rigidity (also known as Shear modulus)

Hooke's Law is applicable within the elastic limit of a material, meaning that it holds true as
long as the material returns to its original shape when the stress is removed.

1.7 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (YOUNG'S MODULUS)

The modulus of elasticity (often referred to as Young's Modulus) is a measure of the stiffness
of a material. It quantifies the relationship between stress and strain in the elastic range. It is defined
as the ratio of tensile stress or compressive stress to the corresponding strain and is a constant denoted
by E.
σ∝ε
σ = E⋅ ε
"
#=
#
!"#$%&" ()*"$$ ,-./*"$$%0" ()*"$$
# = !"#$%&" ()*+%# or # =
,-./*"$$%0" ()*+%#

The units of the modulus of elasticity are typically expressed in Pascals (Pa) or Megapascals (MPa).

1.8 MODULUS OF RIGIDITY (SHEAR MODULUS)

The modulus of rigidity, also known as the shear modulus, measures a material's resistance to
shearing deformation. It is denoted by G and is defined as the ratio of shear stress (τ) to shear strain
(ϕ).
σ∝ε
σ = G⋅ ε

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 9

 "
'=
#
(1"+* ()*"$$ 2
' = (1"+* ()*+%# =
!
The units of the modulus of rigidity are also typically expressed in Pascals (Pa) or Megapascals (MPa).
1.9 POISSON'S RATIO

Poisson's ratio (ν) is a material property that describes the relationship between the relative
changes in dimensions perpendicular to each other when a material is subjected to deformation.
Poisson's ratio is defined as the ratio of transverse (lateral) strain to the axial (longitudinal) strain in the
direction of the applied force. Mathematically, it is expressed as:

ν = ε transverse / ε axial
where: ν is Poisson's ratio,
ε transverse is the transverse strain (strain in the direction perpendicular to the applied force), and
ε axial is the axial strain (strain in the direction of the applied force).

Poisson's ratio is dimensionless and typically falls within the range of 0 to 0.5 for most
engineering materials. The value of Poisson's ratio provides information about a material's behaviour
under deformation. A Poisson's ratio of 0.5 indicates that the material does not change in lateral
dimensions at all under axial loading (volumetrically incompressible), while a lower Poisson's ratio
indicates a stiffer, less compressible material. Most common engineering materials have Poisson's
ratios between 0.2 and 0.3.

1.10 STRESS – STRAIN RELATION

The stress-strain relation of any material is obtained by conducting a tension test on a standard
specimen. Different materials behave differently and their behaviour in tension and in compression
differ slightly.
1.10.1 Behaviour in Tension
Adjacent figure shows a typical tensile test
specimen of mild steel. Its ends are gripped into a
universal testing machine which also measures
extension over the length L, shown in Figure. The length
over which the extension is measured is called gauge
length. The load is applied gradually till the specimen
breaks and the extension is measured for each load. The
load divided by original cross-sectional area is called nominal stress, or simply, stress. Strain is
obtained by dividing (L2 - L1) by L1.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 10

 Figure below shows a stress vs strain diagram for a typical mild steel specimen. The following
salient points are observed on the stress-strain curve.
Limit of Proportionality (A): It is the limiting value of the stress up to which the stress is proportional
to strain.
Elastic Limit (coincides with A): It is the limiting value of the stress up to which if the material is
stressed and then released (unloaded) strain
disappears completely and the original length is
regained. This point is slightly beyond the limit
of proportionality.
Upper Yield Point (B): This is the stress at
which the load starts reducing and the extension
increases. This phenomenon is called yielding
of material. At this stage the strain is about
0.125 per cent and stress is about 250 /mm2
Lower Yield Point (C): At this stage at
constant stress the strain increases for some time.
Ultimate Stress (D): This is the maximum stress the material can resist. This stress is about 370-400
N/mm2. At this stage the cross-sectional area at a particular section starts reducing very fast. This is
called neck formation. After this stage the resisted load, and hence the developed stress, starts reducing
Breaking Point (E): The stress at which finally the specimen fails is called breaking point. At this
stage the strain is about 20 to 25 per cent.
If the material is unloaded within the elastic limit the original length is regained. If unloading
is made after the elastic limit, it follows a straight line parallel to the original straight portion as shown
by line FF' in Figure. Thus, if it is loaded beyond elastic limit and then unloaded, a permanent strain
(OF) is left in the specimen. This is called permanent set.
1.10.1.1 Stress-strain curves for other materials

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 11

 1.10.2 Behaviour in Compression
As there is a chance of buckling (laterally bending) of a long specimen, for compression tests
short specimen are used. Hence, this test involves measurement of smaller changes in length. This
results into lesser accuracy. However, precise measurements have shown the following results.
(a) In case of ductile materials the stress-strain curve follows exactly the same path as in tensile test up
to and even slightly beyond the yield point. For larger values the curves diverge. There will not be any
necking in case of compression tests.
(b) For most brittle materials the ultimate compressive stress in compression is much larger than in
tension. It is because of flaws and cracks present in brittle materials which weaken the material in
tension but this does not affect the strength in compression.
1.10.3 Nominal Stress and True Stress
So far our discussion on direct stress was based on the value obtained by dividing the load by
original cross-sectional area. But actually, as the material is stressed its cross-sectional area changes.
We should divide the load by the actual cross-sectional area to get real stress in the material. To
distinguish between the two values, we introduce the terms nominal stress and true stress and define
them as below.

3)-4
()*+,-. /012// =
51+6+,-. 71)// − /270+),-. -12-

3)-4
91:2 /012// =
;70:-. 71)// − /270+),-. -12-

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 12

 FORMULAS
1. Stress
σ = P/A

2. Strain
ε = change in length /original length

-%$*'.#%'$/ 0)'1/$2#3#*( 04
!"#$% '(%$)*(!) = =
#$%&%'() )+'&,- .+$.+'/%01)($ ,2 ,$('34+$3() /%3.)(0+5+',/%3.)(0+5+', -

3. Hooke's Law
σ∝ε
4. Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Modulus)
σ∝ε
σ = E⋅ε
σ
E=
ε
Tensile Stress Compressive Stress
E = Tensile Strain or E = Compressive Strain

5. Modulus of Rigidity (Shear Modulus)

σ∝ε
σ = G⋅ε
σ
G=
ε
Shear Stress ?
G = Shear Strain =
ϕ

6. Poisson's Ratio
ν = ε transverse / ε axial
7. Percentage elongation
Change in length dL
Pecentage elongation = X100 = X100
original length L
8. Percentage reduction in area
Change in c/s area dA
Pecentage reduction in area = X100 = X100
original c/s area A
9. Nominal Stress and True Stress
Load
Nominal stress =
Original cross − sectional area

Load
True stress =
Actual cross − sectional area

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 13

 Problem 2: In a tension test on mild steel rod having 12 mm diameter and 200 mm gauge length,
following observations are made
1. Elongation under load 17 kN = 0.15 mm
2. Load at yield point = 28.5 kN
3. Ultimate load = 55 kN
4. Breaking Load = 42 kN
5. Length after fracture = 242 mm
6. Diameter at neck = 8.6mm
Determine
1. Youngs Modulus
2. Yield stress
3. Ultimate stress
4. Nominal stress at breaking point
5. True stress at breaking point
6. Percentage of elongation
7. Percentage of reduction in area

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 14

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 15
 Problem 3: A tensile test was conducted on a mild steel bar. The following data was obtained from the
test
Diameter of the steel bar = 3 сm
Gauge length of the bar = 20 cm
Load at elastic limit = 250 kN
Extension at a load of 150 kN = 0.21 mm
Maximum load = 380 kN
Total extension = 60 mm
Diameter of the rod at the failure = 2.25 сm
Determine:
(a) the Young's modulus,
(b) the stress at elastic limit,
(c) the percentage elongation, and
(d) the percentage decrease in area.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 16

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 17
 Problem 4: A rod 150 cm long and of diameter 2.0 cm is subjected to an axial pull of 20 kN. If the
modulus of elasticity of the material of the rod is 2 x 105 N/ mm2 ; determine :
(i) the stress, (ii) the strain, and (iii) the elongation of the rod.

Problem 5: Find the minimum diameter of a steel wire, which is used to raise a load of 4000 N, if the
stress in the rod is not to exceed 95 MN/m2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 18

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 19
 Problem 6: Find the Young's Modulus of a brass rod of diameter 25 mm and of length 250 mm which
is subjected to a tensile load of 50 kN when the extension of the rod is equal to 0.3 mm.

Problem 7: The safe stress, for a hollow steel column which carries an axial load of 2.1 × 103 kN is
125 MN/m2. If the external diameter of the column is 30 cm, determine the internal diameter.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 20

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 21
 Problem 8: A stepped bar shown in Fig is subjected to an axially applied compressive load of 35 kN.
Find the maximum and minimum stresses produced.

1.11 ANALYSIS OF BARS OF VARYING SECTIONS

A bar of different lengths and of different diameters (and hence of different cross sectional
areas) is shown in Fig. Let this bar is subjected to an axial load P.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 22

 Problem 9: An axial pull of 35000 N is acting
on a bar consisting of three lengths as shown
in Fig. If the Young's modulus = 2.1 x 105
N/mm2, determine :
(i) stresses in each section and
(ii) total extension of the bar.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 23

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 24
 Problem 10: A member formed by connecting a steel bar to an aluminium bar is shown in Fig.
Assuming that the bars are prevented from buckling sideways, calculate the magnitude of force P that
will cause the total length of the member to decrease 0.25 mm. The values of elastic modulus for steel
and aluminium are 2.1 x 105 N/mm2 and 7 × 104 N/mm2 respectively.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 25

 Problem 11: The bar shown in Fig. is subjected to a tensile load of 160 kN. If the stress in the middle
portion is limited to 150 N/mm2, determine the diameter of the middle portion. Find also the length of
the middle portion if the total elongation of the bar is to be 0.2 mm. Young's modulus is given as equal
to 2.1 x 105 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 26

 1.12 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
Many times, a structural member is subjected to a number of forces acting, not only at the ends,
but also at intermediate points along its length. Such a member can be analysed by the application of
principle of superposition.
According to the principle of superposition, the resulting strain will be equal to the algebraic
sum of the strains caused by the individual forces acting along the length of the member. Thus, if a
member of uniform section is subjected to a number of forces, the resulting deformation (dL) is given
by

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 27

 Problem 12: A brass bar, having cross-sectional area of 1000 mm2, is subjected to axial forces as shown
in Fig. Find the total elongation of the bar. Take E = 1.06 x 105 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 28

 Problem 13: A steel bar of variable section is subjected to forces as shown in Fig. Taking E =205
kN/m2, determine the total elongation of the bar.

Problem 14: A rod of variable sections, shown in Fig. is subjected to a pull of 10 KN at the ends.
Find the extension of the rod, taking E=2×105 N/mm2

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 29

 Problem 15: A member ABCD is subjected to point loads P1, P2, P3, and P4 as shown in Fig. Calculate
the force P2 necessary for equilibrium, if P1 = 45 kN, P3 = 450 kN and P4 = 130 kN. Determine the total
elongation of the member, assuming the modulus of elasticity to be 2.1 x 105 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 30

 Problem 16: A tensile load of 40 kN is acting on a rod of diameter 40 mm and of Length 4 m. A bore
of diameter 20 mm is made centrally on the rod. To what length the rod should be bored so that the
total extension will increase 30% under the same tensile load. Take E = 2 × 105 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 31

 Problem 17: A rigid bar ACDB is hinged at A and supported in a horizontal position by two identical
steel wires as shown in Fig. A vertical load of 30 kN is applied at B. Find the tensile forces T1 and T2
induced in these wires by the vertical load.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 32

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 33
 1.13 TOTAL ELONGATION OF TAPERING BARS OF CIRCULAR AND
RECTANGULAR CROSS SECTIONS

1.13.1 Derive an expression for change in length / extension of tapering bar of circular cross
section

A bar of uniformly tapering from a diameter D1 at one end and diameter D2 at the other end is
shown in fig
Let,
P = Axial tensile load on the bar
L = Total length of the bar
E = Young's modulus.

Consider a small element of length dx of the bar at a distance x from the left end. Let the
diameter of the elemental bar be Dx at a distance x from the left end.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 34

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 35
 Problem 18: A rod, which tapers uniformly from 40 mm diameter to 20 mm diameter in a length of
400 mm is subjected to an axial load of 5000 N. If E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2, find the extension of the
rod.

Problem 19: Find the modulus of elasticity for a rod, which tapers uniformly from 30 mm to 15 mm
diameter in a length of 350 mm. The rod is subjected to an axial load of 5.5 kN and extension of the
rod is 0.025 mm.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 36

 1.13.2 Derive an expression for change in length / extension of tapering bar of rectangular cross
section

A bar of constant thickness and uniformly tapering in width from one end to the other end is
shown in Fig.
Let
P = Axial load on the bar. L = Length of bar
a = Width at bigger end b = Width at smaller end
E = Young’s modulus t = Thickness of bar
Consider a small element of length dx of the bar at a distance x from the left end.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 37

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 38
 Problem 20: A rectangular bar made of steel is 2.8 m long and 15 mm thick. The rod is subjected to
an axial tensile load of 40 kN. The width of the rod varies from 75 mm at one end to 30 mm at the
other. Find the extension of the rod if E = 2 × 105 N/mm2.

Problem 21: The extension in a rectangular steel bar of length 400 mm and thickness 10 mm, is found
to be 0.21 mm. The bar tapers uniformly in width from 100 mm to 50 mm. If E for the bar is 2 x105
N/mm2, determine the axial load on the bar.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 39

 Problem 22: Find the change in length for a bar shown in figure. Take E = 70 GPa

Problem 23: A 2m long steel bar has a uniform dia of 40mm for a length of 1m, in the
next 0.5m its diameter gradually reduces to d and it remains constant for the next 0.5m.
A load of 150 kN is applied and the extension observed is 2.39mm. Determine the dia d
if the young’s modulus of steel is 200 GPa.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 40

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 41
 1.14 ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITE SECTIONS

A bar, made up of two or more bars of equal lengths

but of different materials rigidly fixed with each other and
behaving as one unit for extension or compression when
subjected to an axial tensile or compressive loads, is called a
composite bar. For the composite bar the following two
points are important :
1. The extension or compression in each bar is equal.
Hence deformation per unit length i.e, strain in each
bar is equal.
2. The total external load on the composite bar is equal
to the sum of the loads carried by each different
material.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 42

 Problem 24: A steel rod of 3 cm diameter is enclosed centrally in a hollow copper tube
of external diameter 5 cm and internal diameter of 4 cm. The composite bar is then
subjected to an axial pull of 45000 N. If the length of each bar is equal to 15 cm,
determine :
(i) The stresses in the rod and tube, and (ii) Load carried by each bar.
Take E for steel = 2.1 × 105 N/mm2 and for copper = 1.1 × 105 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 43

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 44
 Problem 25: A compound tube consists of a steel tube 140 mm internal diameter and
160 mm external diameter and an outer brass tube 160 mm internal diameter and 180
mm external diameter. The two tubes are of the same length. The compound tube carries
ah axial load of 900 kN. Find the stresses and the load carried by each tube and the
amount it shortens. Length of each tube is 140 mm. Take E for steel as 2 × 105 N/mm2
and for brass as 1 × 105 N/mm2

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 45

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 46
 Problem 26: Three bars made of copper, zinc and aluminium are of equal length and
have cross-section 500, 750 and 1000 square mm respectively. They are rigidly
connected at their ends. If this compound member is subjected to a longitudinal pull of
250 kN, estimate the proportional of the load carried on each rod and the induced
stresses. Take the value of E for copper = 1.3 × 105 N/mm2, for zinc = 1.0 × 105 N/mm2
and for aluminium = 0.8 × 105 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 47

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 48
 Problem 27: A load of 2 MN is applied on a short concrete column 500 mm × 500 mm.
The column is reinforced with four steel bars of 10 mm diameter, one in each corner.
Find the stresses in the concrete and steel bars. Take E for steel as 2.1 × 105 N/mm2 and
for concrete as 1.4 x 104 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 49

 Problem 28: Two vertical rods one of steel and the other of copper are each rigidly fixed
at the top and 50 cm apart. Diameters and lengths of each rod are 2 cm and 4 m
respectively. A cross bar fixed to the rods at the lower ends carries a load of 5000 N such
that the cross bar remains horizontal even after loading. Find the stress in each rod and
the position of the load on the bar. Take E for steel = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and E for copper =
1 × 105 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 50

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 51
 Problem 29: Two brass rods and one steel rod together support a load as shown in Fig.
If the stresses in brass and steel are not to exceed 60 N/mm2 and 120 N/mm2 find the
safe load that can be supported. Take E for steel = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and for brass = 1 ×
105 N/mm2. The cross-sectional area of steel rod is 1500 mm2 and of each brass rod is
1000 mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 52

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 53
 1.15 THERMAL STRESSES AND STRAIN

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 54

 Problem 30: A rod is 2 m long at a temperature of 10°C. Find the expansion of the rod,
when the temperature is raised to 80°C. If this expansion is prevented, find the stress
induced in the material of the rod. Take E = 1.0 x 105 MN /m2 and α = 0.000012 per
degree centigrade.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 55

 Problem 31: A steel rod of 3 cm diameter and 5 m long is connected to two grips and
the rod is maintained at a temperature of 95°C. Determine the stress and pull exerted
when the temperature falls to 30°C, if
(i) the ends do not yield, and (ii) the ends yield by 0.12 cm.
Take E = 2 x 105 MN/m2 and a = 12 × 10-6/°C.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 56

 1.15.1 Thermal Stresses in Composite Section

Fig. 1.24 (a) shows a composite bar consisting of two members, a bar of brass and another of
steel. Let the composite bar be heated through some temperature. If the members are free to expand
then no stresses will be induced in the members. But the two members are rigidly fixed and hence the
composite bar as a whole will expand by the same amount. As the co-efficient of linear expansion of
brass is more than that of the steel, the brass will expand more than the steel. Hence the free expansion
of brass will be more than that of the steel. But both the members are not free to expand, and hence the
expansion of the composite bar, as a whole, will be less than that of the brass, but more than that of the
steel. Hence the stress induced in the brass will be compressive whereas the stress in steel will be tensile
as shown in Fig. 1.24 (c). Hence the load or force on the brass will be compressive whereas on the steel
the load will be tensile.

Fig. 1.24

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 57

 Problem 32: A steel rod of 20 mm diameter passes centrally through a copper tube of
50 mm external diameter and 40 mm internal diameter. The tube is closed at each end
by rigid plates of negligible thickness. The nuts are tightened lightly home on the
projecting parts of the rod. If the temperature of the assembly is raised by 50°C, calculate
the stresses developed in copper and steel. Take E for steel and copper as 200 GN/m2
and 100 GN/m2 and a for steel and copper as 12 x 10-6 per °C and 18 × 10-6 per °C.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 58

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 59
 Problem 33: A steel tube of 30 mm external diameter and 20 mm internal diameter
encloses a copper rod of 15 mm diameter to which it is rigidly joined at each end. If, at
a temperature of 10°C there is no longitudinal stress, calculate the stresses in the rod and
tube when the temperature is raised to 200°C. Take E for steel and copper as 2.1 x 105
N/mm2 and 1 × 105 N/mm2 respectively. The value of co-efficient of linear expansion
for steel and copper is given as 11 × 10-6 per °C and 18 x 10-6 per °C respectively.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 60

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 61
 Problem 34: A steel tube of 30 mm external diameter and 25 mm internal diameter
encloses a gun metal rod of 20 mm diameter to which it is rigidly joined at each end.
The temperature of the whole assembly is raised to 140°C and the nuts on the rod are
then screwed lightly home on the ends of the tube. Find the intensity of stress in the rod
when the common temperature has fallen to 30°C. The value of E for steel and gun metal
is 2.1 x 105 N/mm2 and 1 × 105 N/mm2 respectively. The linear co-efficient of expansion
for steel and gun metal is 12 x 10-6 per °C and 20 x 10-6 per °C.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 62

 1.16 ELASTIC CONSTANTS
1.16.1 Introduction
When a body is subjected to an axial tensile load, there is an increase in the length of the body.
But at the same time there is a decrease in other dimensions of the body at right angles to the line of
action of the applied load. Thus the body is having axial deformation and also deformation at right
angles to the line of action of the applied load (i.e., lateral deformation).
This topic deals with these deformations, Poisson's ratio, volumetric strains, bulk modulus,
relation between Young's modulus and modulus of rigidity and relation between Young's modulus and
bulk modulus.

1.16.2 Longitudinal Strain and Lateral Strain

Longitudinal Strain: When a body is subjected to an axial tensile or compressive load, there is an
axial deformation in the length of the body. The ratio of axial deformation to the original length of the
body is known as longitudinal (or linear) strain. The longitudinal strain is also defined as the
deformation of the body per unit length in the direction of the applied load.

Let L = Length of the body,

P = Tensile force acting on the body,
dL = Increase in the length of the body in the direction of P.
"#
Then, longitudinal strain =
#

Lateral Strain: The strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain. Let
a rectangular bar of length L, breadth B and depth D is subjected to an axial tensile load P as shown in
Fig. The length of the bar will increase while the breadth and depth will decrease.
Let dB = Decrease in breadth, and
dD = Decrease in depth.

"$ "%
Then, lateral strain = or
$ %
Note:
(i) If longitudinal strain is tensile, the lateral strains will be compressive.
(ii) If longitudinal strain is compressive then lateral strains will be tensile.
(iii) Hence every longitudinal strain in the direction of load is accompanied by lateral strains of the
opposite kind in all directions perpendicular to the load.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 63

 1.16.3 Poisson’s Ratio

Problem 35: Determine the changes in length, breadth and thickness of a steel bar which
is 4 m long, 30 mm wide and 20 mm thick and is subjected to an axial pull of 30 kN in
the direction of its length. Take E = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and Poisson's ratio = 0.3.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 64

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 65
 Problem 36: Determine the value of Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of a metallic
bar of length 30 cm, breadth 4 cm and depth 4 cm when the bar is subjected to an axial
compressive load of 400 kN. The decrease in length is given as 0.075 cm and increase
in breadth is 0.003 cm.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 66

 1.16.4 Volumetric Strain

The ratio of change in volume to the original volume of a body (when the body is subjected to a single
force or a system of forces) is called volumetric strain. It is denoted by e. ε
Mathematically, volumetric strain is given by
"&
ε e=
&
Where, dV = Change in Volume
V = Original Volume

1.16.4.1 Volumetric Strain of a Rectangular Bar which is Subjected to an Axial Load P in the
Direction of its Length.

Consider a rectangular bar of length L, width B and depth D which is subjected to an axial load
P in the direction of its length as shown in Fig.

Let dL = Change in length,

dB = Change in width, and
dD = Change in depth.

Final length of the bar = L + dL

Final width of the bar = B + dB
Final depth of the bar = D + dD
Now original volume of the bar, V = L.B.D

Final volume = (L + dL)(B + dB)(D + dD)

= L.B.D + B.D.dL + L.B.dD + L.D.dB

Change in volume, dV = Final volume - Original volume

= (L.B.D + B.D.dL + L.B.dD + L.D.dB) - LBD
= B.D.dL + L.B.dD + L.D.dB

B.D.dL + L.B.dD + L.D.dB dL dD dB

volumetric strain, εe = "& = = + +
& LBD L D B

78 79 7:
But, is longitudinal strain and & are lateral strains
8 9 :

Substituting these values in the above equation, we get

εe = Longitudinal strain + 2 x Lateral strain
we have, Lateral strain = - μ x Longitudinal strain.
Substituting the value of lateral strain in above equation, we get
εe = Longitudinal strain - 2 x μ x Longitudinal strain
εe = Longitudinal strain (1- 2 μ )
εe = *+
+
(1- 2 μ )

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 67

 Problem 37: For problem 35, determine the volumetric strain and final volume of the
given steel bar.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 68

 Problem 38: A steel bar 300 mm long, 50 mm wide and 40 mm thick is subjected to a
pull of 300 kN in the direction of its length. Determine the change in volume. Take E =
2 × 105 N/mm2 and μ = 0.25.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 69

 1.16.4.2 Volumetric Strain of a Rectangular Bar Subjected to Three forces which are Mutually
Perpendicular.

Consider a rectangular block of dimensions x, y and z

subjected to three direct tensile stresses along three
mutually perpendicular axis as shown in Fig.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 70

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 71
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 72
 Problem 39: A metallic bar 300 mm x 100 mm x 40 mm is subjected to a force of 5 kN
(tensile), 6 kN (tensile) and 4 kN (tensile) along x, y and z directions respectively.
Determine the change in the volume of the block. Take E = 2 x105 N/mm2 and Poisson's
ratio = 0.25.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 73

 Problem 40: A metallic bar 250 mm × 100 mm x 50 mm is loaded as shown in Fig. Find
the change in volume. Take E = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and Poisson's ratio = 0.25. Also find the
change that should be made in the 4 MN load, in order that there should be no change
in the volume of the bar.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 74

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 75
 1.16.4.3 Volumetric Strain of a Cylindrical Bar

Consider a cylindrical rod which is subjected to an axial tensile load P.

Let D = diameter of the rod
L = length of the rod
Due to tensile load P, there will be an increase in the length of the rod, but the diameter of the
rod will decrease as shown in Fig.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 76

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 77
 Problem 41: A steel rod 5 m long and 30 mm in diameter is subjected to an axial tensile
load of 50 kN. Determine the change in length, diameter and volume of the rod. Take E
= 2 × 105 N/mm2 and Poisson's ratio = 0.25.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 78

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 79
 1.16.5 Bulk Modulus

When a body is subjected to the mutually perpendicular like and equal direct stresses, the ratio
of direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is found to be constant for a given material when
the deformation is within a certain limit. This ratio is known as bulk modulus and is usually denoted
by K. Mathematically bulk modulus is given by

1.16.6 Relation between Young’s Modulus(E), Bulk Modulus(K) and Poisson’s Ratio(μ)

Fig. shows a cube A B C D E F G H which is subjected to three

mutually perpendicular tensile stresses of equal intensity.

Let E = Young's modulus of the material of the cube

σ = Tensile stress acting on the faces
μ = Poisson's ratio

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 80

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 81
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 82
 Problem 42: For a material, Young's modulus is given as 1.2 × 105 N/ mm2 and Poisson's
ratio 1/4. Calculate the Bulk modulus.

Problem 43: A bar of 30 mm diameter is subjected to a pull of 60 kN. The measured

extension on gauge length of 200 mm is 0.1 mm and change in diameter is 0.004 mm.
Calculate :
(i) Young's modulus, (ii) Poisson's ratio and (iii) Bulk modulus.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 83

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 84
 1.16.7 Relation between Young’s Modulus(E), Modulus of Rigidity(G) and Poisson’s Ratio(μ)

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 85

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 86
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 87
 Problem 44: Determine the Poisson's ratio and bulk modulus of a material, for which
Young's modulus is 1.2 × 105 N/mm2 and modulus of rigidity is 4.8 × 104 N/ mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 88

 Problem 45: A bar of cross-section 8 mm x 8 mm is subjected to an axial pull of 7000N.
The lateral dimension of the bar is found to be changed to 7.9985 mm × 7.9985 mm. If
the modulus of rigidity of the material is 0.8 × 105 N/ mm2, determine the Poisson's ratio
and modulus of elasticity.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 89

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 90
 Problem 46: Calculate the modulus of rigidity and bulk modulus of a cylindrical bar of
diameter 30 mm and of length 1.5 m if the longitudinal strain in a bar during a tensile
stress is four times the lateral strain. Find the change in volume, when the bar is
subjected to a hydrostatic pressure of 100 N/mm2. Take E = 1 × 105 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 91

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 92
 Module 2:
Bending Moment and Shear Force
Diagrams in Beams
 Module-2
Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagrams in Beams

• Types of Beams Supports

• Types of Loads on Beams
• Types of Beams
• Shear Force, Bending Moment, and Sign Convention
• Relationship Between Loading, Shear Force and Bending Moment
• Shear Force and Bending Moment Equations and Development of Shear
Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) with salient
values for cantilever, simply supported and overhanging beams for point loads,
UDL (Uniformly Distributed Load), UVL (Uniformly Varying Load), Couple and
their combinations.

2.1 TYPES OF BEAM SUPPORTS

Various types of supports are used to keep the beams in equilibrium under the action of different
types of loads. These supports restrict the motion of the beam in certain directions by offering reaction.
The types of supports used in beams and their corresponding reactions are discussed A below.

2.1.1 Simple Support

The beam rests on a rigid surface as shown in Fig.2.1. The rigid surface opposes motion of the
beam in a direction perpendicular and towards the surface. The motion of the beam away from the
surface, parallel to the surface or rotation is not opposed. Hence the support reaction is perpendicular
to the supporting surface towards the beam as shown in Fig.2.2. The number of unknown reaction is 1.

Fig.2.1 Fig.2.2

2.1.2 Roller Support

When a beam is supported on a roller kept on a rigid surface, the beam can roll on the roller
parallel to the surface on which the roller rests. Beam can also rotate about the roller. The motion of
the beam is opposed only in a direction perpendicular and towards the surface on which the roller is
resting. Hence the reaction is perpendicular to the surface on which the roller is resting and is directed

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 93

 towards the beam. The symbols for roller support are shown in Fig.2.3 and the corresponding reactions
in Fig.2.4. The number of unknown reaction is 1.

Fig.2.3 Fig.2.4

2.1.3 Hinged (or Pinned) Support

The hinged support allows the beam to rotate about the hinge but does not allow translation in
the plane. Hence the reaction force can be anywhere in the plane depending upon the applied loads. A
force which can be anywhere in the plane can be resolved into two mutually perpendicular x and y
directions. The symbols for the hinged support in beams are shown in Fig. 2.5(a) and the corresponding
reaction in Fig.2.5(b). The number of unknown reaction is 2.

Fig. 2.5(a) Fig. 2.5(b)

2.1.4 Fixed Support

This type of support does not allow translation in plane and rotation about the support. Hence
the reaction is a combination of a force which can be directed anywhere in the plane depending up on
applied forces and a reaction moment. The reaction force can be replaced by two mutually
perpendicular components. The total number of unknown reactions is 3. The symbol for the fixed
support is shown in Fig.2.6(a) and the corresponding reactions in Fig.2.6 (b).

Fig. 2.6(a) Fig. 2.6(b)

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 94

 2.2 TYPES OF LOADS ON BEAMS

2.2.1 Point Loads or Concentrated Loads

2.2.2 Couple Moments

2.2.3 Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)

2.2.4 Uniformly Varying Load (UVL)

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 95

 2.3 TYPES OF BEAMS
Beams are broadly classified into two types, statically determinate beams and statically
indeterminate beams. In statically determinate beams the equations of static equilibrium are sufficient
to find all the unknown reactions. In statically indeterminate beams, the number of unknown reactions
exceeds the number of equations of static equilibrium hence cannot be solved completely using these
equations alone.

2.3.1 Statically Determinate Beams

The types of beams which are statically determinate are as follows

1. Simply Supported Beams

These beams have simple supports at their ends and have only vertical loads acting on them
as shown in Fig.2.7. They cannot remain in equilibrium if an inclined force acts on them. A beam with
rollers at end points is also equivalent to this type.

Fig.2.7

2. Beams With One End Hinged and The Other on A Roller

These beams are supported at one end by a hinge and other end by a roller as shown in figure
2.8. The two mutually perpendicular reactions of the hinge and one reaction at the roller can be
obtained using the three equations of equilibrium.

Fig 2.8

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 96

 3. Overhanging Beams

If the beam extends beyond the supports on one or both sides it is known as overhanging beam.
These are supported by a hinge and a roller. They have three unknown reactions and can be obtained
using the three equations of equilibrium. The overhanging beams are as shown in Fig 2.9.

Fig 2.9
4. Cantilever Beams

Beams with one end fixed (or built-in) and the other free are known as cantilever beams. The
three fixed end reactions can be calculated using the three equations of static equilibrium. The
cantilever beam is shown Fig 2.10.

Fig 2.10

2.3.2 Statically Indeterminate Beams

The types of beams which are statically indeterminate are as follows

1. Continuous Beams

These beams have three or more supports. Note that even a beam with three roller supports on
parallel surfaces is statically indeterminate as the three unknown reactions and applied forces will be
in vertical directions for which there will be only two equations available, some continuous beams are
shown in Fig 2.11

Fig 2.11

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 97

 2. Fixed Beams

These are beams in which both ends are fixed. There will be six unknown reactions in these
beams as shown in Fig. 2.12

Fig 2.12

3. Propped Cantilever Beam

These are cantilever beams with an additional hinged or roller support as shown in Fig. 2.13

Fig 2.13

4. Beams With Both Ends Hinged

When both ends of a beam are hinged there will be four unknown reaction components as
shown in Fig.2.14 which makes them statically indeterminate.

Fig.2.14

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 98

 2.4 SHEAR FORCE, BENDING MOMENT AND SIGN CONVENTION

2.4.1 Shear Force and its Sign Convention

The algebraic sum of the vertical forces at any section of a beam to the right or left of the
section is known as shear force. It is briefly written as S.F.
Fig. shows a simply supported beam AB of length 4m,
carrying a load of 1000 N at its middle point C.

The shear force at a section will be considered positive when the resultant of the forces to the
left to the section is upwards, or to the right of the section is downwards.

Similarly the shear force at a section will be considered negative if the resultant of the forces
to the left of the section is downwards, or to the right of the section is upwards.

Here in the example above resultant force to the left of the section is upwards and hence the
shear force will be positive.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 99

 2.4.2 Bending Moment and its Sign Convention

The algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces acting to the right or left of the section is
known as bending moment. It is written as B.M.
Consider the simply supported beam AB of
length 4m, carrying a load of 1000 N at its middle point.
Reactions RA and RB are equal and are having
magnitude 500 N as shown in Fig. Imagine the beam to
be divide into two portions by the section X-X. Let the
section X-X be at a distance of 1 m from A.

The bending moment will be considered positive when the moment of the forces and reaction
on the left portion is clockwise, and on the right portion anti-clockwise. In Fig. below, the bending
moment at the section X-X is positive.

Similarly the bending moment will be considered negative when the moment of the forces and
reactions on the left portion is anti-clockwise, and on the right portion clockwise. In Fig. below, the
bending moment at the section XX is negative.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 100
 2.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOADING, SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING
MOMENT
Fig. shows a beam carrying a uniformly distributed load of w per unit length. Consider the
equilibrium of the portion of the beam between sections 1-1 and 2-2. This portion is at a distance
of x from left support and is of length dx.
Let,
F = Shear force at the section 1-1,
F + dF = Shear force at the section 2-2,
M = Bending moment at the section 1-1,
M + dM = Bending moment at the section 2-2.
The forces and moments acting on the length 'dx' of the beam are:
(i) The force F acting vertically up at the section 1-1.
(ii) The force F + dF acting vertically downwards at the section 2-2.
(iii) The load w x dx acting downwards.
(iv) The moments M and (M + dM) acting at section 1-1 and section 2-2 respectively.
The portion of the beam of length dx is in equilibrium. Hence resolving the forces acting on
this part vertically, we get

The above equation shows that the rate of change of shear force is equal to the rate of loading.
Taking the moments of the forces and couples about the section 2-2, we get

The above equation shows that the rate of change of bending moment is equal to the shear force
at the section.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 101
 2.6 SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
Shear force diagram is one which shows the variation of the shear force along the
length of the beam. And a bending moment diagram is one which show the variation
of the bending moment along the length of beam. In these diagrams, the shear force
or bending moment are represented by ordinates whereas the length of the beam
represents abscissa.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 102
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 103
 2.6.1 Important Points for Drawing Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

The following are the important points for drawing shear force and bending moment diagrams:
1.Consider the left or the right portion of the section.
2. Add the forces (including reaction) normal to the beam on one of the portions. If right portion of the
section is chosen, a force on the right portion acting downwards is positive while a force acting upwards
is negative. If the left portion of the section is chosen, a force on the left portion acting upwards is
positive while a force acting downwards is negative.
3. The positive values of shear force and bending moments are plotted above the base line, and negative
values below the base line.
4. The shear force diagram will increase or decrease suddenly i.e., by a vertical straight line at a section
where there is a vertical point load.
5. The shear force between any two vertical loads will be constant and hence the shear force diagram
between two vertical loads will be horizontal.
6. The bending moment at the two supports of a simply supported beam and at the free end of a
cantilever will be zero.
2.7 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT EQUATIONS AND
DEVELOPMENT OF SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM (SFD) AND BENDING
MOMENT DIAGRAM (BMD)
2.7.1 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for A Cantilever with A Point
Load At the Free End

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 104
 Problem 1: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for cantilever beam shown in the figure

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 105
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 106
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 107
 Problem 2: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for cantilever beam shown in the figure

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 108
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 109
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 110
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 111
 Problem 3: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for cantilever beam shown in the figure

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 112
 2.7.2 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for A Cantilever with A
Uniformly Distributed Load

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 113
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 114
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 115
 Problem 5: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for cantilever beam shown in the figure

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 116
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 117
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 118
 Problem 6: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for cantilever beam shown in the figure

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 119
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 120
 Beading Moment
LRN 3RN
At B = 0kN-w
!
Befor
&
-

= B
le* m

(3x2) + (4xi
10kN -
m(2)(t
6 + 4
=

MGRN 3Ry
-
ORN -

↓
↓
(a IkN
Ive I Im I

+ (4x1) (zx0)
At A = (3 xa)
-
10
= 0 kN-m
-

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 121
 Problem 7: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for cantilever beam shown in the figure

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 122
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 123
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 124
 Problem 8: A cantilever 1.5 m long is loaded with a uniformly distributed load of 2
kN/m run over a length of 1.25 m from the free end. It also carries a point load of 3 kN
at a distance of 0.25 m from the free end. Draw the shear force and bending moment
diagrams of the cantilever.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 125
 Support Reactions
-

2 5 kN
.
3kN
MA
↓ ↓
G↑
a
·
B
RA
875 -X
10 .

25
# 1 .

Ev = 0

0
5-3 =

RA-2 .

5 5 kN
RA
.
=

EMA = o
+ (RAxO)
875)
23) + (2 5 x 0 .

(3x
.

10

O
MA =

1875
-

+ 2
3 75
.

MA = 0

5 9375kN-m
Ma
.
=

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 126
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 127
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 128
 Problem 9: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for cantilever beam shown in the figure

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 129
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 130
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 131
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 132
 2.7.3 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for A Cantilever with A
Uniformly Varying Load

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 133
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 134
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 135
 Problem 10: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram
(BMD) for cantilever beam shown in the figure

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 136
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 137
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 138
 2.7.4 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for A Simply Supported Beam
with A Point Load At Mid-Point

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 139
 betwee
Taking distance section X-X AS (

ofa from
A

↑
at a

Shear Fore
=

SF .
at X -

x ,
V =

w(4)(t)
counring left
S

porkou of
-

Boom (E) -
w

V =

2
= 0 .
5 - 1

SF at D =
W =

-
0 . 5
2
(-)
S F at
.
C = ⑳
2

x-x between
-

Section B
Taking
at a
distance of from A

S Fatx
x4v
3
w
w
-

coundring left
-

-w
portion of Beau V =

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 140
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 141
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 142
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 143
 2.7.5 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for A Simply Supported Beam
with An Eccentric Point Load

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 144
 actions
Sport
+ Ris = O
Ev = 0 => RA-w
W
RA + Ri =

E Mis = 0

wb 0
(RAX 1)
=
-

wb
RAL =

R
=
F

EMA = O

(wxa) - (RBX1) = 0

wa = Risk
wa
RB =
-

L
=

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 145
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 146
 at -wa
S . F C =
-

. F
9 at is =
-wa
-

Bending
-
Moment
-

at

3
B M X- Y
Rox
.

M
Considering left
=

portion of Beau
M
=
Moto b
B
= = (0) =

B .
Mort c
= -
Wha

L
wab
=
-

L
-

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 147
 Problem 11: A simply supported beam of length 6 m, carries point load of 3 kN and 6
kN at distances of 2 m and 4 m from the left end. Draw the shear force and bending
moment diagrams for the beam.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 148
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 149
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 150
 2.7.6 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for A Simply Supported Beam
Carrying A Uniformly Distributed Load

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 151
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 152
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 153
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 154
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 155
 Problem 12: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for beam shown in the figure.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 156
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 157
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 158
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 159
 Problem 13: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for beam shown in the figure.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 160
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 161
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 162
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 163
 Problem 14: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for beam shown in the figure.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 164
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 165
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 166
 Problem 15: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for beam shown in the figure.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 167
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 168
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 169
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 170
 2.7.7 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for A Simply Supported Beam
Carrying A Uniformly Varying Load From Zero At Each End To W Per Unit
Length At The Centre

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 171
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 172
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 173
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 174
 2.7.8 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for A Simply Supported Beam
Carrying A Uniformly Varying Load From Zero At Each End To W Per Unit
Length At Other End

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 175
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 176
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 177
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 178
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 179
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 180
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 181
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 182
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 183
 Problem 16: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for beam shown in the figure.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 184
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 185
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 186
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 187
 2.7.9 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for Over-Hanging Beams
If the end portion of a beam is extended beyond the support, such beam is known
as overhanging beam.
In case of overhanging beams, the B.M. is positive between the two supports,
whereas the B.M. is negative for the over-hanging portion. Hence at some point, the
B.M. is zero after changing its sign from positive to negative or vice versa. That point is
known as the point of contraflexure or point of inflexion.

Point of Contraflexure: It is the point where the B.M. is zero after changing its sign
from positive to negative or vice versa.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 188
 Problem 17: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for beam shown in the figure. Also locate point of contraflexure.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 189
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 190
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 191
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 192
 Problem 18: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for beam shown in the figure. Also locate point of contraflexure.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 193
 Problem 19: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for beam shown in the figure.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 194
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 195
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 196
 Problem 20: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for beam shown in the figure. Also locate point of contraflexure.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 197
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 198
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 199
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 200
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 201
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 202
 Problem 21: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for beam shown in the figure. Also locate point of contraflexure.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 203
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 204
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 205
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 206
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 207
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 208
 Problem 22: Draw Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
for beam shown in the figure.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 209
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 210
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 211
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 212
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 213
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 214
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 215
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 216
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 217
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 218
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 219
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 220
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 221
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 222
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 223
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 224
 Module 3:
Bending and Shear Stress in Beams
& Torsion in Circular Shaft
 Module-3

Bending and Shear Stresses in Beams:

• Introduction
• Pure bending theory
Assumptions, derivation of bending equation, modulus of rupture, section
modulus, flexural rigidity
• Expression for transverse shear stress in beams
• Bending and shear stress distribution diagrams for circular, rectangular, ‘I’,
and ‘T’ sections
Torsion in Circular Shaft:
• Introduction
• Pure torsion
Assumptions, Derivation of torsion equation for circular shafts, Torsional rigidity
and polar modulus, Power transmitted by a shaft.
BENDING AND SHEAR STRESSES IN BEAMS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
When some external load acts on a beam, the shear force and bending moments are set up at all
sections of the beam. Due to the shear force and bending moment, the beam undergoes certain
deformation. The material of the beam will offer resistance or stresses against these deformations.
These stresses with certain assumptions can be calculated. The stresses introduced by bending moment
are known as bending stresses.
3.2 PURE BENDING THEORY OR SIMPLE BENDING THEORY
A beam simply supported at A and B carrying two similar point loads of 10kN is shown in Fig
below.

The S.F. and B.M. for the beam are drawn as shown in Fig above. From these diagrams, it is
clear that there is no shear force between C and D but the B.M. between C and D is constant. This

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 225
 means that between C and D, the beam is subjected to a constant bending moment only. This condition
of the beam between C and D is known as pure bending or simple bending.
If a length of a beam is subjected to a constant bending moment and no shear force (i.e. , zero
shear force), then the stresses will be set up in that length of the beam due to B.M. only and that length
of the beam is said to be in pure bending or simple bending. The stresses set up in that length of beam
are known as bending stresses.
From SFD and BMD of the above figure, the portion CD will be under pure bending as shear
force is zero.
Let us consider a small portion of beam between C & D as shown in the figure below

(Before Bending) (After Bending)

From this figure, it is clear that all the layers of the beam, which were originally of the same
length, do not remain of the same length any more.
The top layer such as PQ has deformed to the shape P'Q'. This layer has been shortened in its
length. The bottom layer RS has deformed to the shape R'S'. This layer has been elongated. From the
Fig., it is clear that some of the layers have been shortened while some of them are elongated. At a
level between the top and bottom of the beam, there will be a layer which is neither shortened nor
elongated. This layer is known as neutral layer or neutral axis NA, as shown in the figure above. This
theory of bending is known as Pure Bending Theory.
3.2.1 Assumptions In Pure Bending Theory

1. The material of the beam is homogeneous and isotropic.

2. The value of Young's modulus of elasticity is the same in tension and compression.
3. The transverse sections which were plane before bending, remain plane after bending also.
4. The beam is initially straight, and all longitudinal filaments bend into circular arcs with a
common centre of curvature.
5. The radius of curvature is large compared with the dimensions of the cross-section.
6. Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract, independently of the layer, above or
below it.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 226
 3.2.2 Derivation of Bending Equation

Let us consider a portion of beam subjected to pure bending as shown

in the figure.
Let P'R' and Q'S' meet at O.
Let R = Radius of neutral axis NA
Let θ = Angle subtended at O by P'R' and Q'S' produced.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 227
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 228
 3.2.3 Centroid of Various Sections

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 229
 3.2.4 Moment of Inertia for Various Sections

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 230
 3.2.5 Section Modulus

3.2.6 Section Modulus of Various Sections

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 231
 3.2.7 Shear Force and Bending Moments of various Beams

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 232
 Problem 1: A steel plate of width 120 mm and of thickness 20 mm is bent into a circular
arc of radius 10 m. Determine the maximum stress induced and the bending moment
which will produce the maximum stress. Take E = 2 × 105 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 233
 Problem 2: A 8m long beam has 300mm breadth and 450mm depth. It is subjected to
UDL of 6kN/m. Calculate maximum bending stress at top and bottom fibers and also
draw stress distribution diagram.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 234
 Problem 3: A cantilever of length 2 metre fails when a load of 2 kN is applied at the
free end. If the section of the beam is 40 mm × 60 mm, find the stress at the failure.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 235
 Problem 4: Calculate the maximum stress induced in a cast iron pipe of external
diameter 40 mm, of internal diameter 20 mm and of length 4 metre when the pipe is
supported at its ends and carries a point load of 80 N at its centre.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 236
 Problem 5: A rectangular beam 200 mm deep and 300 mm wide is simply supported
over a span of 8 m. What uniformly distributed load per metre the beam may carry, if
the bending stress is not to exceed 120 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 237
 Problem 6: A rectangular beam 300 mm deep is simply supported over a span of 4
metres. Determine the uniformly distributed load per metre which the beam may carry,
if the bending stress should not exceed 120 N/mm2. Take I = 8 × 106 mm.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 238
 Problem 7: A beam is simply supported and carries a uniformly distributed load of 40
kN/m run over the whole span. The section of the beam is rectangular having depth as
500 mm. If the maximum stress in the material of the beam is 120 N/mm2 and moment
of inertia of the section is 7 × 108 mm4, find the span of the beam.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 239
 Problem 8: A timber beam of rectangular section is to support a load of 20kN uniformly
distributed over a span of 3.6 m when beam is simply supported. If the depth of section
is to be twice the breadth, and the stress in the timber is not to exceed 7 N/mm2, find the
dimensions of the cross-section.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 240
 Problem 9: A timber beam of rectangular section of length 8 m is simply supported.
The beam carries a U.D.L. of 12 kN/m run over the entire length and a point load of 10
kN at 3 metres from the left support. If the depth is two times the width and the stress in
the timber is not to exceed 8 N/mm2, find the suitable dimensions of the section.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 241
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 242
 Problem 10:A rolled steel joist of I section has the dimensions as shown in Fig. This
beam of I section carries a u.d.l. of 40 kN/m run on a span of 10 m, calculate the
maximum stress produced due to bending.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 243
 Problem 11: An I-section shown in Fig, is simply supported over a span of 12 m. If the
maximum permissible bending stress is 80 N/mm2, what concentrated load can be
carried at a distance of 4 m from one support?

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 244
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 245
 Problem 12: A beam of unsymmetrical I section having 120mm x 15mm as top flange
and 60mm x 15mm bottom flange with 12mm thick, 270mm deep web is subjected to a
maximum moment of 120kN-m. Draw bending stress distribution.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 246
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 247
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 248
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 249
 Problem 13: A T section with top flange 100mm x 20mm and web of 20mm x150mm
is used for a cantilever beam of span 4m subjected to UDL of 5kN/m. Draw bending
stress distribution.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 250
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 251
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 252
 Problem 14: A compression flange of cast iron beam 100mm wide and 20mm deep,
web is 150mm deep and 20mm thick. Find the maximum UDL the beam can carry when
the above section used for a simply supported beam with 5m span. The permissible
stresses are 95 MPa and 150 MPa in compression and tension respectively. Neglect the
weight of the beam.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 253
 Problem 15: A inverted T beam is fixed at one end and free at the other end having the
span of 4m. The properties of the section are,
i) Flange 400mm x 40mm
ii) Web 200mm x 40mm
Determine the maximum permissible UDL if maximum permissible stresses are 40 MPa
and 70 MPa in tensile and compression region respectively.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 254
 * 16, 20 A, %I
)
= 000 y =
= 320000

A2
= 8000
y
= 140
1282 =

--
112,0000
-

1440000
At 224000 Eby
-

- -

Centroid -
, y, + 1242

Ac + A2

I
1440000
-

24000

= Gome
-

T-
NA
=

-
T na tah2
40" [16000 402]}
E 200 x + x +
-
-

12

&200 + [8000 x
8033
105 6 x10' much
INA =
.

=>

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 255
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 256
 3.3 EXPRESSION FOR TRANSVERSE SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS

3.3.1 Shear Stress in Beams

Incase of Bending of Beams i.e. the beams subjected to constant bending moment only and no
shear force, and hence no shear stress.
But, in actual practice, when the beam is loaded, it is subjected to a bending moment, which
varies from section to section and hence is subjected to shear force, which also varies from section to
section.
Due to these shear forces, the beam is subjected to transverse shear stresses, which produces
complimentary horizontal shear stresses. These shear stresses act on longitudinal layers of the beam
and are negligible as compared to the bending stresses.
In this topic, we will see the distribution of the shear stresses across the various sections.
3.3.2 Expression for Transverse Shear Stress in Beams

Consider a small portion ABCD of length 'dx' of a beam subjected to u.d.l. as shown in fig. (a).
We know that, when a beam is subjected to a u.d.l., the shear force and bending moment varies from
section to section.
Let, F = Shear Force at section A - B
F+ dF = Shear Force at section C - D
M = Bending Moment at section A - B
M + dM = Bending Moment at section C-D
Now consider an elementary strip of thickness 'dy' at a distance 'y' from the neutral axis N-A as
shown in fig. (b).
Let, b = Width of elementary strip
dA = Cross - sectional area of strip = b x dy
f 1 = Bending stress on strip across section A-B
f 2 = Bending stress on strip across section C-D

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 257
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 258
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 259
 3.4 BENDING AND SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION DIAGRAMS
3.4.1 Rectangular Section
Fig. shows a rectangular section of a beam of width b and depth d. Let F is the shear force
acting at the section. Consider a level EF at a distance y from the neutral axis.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 260
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 261
 Problem 16: A rectangular beam 100 mm wide and 250 mm deep is subjected to a
maximum shear force of 50 kN. Determine (i)Average shear stress, (ii) Maximum shear
stress, and (iii) Shear stress at a distance of 25mm above the neutral axis.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 262
 Problem 17: A simply supported wooden beam of span 1.3 m having a cross-section
150 mm wide by 250 mm deep carries a point load W at the centre. The permissible
stress are 7 N/mm2 in bending and 1 N/mm2 in shearing. Calculate the safe load W.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 263
 3.4.2 Circular Section
Fig. shows a circular section of a beam. Let R be the radius of the circular section. F be the
shear force acting on the section. Consider a level EF at a distance y from the neutral axis.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 264
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 265
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 266
 Problem 18: A circular beam of 100 mm diameter is subjected to a shear force of 5 kN.
Calculate: (i) Average shear stress, (ii) Maximum shear stress, and (iii) Shear stress at a
distance of 40 mm from N.A.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 267
 3.4.3 I-Section
Fig. shows the I-section of a beam.
Let, B = Overall width of the section,
D = Overall depth of the section,
b = Thickness of the web, and
d = Depth of web.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 268
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 269
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 270
 Problem 19: Draw s shear stress distribution diagram for a symmetrical I Section
subjected to maximum shear force of 40kN. The sectional properties are i) 120 mm x
15mm top and bottom flange ii)20 mm x 270mm web.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 271
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 272
 Problem 20: A beam of unsymmetrical I section having 120mm x 15mm as top flange
and 60mm x 15mm bottom flange with 12mm thick, 270mm deep web is subjected to a
maximum shear force of 40kN. Draw shear stress distribution.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 273
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 274
 3.4.4 T-Section
The shear stress distribution over a T-section is obtained in the same manner as over an I-
section. But in this case the position of neutral axis (i.e., position of C.G.) is to be obtained first, as the
section is not symmetrical about x-x axis. The shear stress distribution diagram will also not be
symmetrical.
Problem 21: A T section with top flange 100mm x
20mm and web of 20mm x150mm is used for a
cantilever beam of span 4m subjected to UDL of
5kN/m. Draw shear stress distribution.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 275
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 276
 TORSION IN CIRCULAR SHAFT
3.5 INTRODUCTION
A shaft is said to be in torsion, when equal and opposite torques are applied at the two ends of
the shaft. The torque is equal to the product of the force applied (tangentially to the ends of a shaft) and
radius of the shaft. Due to the application of the torques at the two ends, the shaft is subjected to a
twisting moment. This causes the shear stresses and shear strains in the material of the shaft.
3.5.1 Angle of Twist (θ)
The angle through which the sectional plane at free end of the shaft rotates about the axis with
respect to fixed end is known as angle of twist θ.

3.5.2 Shear Strain (Φ)

It is the angle at which longitudinal lines of shafts rotate after the application of torque.

3.6 ASSUMPTIONS MADE IN THE DERIVATION OF SHEAR STRESS

PRODUCED IN A CIRCULAR SHAFT SUBJECTED TO TORSION
The derivation of shear stress produced in a circular shaft subjected to torsion, is based on the
following assumptions:
1. The material of the shaft is homogenous and isotropic.
2. The shaft obeys Hooke’s law (Shear stress ∝ Shear strain, within the elastic limit).
3. The circular section of the shaft remains circular after application of torque.
4. The plane of the section remains plane and doesn’t wrap under the influence of torque.
5. All radii lines in the given section are perpendicular to longitudinal axis.
6. The shaft is subjected to torque which is perpendicular to longitudinal axis.
7. The shaft is subjected to pure torsion only.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 277
 3.7 DERIVATION OF TORSION EQUATION
When a circular shaft is subjected to torsion, shear stresses are set up in the material of the
shaft. To determine the magnitude of shear stress at any point on the shaft, consider a shaft fixed at one
end AA and free at the end BB as shown in Fig. Let CD is any line on the outer surface of the shaft.
Now let the shaft be subjected to a torque T at the end BB as shown in Fig.(a). As a result of this torque
T, the shaft at the end BB will rotate
clockwise and every cross-section of the
shaft will be subjected to shear stresses.
The point D will shift to D' and hence line
CD will be deflected to CD' as shown in
Fig.(a). The line OD will be shifted to OD'
as shown in Fig. (b).
Let
R = Radius of shaft
L = Length of shaft
T = Torque applied at the end BB
! = Shear stress induced at the surface of
the shaft due to torque T
G = Modulus of rigidity for the material of
the shaft

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 278
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 279
 Polar moment of inertia of a plane area is defined as the moment of inertia of the area about an
axis perpendicular to the plane of the figure and passing through the C.G. of the area. It is denoted by
symbol J.
Consider a shaft subjected to a torque T as shown in Fig. Consider
an elementary circular ring of thickness 'dx' at a distance 'x' from the
centre as shown in Fig.

Let
R = Radius of the shaft
x = Radius of elementary circular ring
dx = Thickness of the ring
! = Maximum shear stress induced at outer surface of the shaft
!x = Shear stress induced on the elementary ring
dA = Area of the elementary circular ring = 2 " x dx

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 280
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 281
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 282
 3.8 MAXIMUM TORQUE TRANSMITTED BY A CIRCULAR SOLID SHAFT
The maximum torque transmitted by a circular solid shaft, is obtained from the maximum shear
stress induced at the outer surface of the solid shaft. Consider a shaft
subjected to a torque T as shown in Fig.
Let
! = Maximum shear stress induced at the outer surface
R = Radius of the shaft

Consider an elementary circular ring of thickness 'dr' at a distance 'r'

from the centre as shown in Fig.
Let
q = Shear stress at a radius 'r' from the centre.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 283
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 284
 Problem 22: A solid shaft of 150 mm diameter is used to transmit torque. Find the
maximum torque transmitted by the shaft if the maximum shear stress induced to the
shaft is 45 N/mm2.

Problem 23: The shearing stress of a solid shaft is not to exceed 40 N/mm2 when the
torque transmitted is 20000 N-m. Determine the minimum diameter of the shaft.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 285
 3.9 TORQUE TRANSMITTED BY A HALLOW CIRCULAR SHAFT
Consider a hollow shaft. Let it be subjected to a torque T as shown in Fig. Take an
elementary circular ring of thickness 'dr' at a distance r from the centre as shown in Fig.

Let
Ro = Outer radius of the shaft
Ri = Inner radius of the shaft
r = Radius of elementary circular ring
dr = Thickness of the ring
! = Maximum shear stress induced at outer surface of the shaft
q = Shear stress induced on the elementary ring
dA = Area of the elementary circular ring = 2 " r x dr

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 286
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 287
 3.10 POWER TRANSMITTED BY SHAFTS
The power transmission process transmits a motion from one shaft to another with a connection
between them like a belt, chain or gear. Power transmission products are commonly used in industrial
automation, construction machinery, and material handling system applications.
Let
N = Rotation / revolution per minute of the shaft
T = Mean torque transmitted in N-mm
w = Angular speed of shaft.
Then
!"#$
Power = watts
%&

Power = T w

Problem 24: In a hollow circular shaft of outer and inner diameters of 20 cm and 10 cm
respectively, the shear stress is not to exceed 40 N/mm2. Find the maximum torque
which the shaft can safely transmit.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 288
 Problem 25: Two shafts of the same material and of same lengths are subjected to the
same torque, if the first shaft is of a solid circular section and the second shaft is of
hollow circular section, whose internal diameter is 2/3 of the outside diameter and the
maximum shear stress developed in each shaft is the same, compare the weights of the
shafts.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 289
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 290
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 291
 Problem 26: A hollow circular shaft 20 mm thick transmits 300 kW power at 200 r.p.m.
Determine the external diameter of the shaft if the shear strain due to torsion is not to
exceed 0.00086. Take modulus of rigidity = 0.8 × 105 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 292
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 293
 Problem 27: A hollow shaft of external diameter 120 mm transmits 300 kW power at
200 r.p.m. Determine the maximum internal diameter if the maximum stress in the shaft
is not to exceed 60 N/ mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 294
 Problem 28: A solid cylindrical shaft is to transmit 300 kW power at 100 r.p.m.
(a) If the shear stress is not to exceed 80 N/mm2, find its diameter.
(b) What percent saving in weight would be obtained if this shaft is replaced by a hollow
one whose internal diameter equals to 0.6 of the external diameter, if the length, the
material and maximum shear stress being the same?

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 295
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 296
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 297
 Problem 29: A solid steel shaft has to transmit 75 kW at 200 r.p.m. Taking allowable
shear stress as 70 N/mm2, find suitable diameter for the shaft, if the maximum torque
transmitted at each revolution exceeds the mean by 30%.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 298
 Problem 30: A hollow shaft is to transmit 300 kW power at 80 r.p.m. lf the shear stress
is not to exceed 60 N/mm2 and the internal diameter is 0.6 of the external diameter, find
the external and internal diameters assuming that the maximum torque is 1.4 times the
mean.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 299
 3.11 POLAR MODULUS
Polar modulus is defined as the ratio of the polar moment of inertia to the radius of the shaft. It
is also called torsional section modulus. It is denoted by Zp.
Mathematically,
J
Zp=
R

(a) For a solid shaft,

(b) For hallow shaft,

3.12 STRENGTH OF A SHAFT AND TORSIONAL RIGIDITY

The strength of a shaft means the maximum torque or maximum power the shaft can transmit.
Torsional rigidity or stiffness of the shaft is defined as the product of modulus of rigidity (G) and polar
moment of inertia of the shaft (J). Hence mathematically, the torsional rigidity is given as,
Torsional rigidity = G x J.
Torsional rigidity is also defined as the torque required to produce a twist of one radian per unit
length of the shaft.
Let a twisting moment T produces a twist of θ radians in a shaft of length L.
we have
T Gθ
=
J L
T.L
G.J=
θ
T.L
Torsional Rigidity =
θ
If L=One Metre and θ = One Radian, Torsional Rigidity = Torque (T)

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 300
 Problem 31: Determine the diameter of a solid steel shaft which will transmit 90 kW at
160 r.p.m. Also determine the length of the shaft if the twist must not exceed l° over the
entire length. The maximum shear stress is limited to 60 N/mm2. Take the value of
modulus of rigidity = 8 x 104 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 301
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 302
 Problem 32: A hollow shaft of diameter ratio 3/8 (internal dia, to outer dia.) is to
transmit 375 kW power at 100 r.p.m. The maximum torque being 20% greater than the
mean. The shear stress is not to exceed 60 N/mm2 and twist in a length of 4m not to
exceed 2°. Calculate its external and internal diameters which would satisfy both the
above conditions. Assume modulus of rigidity, G = 0.85 × 105 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 303
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 304
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 305
 Problem 33: A hollow shaft, having an internal diameter 40% of its external diameter,
transmits 562.5 kW power at 100 r.p.m. Determine the external diameter of the shaft if
the shear stress is not to exceed 60 N/mm2 and the twist in a length of 2.5 m should not
exceed 1.3 degrees. Assume maximum torque = 1.25 mean torque and modulus of
rigidity = 9 × 104 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 306
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 307
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 308
 Module 4:
Columns and Struts & Deflection of
Beams
 Module-4
Columns and Struts:
• Introduction
• Short and long columns
• Assumptions of Euler’s theory
• Derivation for Euler’s Buckling load for different end conditions
• Limitations of Euler’s theory
• Rankine-Gordon’s formula for columns

Deflection of Beams:
• Definition of slope
• Deflection and curvature
• Sign conventions
• Derivation of moment- curvature equation
• Double integration method and Macaulay’s method:
Slope and deflection for standard loading cases and for determinate prismatic
beams subjected to point loads, UDL, UVL and couple.

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Column or strut is defined as a member of a structure, which is subjected to axial compressive
load. If the member of the structure is vertical and both of its ends are fixed rigidly while subjected to
axial compressive load, the member is known as column, for example a vertical pillar between the roof
and floor. If the member of the structure is not vertical and one or both of its ends are hinged or pin
joined, the bar is known as strut i.e. member of truss, piston rods etc.
4.2 SHORT AND LONG COLUMNS
Slenderness Ratio is the ratio of effective length of column to the least radius of gyration.

Short column is the one which fails by crushing. Generally, their length is less than 8 times the
lateral dimension of column and has a slenderness ratio of less than 30.
Long Column is the one which fails by buckling (Swaying Laterally). Generally, their length
is 30 times the lateral dimension of column and has a slenderness ratio of more than 120.
Buckling or crippling loads are the loads at which long columns and short columns fail
respectively.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 309
 Differences of Short and long columns are as follows.
Short Columns Long Columns
1. Short Columns fail by Crushing. 1. Long Columns fail by Buckling.
2. Slenderness Ratio is less than 30. 2. Slenderness Ratio is more than 120.
3. Euler’s Theory is not valid. 3. Euler’s Theory is valid.
4. Bending stresses are neglected. 4. Direct shear stresses are neglected.
5. Cross sectional dimensions are considered. 5. Cross sectional dimensions are not considered.
6. Short columns are the first choice of the 6. Long columns are not as strong as short
constructor as they are stronger than long columns; as a result, they are not preferable.
columns.
7. The load-bearing capacity of short columns is 7. If the columns are long and slender, they get
more. buckled easily.

4.3 ASSUMPTIONS OF EULER’S THEORY

The following assumptions are made in the Euler's column theory:
1. The column is initially perfectly straight, and the load is applied axially.
2. The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length.
3. The column material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic and obeys Hooke's law
4. The length of the column is very large as compared to its lateral dimensions.
5. The direct stress is very small as compared to the bending stress.
6. The column will fail by buckling alone.
7. The self-weight of column is negligible.
4.4 SIGN CONVENTIONS
The following sign conventions for the bending of the
columns will be used:
1. A moment which will bend the column with its convexity
towards its initial central line as shown in Fig. (a) is taken as
positive. In Fig. (a), AB represents the initial centre line of a
column. Whether the column bends taking the shape AB' or
AB", the moment producing this type of curvature is positive.
2. A moment which will tend to bend the column with its
concavity towards its initial centre line as shown in Fig. (b)
is taken as negative.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 310
 4.5 END CONDITIONS FOR LONG COLUMNS
In case of long columns, the stress due to direct load is very small in comparison with the stress
due to buckling. Hence the failure of long columns take place entirely due to buckling (or bending).
The following four types of end conditions of the columns are important:
1. Both the ends of the column are hinged (or pinned).
2. One end is fixed, and the other end is free.
3. Both the ends of the column are fixed.
4. One end is fixed, and the other is pinned.
For a hinged end, the deflection is zero. For a fixed end the deflection and slope are zero. For a
free end the deflection is not zero.
4.6 DERIVATION FOR EULER’S BUCKLING LOAD FOR DIFFERENT END
CONDITIONS
4.6.1 Expression for Crippling Load When Both the Ends of the Column are Hinged
The load at which the column just buckles (or bends) is called crippling load.
Consider a column AB of length ‘l’ and uniform cross-sectional area, hinged at both of
its ends A and B. Let P be the crippling load at which the column has just buckled. Due
to the crippling load, the column will deflect into a curved form ACB as shown in Fig.
Consider any section at a distance x from the end A.
Let y = Deflection (lateral displacement) at the section.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 311
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 312
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 313
 4.6.2 Expression for Crippling Load When One End of the Column Is Fixed and the Other End
is Free
Consider a column AB, of length ‘l’ and uniform cross-sectional area, fixed
at the end A and free at the end B. The free end will sway sideways when load is
applied at free end.
Let P be the crippling load at which the column has just buckled. Due to the
crippling load P, the column will deflect as shown in Fig. in which AB is the original
position of the column and AB', is the deflected position due to crippling load P.
Let
y = Deflection (or lateral displacement) at the section
a = Deflection at the free end B.
Consider any section at a distance x from the fixed end A.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 314
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 315
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 316
 4.6.3 Expression for Crippling Load When Both the Ends of the Column are Fixed
Consider a column AB of length ‘l’ and uniform cross-sectional area fixed at
both of its ends A and B as shown in Fig. Let P is the crippling load at which the
column has buckled. Due to the crippling load P, the column will deflect as shown
in Fig.
Due to fixed ends, there will be fixed end moments (say Mo) at the ends A
and B. The fixed end moments will be acting in such direction so that slope at the
fixed ends becomes zero.
Consider a section at a distance x from the end A. Let the deflection of the
column at the section is y. As both the ends of the column are fixed and the column
carries a crippling load, there will be some fixed end moments at A and B.
Let
Mo = Fixed end moments at A and B.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 317
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 318
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 319
 4.6.4 Expression for Crippling Load When One End of the Column is Fixed, and the Other End
is Hinged
Consider a column AB of length ‘l’ and uniform cross-sectional area fixed at
the end A and hinged at the end B as shown in Fig. Let P be the crippling load at which
the column has buckled. Due to the crippling load P, the column will deflect as shown
in Fig.
There will be fixed end moment (Mo) at the fixed end A. This will try to bring
back the slope of deflected column to zero at A. Hence it will be acting anti clockwise
at A. The fixed end moment Mo at A is to be balanced. This will be balanced by a
horizontal reaction (H) at the top end B as shown in Fig.
Consider a section at a distance x from the end A.
Let
y = Deflection of the column at the section,
Mo = Fixed end moment at A, and
H = Horizontal reaction at B.
The moment at the section = Moment due to crippling load at B + Moment due to horizontal reaction
at B

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 320
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 321
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 322
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 323
 4.7 EFFECTIVE LENGTH (OR EQUIVALENT LENGTH) OF A COLUMN
The effective length of a given column with given end conditions is the length of an equivalent
column of the same material and cross-section with hinged ends and having the value of the crippling
load equal to that of the given column. Effective length is also called equivalent length.
The relation between effective length and actual length are given in Table below.

4.8 LIMITATIONS OF EULER’S THEORY

1. Euler’s theory cannot be applied to columns with slenderness ratio less than 80.
2. If the direct stresses are large in a column, then Euler’s theory is not applicable.
3. If the cross-sectional area of the column is non uniform, then Euler’s theory is not applicable.
4.9 RANKINE-GORDON’S FORMULA FOR COLUMNS
Euler's formula gives correct results only for very long columns. But what happens when the
column is a short or the column is not a very long. On the basis of results of experiments performed by
Rankine, he established an empirical formula which is applicable to all columns whether they are short
or long. The empirical formula given by Rankine is known as Rankine's formula, which is given as

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 324
 Problem 1: A solid round bar 3 m. long and 5 cm in diameter is used as a strut.
Determine the crippling (or collapsing) load, if.
(i) Both the ends are hinged.
(ii) One end of the strut is fixed, and the other end is free.
(ii) Both the ends of strut are fixed.
(iii) One end is fixed and other is hinged.
Take E = 2.0 × 105 N/mm2

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 325
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 326
 Problem 2: A hollow mild steel tube 3 m long 3 cm internal diameter and 5 mm thick
is used as a strut with both ends hinged. Determine
(i) Euler’s crippling load
(ii) Rankine’s crippling load, and
(iii) Safe load taking factor of safety as 3.
Also compare Euler’s and Rankine’s crippling load
Take E = 2 × 105 N/mm2, sc = 335 N/mm2 and a = 1/7500

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 327
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 328
 Problem 3: A hollow cast iron tube 4 m long is used as a strut with both ends fixed.
Determine minimum diameter of the column if it must carry a safe load of 250 kN and
if internal diameter is 0.8 times the external diameter. Take sc = 550 N/mm2 and a =
1/1600

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 329
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 330
 Problem 4: A column of timber section 15 cm x 20 cm is 6 metre long with both ends
being fixed. If the Young's modulus for timber = 17.5 kN/mm2, determine:
(i) Crippling load and
(ii) Safe load for the column if factor of safety = 3.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 331
 Problem 5: A symmetrical I section has flanges 200mm x 25mm and web thickness
25mm with overall depth of 200mm. The height of the column is 5m and fixed at both
ends. Compute Euler’s crippling load and compare it with Rankine’s formula by taking
E = 2 x 105 N/mm2, sc = 500 N/mm2 and a = 1/1600

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 332
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 333
 Problem 6: Determine Euler’s crippling load for a T section 100mm x100mm x 20mm
having a length of 4.2m and fixed at one end and hinged at other. Also calculate
Rankine’s crippling load by taking E = 2 x 105 N/mm2, sc = 320 N/mm2 and a = 1/7500

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 334
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 335
 Problem 7: A column is made up of two channel ISJC 200 and two 250 mm x 10 mm
flange plate as shown in Fig. Determine by Rankine's formula the safe load, the column
of 6 m length, with both ends fixed, can carry with a factor of safety 4. The properties
of one channel are A = 1777 mm2, IXX = 11.61 x 106 mm4 and IYY = 0.84 x 106 mm4.
Distance of centroid from back of web = 19.7 mm. Take sc = 320 N/mm2 and Rankine's
constant a = 1/7500.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 336
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 337
 DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

4.10 INTRODUCTION

Deflection of beams is a fundamental concept in structural engineering that describes the

vertical displacement experienced by a beam when subjected to external loads. When a beam is loaded,
it undergoes deformation, causing it to bend or sag as shown in Fig. below. This deformation is known
as deflection.

Understanding and analyzing deflection is crucial in structural design to ensure that beams can
adequately support applied loads while maintaining acceptable levels of deformation. Deflection is
influenced by various factors including the magnitude and distribution of the loads, the material
properties of the beam, its geometry, and the support conditions.
Engineers use mathematical models and engineering principles to predict and control deflection
in beam design, ensuring that structures remain safe, functional, and compliant with design
requirements. Effective management of deflection is essential for the structural integrity, stability, and
performance of beams in buildings, bridges, and other civil engineering structures.

4.11 SLOPE, DEFLECTION AND CURVATURE

Consider a beam shown in the Fig. which is subjected to load. Due to application of load, the
beam is deformed or deflected as shown in the Fig.

Slope (θ): The slope of a beam at any point is the angle between the tangent to the elastic curve
(the deflected shape of the beam under load) and the horizontal axis. It represents the change in vertical
displacement with respect to horizontal distance along the beam. Slope is denoted by θ (theta) and is
usually measured in radians or degrees.

Deflection (y): Deflection refers to the displacement of any point on the loaded beam from its
original position. It represents the vertical distance between the original and deflected positions of a
point on the beam. Deflection is denoted by (y) and is usually measured in units of length, such as
meters or millimetres.

Curvature: Curvature describes how the elastic curve deviates from being a straight line. It
quantifies the change in slope along the length of the beam. It can also be defined as the deflected shape
of a beam subjected to transverse loads.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 338
 4.12 SIGN CONVENTIONS
For Deflection:
• Downward movement is Positive (+ve)
• Upward movement is Negative (-ve)

For Slope:
The angle must be measured from tangent to straight line.
• Negative (-ve) when measured clockwise.
• Positive (+ve) when measured anti clockwise.

4.13 DERIVATION OF MOMENT- CURVATURE EQUATION

Consider a cantilever beam that is deflected as shown in the figure below.

Let,
dx = Small elemental length considered between P1 and P2.
θ = Angle of rotation at P1
θ + dθ = Angle of rotation at P2
dS = Length of Elastic Curve between P1 and P2.
R = Radius of deflected beam.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 339
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 340
 4.14 DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD

14.14.1 Determine the slopes at support and maximum deflection for the simply
supported beam subjected to point load at centre.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 341
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 342
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 343
 14.14.2 Determine the slopes at support and maximum deflection for the simply
supported beam subjected UDL over entire span.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 344
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 345
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 346
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 347
 14.14.3 Determine the slopes at support and maximum deflection for the simply
supported beam subjected with end moments.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 348
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 349
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 350
 14.14.4 Determine the slopes at support, deflection under load and maximum deflection
for the simply supported beam shown in Fig.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 351
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 352
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 353
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 354
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 355
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 356
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 357
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 358
 14.14.5 Determine the slope and deflection at free end for a cantilever beam subjected
to point load at free end.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 359
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 360
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 361
 14.14.6 Determine the slope and deflection at free end for a cantilever beam subjected
to UDL over the entire span.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 362
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 363
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 364
 14.14.7 Determine the slope and deflection at free end for a cantilever beam subjected
to UVL as shown in Fig.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 365
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 366
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 367
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 368
 14.14.8 Determine the slope and deflection at free end for a cantilever beam subjected
to moment at free end.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 369
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 370
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 371
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 372
 Problem 8: Determine the slope and deflection for the simply supported beam for
following different conditions
i) Point load at Centre (W) =50 kN, L= 6m, I = 78 x 106 mm4, E= 2.1 x 105 N/mm2

ii) UDL on entire span of beam with rectangular cross section(W/m)=9 kN/m, L=5m,
b=200mm(width), d= 300mm(depth), E= 1 x 104 N/mm2

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 373
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 374
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 375
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 376
 iii) End moments (M)= 8 kN-m, L= 6m, I = 78 x 106 mm4, E= 2 x 105 N/mm2

iv) Point load (W)=5kN at 3m from left support, L= 5m, I = 1 x 108 mm4, E= 2 x 105 N/mm2

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 377
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 378
 Problem 9: Determine the slope and deflection for the cantilever beam for following
different conditions
i) Point load at free end (W) =25 kN, L= 3m, I = 108 mm4, E= 2.1 x 105 N/mm2

ii) UDL on entire span(W/m)=16.4 kN/m, L=2.5m, I=7.95 x 107 mm4, E= 2 x 105 N/mm2

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 379
 iii) UVL on entire span with zero intensity at free end (W/m)=50 kN/m, L=4m, I= 108 mm4,
E= 2 x 105 N/mm2

iv) End moments (M)= 3 kN-m, L= 6m, I = 78 x 106 mm4, E= 2 x 105 N/mm2

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 380
 Problem 10: For the simply supported beam find the following for different
conditions
i) Point load at Centre = W, L= 4m, find deflection at centre if slope not to exceed 1o

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 381
 ii) UDL on entire span(W/m)=9 kN/m, L=5m, permissible bending stress f =7 N/mm2 ,
if deflection at centre not to exceed 1 cm find width and depth of rectangular beam.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 382
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 383
 iii) UDL on entire span= W/m, L=5m, permissible bending stress f =8 N/mm2 , if
deflection at centre not to exceed 10 mm find depth of rectangular beam.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 384
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 385
 Problem 11: A cantilever 120 mm wide and 200 mm deep is 2.5 m long. What is the
uniformly distributed load which the beam can carry in order to produce a deflection of
5 mm at the free end? Take E = 200 GN/m2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 386
 4.15 MACAULAY’S METHOD
The procedure of finding slope and deflection for a simply supported beam with an eccentric
point load as presented in 14.4.4, is a very laborious. There is a convenient method for determining
the deflections of the beam subjected to loads.
This method was devised by Mr. M.H. Macaulay and is known as Macaulay's method. This
method mainly consists in the special manner in which the bending moment at any section is expressed
and in the manner in which the integrations are carried out.
4.15.1 Simply Supported Beam with an Eccentric Point Load

Consider a simply supported

beam AB of length L and carrying a
point load W at a distance 'a' from left
support and at a distance 'b' from right
support is shown in Fig. The reactions
at A and B are given by,

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 387
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 388
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 389
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 390
 Problem 12: A beam of length 6 m is simply supported at its ends and carries two point
loads of 48 kN and 40 kN at a distance of 1m and 3m respectively from the left support.
Find: (i) Deflection under each load, (ii) Maximum deflection, and (iii) The point at
which maximum deflection occurs. Given E = 2 x 105 N/mm2 and I = 85 x 106 mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 391
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 392
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 393
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 394
 Problem 13: A beam of length 8 m is simply supported at its ends. It carries a uniformly
distributed load of 40 kN/m as shown in Fig. Determine the deflection of the beam at its
mid-point and also the position of maximum deflection and maximum deflection. Take
E = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and I = 4.3 × 108 mm4

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 395
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 396
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 397
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 398
 Problem 14: A horizontal beam AB is simply supported at A and B, 6 m apart. The beam
is subjected to a clockwise couple of 300 kNm at a distance of 4 m from the left end as
shown in Fig. If E = 2 x 105 N/mm2 and I = 2 x 108 mm4, determine:
(i) Deflection at the point where couple is acting and (ii) the maximum deflection.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 399
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 400
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 401
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 402
 Module 5:
Thin and Thick Cylinders &
Compound Stresses
 Module-5
Thin and Thick Cylinders:
• Introduction
• Thin cylinders subjected to internal pressure.
Hoop stresses, Longitudinal stress and change in volume.
• Thick cylinders subjected to both internal and external pressure.
Lame’s equation, radial and hoop stress distribution

Compound Stresses:
• Introduction.
• State of stress at a point.
• General two-dimensional stress system.
• Principal stresses and principal planes.
• Mohr’s circle of stresses.

THIN AND THICK CYLINDERS

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The vessels such as boilers, compressed air receivers etc., are of cylindrical and spherical forms.
These vessels are generally used for storing fluids (liquid or gas) under pressure.
The walls of such vessels are thin as compared to their diameters. If the thickness of the wall
1 1
of the cylindrical vessel is less than to of its internal diameter, the cylindrical vessel is known
15 20
1
as a thin cylinder. If the ratio of thickness to internal diameter is more than , then cylindrical shell
20
is known as thick cylinders.
In case of thin cylinders, the stress distribution is assumed uniform over the thickness of the
wall. The hoop stress in case of a thick cylinder will not be uniform across the thickness and hoop
stress will vary from a maximum value at the inner circumference to a minimum value at the outer
circumference.
5.2 THIN CYLINDERS SUBJECTED TO INTERNAL PRESSURE
Fig. below shows a thin cylindrical vessel in which a fluid under pressure is stored.
Let,
D = Internal diameter of the thin cylinder
t = Thickness of the wall of the cylinder
P = Internal pressure of the fluid
L = Length of the cylinder.

Because of the internal pressure P, the cylindrical vessel may fail by splitting up in two ways.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 403
 The forces, due to pressure of the fluid acting vertically
upwards and downwards on the thin cylinder, tend to burst the
cylinder as shown in Fig. to the right. This stress acting along
the circumference of the cylinder is called circumferential
stress or Hoop stress.
The forces, due to pressure of the fluid, acting at the ends
of the thin cylinder, tend to burst the thin cylinder as shown in
Fig. to the right. This stress acting along the length of the
cylinder (i.e., in the longitudinal direction) is known as
longitudinal stress.
5.2.1 Expression for Circumferential Stress (Or Hoop Stress)
Consider a thin cylindrical vessel subjected to an internal fluid pressure. The circumferential
stress will be set up in the material of the cylinder, if the bursting of the cylinder takes place as shown
in Fig.
The expression for hoop stress or circumferential stress (σH) is obtained as given below.
Let
P = Internal pressure of fluid
D = Internal diameter of the cylinder
t =Thickness of the wall of the
cylinder
σC = Circumferential or hoop stress in
the material

The bursting will take place if the force due to fluid pressure is more than the resisting force due
to circumferential stress set up in the material. For equilibrium, these two forces should be equal.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 404
 5.2.2 Expression for Longitudinal Stress
Consider a thin cylindrical vessel subjected to internal fluid pressure. The longitudinal stress will
be set up in the material of the cylinder if the bursting of the cylinder takes place along the section AB
as shown in Fig.
The longitudinal stress (σL) developed in the material is obtained as given below
Let
P = Internal pressure of fluid stored in thin
cylinder
D = Internal diameter of cylinder
t = Thickness of the cylinder
σL = Longitudinal stress in the material.

The bursting will take place if the force due to fluid pressure acting on the ends of the cylinder is
more than the resisting force due to longitudinal stress (σL) developed in the material as shown in Fig.
For equilibrium, both the forces should be equal.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 405
 Problem 1: A cylindrical pipe of diameter 1.5 m and thickness 1.5 cm is subjected to
an internal fluid pressure of 1.2 N/mm2. Determine: (i) Longitudinal stress developed
in the pipe, and (ii) Circumferential stress developed in the pipe.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 406
 Problem 2: A cylinder of internal diameter 2.5 m and of thickness 5 cm contains a gas.
If the tensile stress in the material is not to exceed 80 N/mm2, determine the internal
pressure of the gas.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 407
 Problem 3: A cylinder of internal diameter 0.50 m contains air at a pressure of 7 N/mm2
(gauge). If the maximum permissible stress induced in the material in 80 N/mm2, find
the thickness of the cylinder.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 408
 Problem 4: A thin cylinder of internal diameter 1.25 m contains a fluid at an internal
pressure of 2 N/mm2. Determine the maximum thickness of the cylinder if:
(i) The longitudinal stress is not to exceed 30 N/mm2. (ii) The circumferential stress is
not to exceed 45 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 409
 5.2.3 Efficiency of A Joint
The cylindrical shells such as boilers are having two types of joints namely longitudinal joint
and circumferential joint. In case of a joint, holes are made in the material of the shell for the rivets.
Due to the holes, the area offering resistance decreases. Due to the decrease in area, the stress (which
is the equal to the force divided by the area developed in the material of the shell will be more.
Hence in case of rivetted shell the circumferential and longitudinal stresses are greater than
what are given by equations of σC and σL. If the efficiency of a longitudinal joint and circumferential
joint are given then the circumferential and longitudinal stresses are
obtained as below:
Let ,
ηC = Efficiency of the circumferential joint, and
ηL = Efficiency of a longitudinal joint

Problem 5: A boiler is subjected to an internal steam pressure of 2 N/mm2. The thickness

of boiler plate is 2.6 cm and permissible tensile stress is 120 N/mm2. Find out the
maximum diameter, when efficiency of longitudinal joint is 90% and that of
circumferential joint is 40%.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 410
 Problem 6: A boiler shell is to be made of 15 mm thick plate having a limiting tensile
stress of 120 N/mm2. If the efficiencies of the longitudinal and circumferential joints are
70% and 30% respectively determine:
(i) The maximum permissible diameter of the shell for an internal pressure of 2 N/mm2,
(ii) Permissible intensity of internal pressure when the shell diameter is 1.5 m.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 411
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 412
 5.2.4 Effect of Internal Pressure on The Dimensions of a Thin Cylindrical Shell
When a fluid having internal pressure (p) is stored in a thin cylindrical shell, due to internal
pressure of the fluid the stresses set up at any point of the material of the shell are:
(i) Hoop or circumferential stress (σC), acting on longitudinal section.
(ii) Longitudinal stress (σL) acting on the circumferential section.
These stresses are principal stresses, as they are acting on principal planes. The stress in the
third principal plane is zero as the thickness (t) of the cylinder is very small. Actually, the stress in the
third principal plane is radial stress which is very small for thin cylinders and can be neglected.
Let
P = Internal pressure of fluid
L = Length of cylindrical shell
D = Diameter of the cylindrical shell
t = Thickness of the cylindrical shell
E = Modulus of Elasticity for the material of the shell
σC = Hoop stress in the material
σL = Longitudinal stress in the material
μ = Poisson's ratio
dD = Change in diameter due to stresses set up in the material
dL = Change in length
dV = Change in volume
εC = Circumferential strain
εL = Longitudinal strain

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 413
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 414
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 415
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 416
 Problem 7: Calculate: (i) the change in diameter, (ii) change in length and (iii) change
in volume of a thin cylindrical shell 100 cm diameter, 1 cm thick and 5 m long when
subjected to internal pressure of 3 N/mm2. Take the value of E = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and
Poisson's ratio, μ = 0.3.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 417
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 418
 Problem 8: A cylindrical shell 90 cm long 20 cm internal diameter having thickness of
metal as 8 mm is filled with fluid at atmospheric pressure. If an additional 20 cm3 of
fluid is pumped into the cylinder, find (i) the pressure exerted by the fluid on the cylinder
and (ii) the hoop stress induced. Take E = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and μ = 0.3.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 419
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 420
 Problem 9: A cylindrical shell 3 metres long which is closed as the ends has an internal
diameter of 1m and a wall thickness of 15 mm. Calculate the circumferential and
longitudinal stresses induced and changes in the dimensions of the shell, if it is subjected
to an internal pressure of 1.5 N/mm2. Take E = 2 x 105 N/mm2 and μ = 0.3.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 421
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 422
 5.3 THICK CYLINDERS SUBJECTED TO BOTH INTERNAL AND
EXTERNAL PRESSURE

If the ratio of thickness to internal diameter of a cylindrical shell is less than about 1/20, the
cylindrical shell is known as thin cylinders. For them it may be assumed with reasonable accuracy that
the hoop and longitudinal stresses are constant over the thickness and the radial stress is small and can
be neglected.
If the ratio of thickness to internal diameter is more than 1/20, then cylindrical shell is known
as thick cylinders.
The hoop stress in case of a thick cylinder will not be uniform across the thickness. Actually,
the hoop stress will vary from a maximum value at the inner circumference to a minimum value at the
outer circumference.
5.3.2 Expression for Stresses in A Thick Cylindrical Shell (Lame’s Equation)

Fig. (a) shows a thick cylinder subjected to an internal fluid pressure.

Let
r2 = External radius of the cylinder,
r1 = Internal radius of the cylinder, and
L = Length of cylinder.
Consider an elementary ring of the cylinder of radius x and
thickness dx as shown in Fig.(b) and Fig. to the right.
Let
P = Radial pressure on the inner surface of the ring
Px + dPx = Radial pressure on the outer surface of the ring
σx = Hoop stress induced in the ring.

Take a longitudinal section x-x of the

elementary ring and consider the equilibrium of
half of the ring of as shown in Fig. to the right.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 423
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 424
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 425
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 426
 Problem 10: Determine the maximum and minimum hoop stress across the section of a
pipe of 400 mm internal diameter and 100 mm thick, when the pipe contains a fluid at a
pressure of 8 N/mm2. Also sketch the radial pressure distribution and hoop stress
distribution across the section.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 427
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 428
 Problem 11: Find the thickness of metal necessary for a cylindrical shell of internal
diameter 160 mm to withstand an internal pressure of 8 N/mm2. The maximum hoop
stress in the section is not to exceed 35 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 429
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 430
 Problem 12: A thick cylindrical shell of 300mm dia and thickness 50mm is subjected
to an internal fluid pressure of 40 N/mm2 and external pressure of 2.5 N/mm2. Calculate
the maximum and minimum intensities of circumferential stress across the section and
plot the curve of stress variation across the section.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 431
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 432
 Problem 13: The inside diameter of thick cylinder is 200mm. If the internal pressure is
8 N/mm2 and maximum permissible stress in cylinder wall is 20 N/mm2. What is
minimum thickness required if the internal pressure is increased to 12 N/mm2 without
exceeding maximum stress. What is external pressure to be applied.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 433
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 434
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 435
 COMPOUND STRESSES
5.4 INTRODUCTION
In module1, the concept and definition of stress, strain, types of stresses (i.e., tensile,
compressive, and simple shear) and types of strain (i.e., tensile, compressive, shear and volumetric
strains etc.) are discussed. These stresses were acting in a plane, which was at right angles to the line
of action of the force. In many engineering problems both direct (tensile or compressive stress) and
shear stresses are acting at the same time. In such situation the resultant stress across any section will
be neither normal nor tangential to the plane. In this module the stresses, acting on an inclined plane
(or oblique section) will be analysed.
The "state of stress at a point" refers to the combination of stresses acting on a material at a
specific point within that material.
The state of stress at a point can be determined by the following methods.
1. Analytical method.
2. Graphical method.
A general two-dimensional stress system refers to the state of stress at a point within a material in
two dimensions, typically represented by the plane stress condition.
5.5 ANALYTICAL METHOD
Following cases will be considered.
5.5.1 Member Subjected to Direct Stresses.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 436
 5.5.2 Member Subjected to Simple Shear Only.

5.5.3 Member Subjected to Like Direct Stresses In Two Mutually Perpendicular Direction.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 437
 5.5.4 Member Subjected to Like Direct Stresses In Two Mutually Perpendicular Direction
Accompanied By Simple Shear Stress.

Problem 14: A tie bar subjected to a tensile stress of 100 N/mm2. Find the intensity of
shear stress, normal stress and resultant stress in a plane in which normal is inclined at
30o to the axis of the bar.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 438
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 439
 Problem 15: A piece of material is subjected to tensile stresses of 60 N/mm2 and 30
N/mm2 at right angles to each other. Find the normal stress and resultant stress on a
plane. Normal of which makes an angle 40o with 60 N/mm2 stress.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 440
 Problem 16: A piece of material is subjected to tensile stress of 60 N/mm2 and
compressive stress of 30 N/mm2 at right angles to each other. Find the normal stress and
resultant stress on a plane. Normal of which makes an angle 40o with 60 N/mm2 stress.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 441
 Problem 17: A piece of material is subjected to tensile stress of 200 MPa and
compressive stress of 100 MPa at right angles to each other. Find the normal stress,
tangential stress, and resultant stress on a plane. Normal of which makes an angle 60o
with 100 MPa stress. Also find the angle made by resultant stress.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 442
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 443
 Problem 18: Two wooden pieces 100mm x 100mm in cross section are glued together
along line AB shown in the figure. What is the maximum axial force P which can be
applied if allowable shearing stress along AB is 1.2 N/mm2.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 444
 Problem 19: A rectangular bar of cross-sectional area 11,000 mm2 is subjected to tensile
load of P as shown in the figure. The permissible Normal and shear stress on the oblique
plane AB is given as 7 N/mm2 and 3.5 N/mm2 respectively. Determine the safe value of
P.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 445
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 446
 5.5.5 Principal Stress and Principal Planes.
The planes, which have no shear stress, are known as principal planes. Hence principal planes
are the planes of zero shear stress. These planes carry only normal stresses. The normal stresses, acting
on a principal plane, are known as principal stresses.
Or
The plane on which the normal stresses are maximum and shear stresses are zero is called
principal plane and the corresponding maximum normal stress is known as principal stress.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 447
 Problem 20: The state of stresses at appoint in a strained material is shown in the
figure. Determine
i) The direction of Principal stress.
ii) Magnitude of principal stress.
iii) Magnitude of maximum shear stress and its direction.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 448
 Problem 21: The state of stresses at appoint in a strained material is shown in the
figure. Determine
i) Principal stress and principal plane.
ii) Maximum shear stress and its plane.

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 449
 Problem 22: The stress acting at a point in 2D stress system is as shown in the figure.
Determine
i) Principal stress
ii) Normal and tangential stress on plane AB
iii) Maximum shear stress

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 450
Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 451
 5.6 GRAPHICAL METHOD (MOHR’S CIRCLE OF STRESSES)
Mohr's Circle of Stresses is a graphical method used in mechanics to visualize and analyze the
state of stress at a point within a material subjected to two-dimensional loading conditions. Developed
by the German engineer Otto Mohr in the late 19th century, this method provides engineers and
researchers with an intuitive way to understand the principal stresses and their orientations, as well as
to determine critical failure conditions.
Problem 23: A piece of material is subjected to tensile stress of 200 MPa and
compressive stress of 100 MPa at right angles to each other. Construct Mohr’s circle to
determine i) Normal stress ii) Tangential stress and iii) Resultant stress on a plane.
Normal of which makes an angle 60o with 100 MPa stress. Also find the angle made by
resultant stress. (Refer problem 17 to compare results)

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 452
 Problem 24: The state of stresses at appoint in a strained material is shown in the figure.
Determine the following by constructing Mohr’s circle
i) The direction of Principal stress.
ii) Magnitude of principal stress.
iii) Magnitude of maximum shear stress and its direction.
(Refer problem 20 to compare results)

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 453
 Problem 25: The stress acting at a point in 2D stress system is as shown in the figure.
Determine the following by constructing Mohr’s circle
i) Principal stress
ii) Normal and tangential stress on plane AB
iii) Maximum shear stress
(Refer problem 22 to compare results)

Dr.Sachin Patil, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, RYMEC, Ballari 454
 22.07.2023

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS Semester III

Course Code BCV301 CIE Marks 50
Teaching Hours/Week (L: T:P: S) 3+0+0+0 SEE Marks 50
Total Hours of Pedagogy 40 Total Marks 100
Credits 03 Exam Hours 3 Hrs.
Examination type (SEE) Theory
Course Learning objectives: This course will enable students to

 Understand the simple stresses, strains, and compound stresses in various structural
components.
 Understand the bending moments and shear forces in different types of beams under
various loading conditions
 Know the bending stress, shear stress, and torsional stress in beams and shafts with
different cross sections
 Understand the deflection in beams and the stability of columns under different loading
conditions.
 Understand the behaviour and strength of structural elements subjected to compound
stresses and stresses in thin and thick cylinders.

Teaching-Learning Process (General Instructions)

These are sample Strategies; which teacher can use to accelerate the attainment of the various
course outcomes.
1. Apart from conventional lecture methods various types of innovative teaching techniques
through videos, animation films may be adopted so that the delivered lesson can progress
the students in theoretical, applied and practical skills.
2. Arrange field visits to give brief information about the water and wastewater treatment plant.
3. Encourage collaborative (Group Learning) Learning in the class.
4. Ask at least three HOTS (Higher-order Thinking) questions in the class, which promotes
critical thinking and enhance the knowledge of treatment processes.
5. Adopt Problem Based Learning (PBL), which fosters students, Analytical skills, develop
thinking skills such as the ability to evaluate, generalize, and analyze information rather
than simply recall it.
6. Seminars, surprise tests and Quizzes may be arranged for students in respective subjects to
develop skills

Module-1

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Simple Stresses and Strains: Introduction, Properties of Materials, Stress, Strain, Hooke’s
law, Poisson’s Ratio, Stress – Strain Diagram for structural steel, Principles of superposition,
Total elongation of tapering bars of circular and rectangular cross sections. Composite
section, Volumetric strain, expression for volumetric strain, Elastic constants, relationship
among elastic constants. Thermal stresses and strains, Compound bars subjected to thermal
stresses, state of simple shear. (L1, L2, L3)

Module-2
Bending moment and shear force diagrams in beams: Introduction to types of beams,
supports and loadings. Definition of shear force and bending moment, sign convention,
Relationship between loading, shear force and bending moment, Shear force and bending
moment equations, development of Shear Force Diagram(SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram
(BMD) with salient values for cantilever, simply supported and overhanging beams for point
loads, UDL (Uniformly Distributed Load), UVL (Uniformly Varying Load), Couple and their
combinations
(L1,L2,L3)
Module-3
Bending and Shear Stresses in Beams: Introduction, pure bending theory, Assumptions,
derivation of bending equation, modulus of rupture, section modulus, flexural rigidity.
Expression for transverse shear stress in beams, Bending and shear stress distribution diagrams
for circular, rectangular, ‘I’, and ‘T’ sections.
Torsion in Circular Shaft: Introduction, pure torsion, Assumptions, derivation of torsion
equation for circular shafts, torsional rigidity and polar modulus Power transmitted by a shaft.
(L1, L2, L3)
Module-4
Deflection of Beams: Definition of slope, Deflection and curvature, Sign conventions,
Derivation of moment- curvature equation. Double integration method and Macaulay’s method:
Slope and deflection for standard loading cases and for determinate prismatic beams subjected to
point loads, UDL, UVL and couple.
Columns and Struts: Introduction, short and long columns. Euler’s theory; Assumptions,
Derivation for Euler’s Buckling load for different end conditions, Limitations of Euler’s theory.
Rankine-Gordon’s formula for columns. (L1,L2,L3)
Module-5
Compound Stresses:
Introduction, state of stress at a point, General two dimensional stress system, Principal stresses
and principal planes. Mohr’s circle of stresses
Thin and Thick Cylinders:
Introduction, Thin cylinders subjected to internal pressure; Hoop stresses, Longitudinal stress
and change in volume. Thick cylinders subjected to both internal and external pressure; Lame’s
equation, radial and hoop stress distribution. (L1,L2,L3)

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 22.07.2023

Course outcome (Course Skill Set)

At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
1. Evaluate the simple stresses, strains and compound stresses
2. Calculate the Bending moments, shear force and draw BMD, SFD for various types of
beams and loadings
3. Analyse the bending stress, shear stress and torsional stress in beams and shafts with
different cross sections
4. Evaluate the deflection in beams and determine the stability of the columns.
5. Evaluate the behaviour and strength of structural elements under the action of compound
stresses and stresses in thin and thick cylinders.
Assessment Details (both CIE and SEE)
The weightage of Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE) is 50% and for Semester End Exam
(SEE) is 50%. The minimum passing mark for the CIE is 40% of the maximum marks (20 marks
out of 50) and for the SEE minimum passing mark is 35% of the maximum marks (18 out of 50
marks). The student is declared as a pass in the course if he/she secures a minimum of 40% (40
marks out of 100) in the sum total of the CIE (Continuous Internal Evaluation) and SEE
(Semester End Examination) taken together.
Continuous Internal Evaluation:
 There are 25 marks for the CIE's Assignment component and 25 for the Internal Assessment
Test component.
 Each test shall be conducted for 25 marks. The first test will be administered after 40-50% of
the coverage of the syllabus, and the second test will be administered after 85-90% of the
coverage of the syllabus. The average of the two tests shall be scaled down to 25 marks
 Any two assignment methods mentioned in the 22OB2.4, if an assignment is project-based
then only one assignment for the course shall be planned. The schedule for assignments shall
be planned properly by the course teacher. The teacher should not conduct two assignments at
the end of the semester if two assignments are planned. Each assignment shall be conducted
for 25 marks. (If two assignments are conducted then the sum of the two assignments shall be
scaled down to 25 marks)
 The final CIE marks of the course out of 50 will be the sum of the scale-down marks of tests
and assignment/s marks.
Internal Assessment Test question paper is designed to attain the different levels of Bloom’s
taxonomy as per the outcome defined for the course.
Semester-End Examination:
Theory SEE will be conducted by University as per the scheduled timetable, with common
question papers for the course (duration 03 hours).
1. The question paper will have ten questions. Each question is set for 20 marks.
2. There will be 2 questions from each module. Each of the two questions under a module (with
a maximum of 3 sub-questions), should have a mix of topics under that module.
3. The students have to answer 5 full questions, selecting one full question from each module.
4. Marks scored shall be proportionally reduced to 50 marks.

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Suggested Learning Resources:

Text Books
 B.C Punmia Ashok Jain, Arun Jain, “Strength of Materials”, Laxmi - 2018-22
Publications, 10th Edition-2018
 R K Bansal, “A Textbook of Strength of Materials”, 4th Edition, Laxmi Publications,
2010
 S.S. Rattan “Strength of Materials” McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd., 2nd Edition
(Sixth reprint 2013).
 Vazirani, V N, Ratwani M M. and S K Duggal "Analysis of Structures Vol. I", 17th
Edition, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
 R.K. Rajput, “Strength of materials” S. Chand Publishing (6th Edition)
 S S Bhavikatti, “Strength of Materials” Vikas Publishing (5th Edition)
 B.S. Basavarajaiah, P. Mahadevappa “Strength of Materials” in SI Units, University Press
(India) Pvt. Ltd., 3rd Edition,2010

Web links and Video Lectures (e-Resources):

1.Strength of Materials web course by IIT Roorkee https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112107146/
2.Strength of Materials video course by IIT Kharagpur https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105105108/
3.Strength of Materials video course by IIT Roorkee https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112107147/18
4.All contents organized http://www.nptelvideos.in/2012/11/strengthof-materials-prof.html
Activity Based Learning (Suggested Activities in Class)/ Practical Based learning
 Quiz (To assist in GATE Preparations)
 Demonstrations in Lab
 Virtual Lab Experiments

CO & PSO - PO Mapping (Individual Teacher has to fill)

Mapping of Course Outcomes and Program specific outcomes to Program Outcomes
Program Specific
Program outcomes
Course Outcomes
outcomes PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO PSO PSO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4
CO1
CO2
CO3
CO4
CO5
Total
Average
Level 0: Not Mapped, 1: Low Mapped, 2: Moderately Mapped 3: Highly Mapped

Note: Depending on the Assessment tool used, higher order POs Can be identified by the
concerned course instructor.