1. Describe the characteristics and nature of development in lifespan.

Generally, the term ‘development’ refers as a process of qualitative changes taking place from
conception to death. Lifespan development involves the exploration of biological, cognitive, and
psychosocial changes and constancies that occur throughout the entire course of life. It has been
presented as a theoretical perspective, proposing several fundamental, theoretical, and
methodological principles about the nature of human development. Lifespan development
studies on how we change and grow. Life begins at conception, when the mother’s ovum is
fertilized by the father’s sperm, resulting a birth of new organism. The changes are systematic.
However, development changes are not always incremental and evolutionary. They may also
involve a decline in the functioning called involution.
The brief description of characteristics of development in lifespan are;
Development is lifelong. Lifespan theorists believe that development is life-long, and change is
apparent across the lifespan. No single age period is more crucial, characterizes, or dominates
human development. Consequently, the term lifespan development will be used throughout the
textbook.
Development is multidirectional. Humans change in many directions. We may show gains in
some areas of development, while showing losses in other areas. Every change, whether it is
finishing high school, getting married, or becoming a parent, entails both growth and loss.
Development is multidimensional. We change across three general domains/dimensions;
physical, cognitive, and psychosocial. The physical domain includes changes in height and
weight, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, as well as the propensity for disease and illness.
The cognitive domain encompasses the changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem
solving, memory, and language. The psychosocial domain focuses on changes in emotion, self-
perception and interpersonal relationships with families, peers, and friends. All three domains
influence each other. For instance, an infant who has started to crawl or walk will encounter
more objects and people, thus fostering developmental change in the child’s understanding of the
physical and social world.
Development is multidisciplinary. As mentioned at the start of the chapter, human development
is such a vast topic of study that it requires the theories, research methods, and knowledge base
of many academic disciplines.
Development is characterized by plasticity. Plasticity is all about our ability to change and that
many of our characteristics are malleable. For instance, plasticity is illustrated in the brain’s
ability to learn from experience and how it can recover from injury.
Development is multi-contextual. Development occurs in many contexts.
2. Discuss various stages of development in life span of a man

Prenatal Development: Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major
structures of the body are forming, and the health of the mother is of primary concern.
Understanding nutrition, teratogens, or environmental factors that can lead to birth
defects, and labor and delivery are primary concerns.
Infancy and Toddlerhood: The first two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and
change. A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision, is transformed
into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are also
transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly
moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.

Early Childhood: This period is also referred to as the preschool years and consists of
the years which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a two to six-year-
old, the child is Age Periods of Development. Age Period Description Prenatal Starts at
conception, continues through implantation in the uterine wall by the embryo, and ends at
birth. Infancy and Toddlerhood Starts at birth and continues to two years of age Early
Childhood Starts at two years of age until six years of age Middle and Late Childhood
Starts at six years of age and continues until the onset of puberty Adolescence Starts at
the onset of puberty until 18 Emerging Adulthood Starts at 18 until 25 Early Adulthood
Starts at 25 until 40-45 Middle Adulthood Starts at 40-45 until 65 Late Adulthood Starts
at 65 onward busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence,
and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world.

Middle and Late Childhood: The ages of six to the onset of puberty comprise middle
and late childhood, and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their
involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and
testing new academic skills and by assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by
making comparisons between self and others.

Adolescence: Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall

growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive
change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract
concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of
invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually
transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences.

Emerging Adulthood: The period of emerging adulthood is a transitional time between

the end of adolescence and before individuals acquire all the benchmarks of adulthood.
Continued identity exploration and preparation for full independence from parents are
demonstrated. Although at one’s physiological peak, emerging adults are most at risk for
involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse.

Early Adulthood: The twenties and thirties are identified as early adulthood. Intimate
relationships, establishing families, and work are primary concerns at this stage of life.
 Middle Adulthood: The forties through the mid-sixties is referred to as middle
adulthood. This is a period in which aging becomes more noticeable and when many
people are at their peak of productivity in love and work.

Late Adulthood: Late adulthood is sometimes subdivided into two categories: The
young-old who are from 65-84 years and the oldest-old who are 85 years and older. One
of the primary differences between these groups is that the young-old are still relatively
healthy, productive, active, and the majority continue to live independently. With both
age groups the risks of diseases such as, arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral vascular
disease increases substantially.

3. What are the various issues of development?

The various issues of development are briefly describing below;
a. Nature vs Nurture
For decades, scholars have carried on the "nature/nurture" debate. For any particular
feature, those on the side of nature would argue that heredity plays the most important
role in bringing about that feature. Those on the side of nurture would argue that one's
environment is most significant in shaping the way we are. This debate continues in
all
aspects of human development, and most scholars agree that there is a constant
interplay between the two forces. It is difficult to isolate the root of any single
behavior
as a result, solely of nature or nurture.

b. Continuity vs Discontinuity
Stage theories or discontinuous development assume that developmental change often
occurs in distinct stages that are qualitatively different from each other, and in a set,
universal sequence. At each stage of development, children and adults have different
qualities and characteristics. Thus, stage theorists assume development is more
discontinuous. Others, such as the behaviorists, Vygotsky, and information
processing
theorists, assume development is a slower and gradual process known as continuous
development. For instance, they would see the adult as not possessing new skills, but
more advanced skills that were already present in some form in the child. Brain
development and environmental experiences contribute to the acquisition of more
developed skills

c. Active vs passive
Some theorists see humans as playing a much more active role in their own
development. Piaget, for instance believed that children actively explore their world
and construct new ways of thinking to explain the things they experience. In contrast,
many behaviorists view humans as being more passive in the developmental process.

d. Stability versus Change: Some theorists argue that the personality traits of adults are
rooted in the behavioral and emotional tendencies of the infant and young child.
 Others disagree, and believe that these initial tendencies are modified by social and
cultural forces over time.

4. Describe about the scope of lifespan development.

The definition of lifespan development is broad and the scope of the field is extensive.
Consequently, lifespan development specialists cover several quite diverse areas, and a
typical developmentalists will choose to specialize in both a topical area and an age
range.
a. Topical areas in lifespan development.
Some developmentalists focus on physical development, examining the ways in which
the body’s makeup the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food,
drink, and sleep helps determine behavior. Other developmental specialists examine
cognitive development, seeking to understand how growth and change in intellectual
capabilities influence a person’s behavior. Cognitive developmentalists examine learning,
memory, problem-solving skills, and intelligence. For example, specialists in cognitive
development might want to see how problem-solving skills change over the course of
life, or whether cultural differences exist in the way people explain their academic
successes and failures. Finally, some developmental specialists focus on personality and
social development. Personality development is the study of stability and change in the
enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another over the life span.
Social development is the way in which individuals’ interactions with others and their
social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life.
b. Age ranges and individual differences.
In addition to choosing to specialize in a particular topical area, developmentalists also
typically look at a particular age range. The life span is usually divided into broad age
ranges: the prenatal period (the period from conception to birth); infancy and
toddlerhood, the preschool period, middle childhood, adolescence young adulthood,
middle adulthood and late adulthood. It’s important to keep in mind that these broad
periods which are largely accepted by lifespan developmentalists are social constructions.
A social construction is a shared notion of reality, one that is widely accepted but is a
function of society and culture at a given time. These four major topic areas physical,
cognitive, social, and personality development
Physical development involving the body’s physical makeup, including the brain,
nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep.
Cognitive development involving the ways that growth and change in intellectual
capabilities influence a person’s behavior.
Personality development involving the ways that the enduring characteristics that
differentiate one person from another change over the life span.
Social development the way in which individuals’ interactions with others and their
social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life.
5. Differentiate between psychoanalytical theory and cognitive theory.

The differentiate between psychoanalytical theory and cognitive theory are as follows;

Psychoanalytical Theory Cognitive Theory

Theory of personality organization and the Attempts to explain human behavior by
dynamic of personality development that understanding your thoughts
guides psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis uses past events, Use of current events addresses mainly
childhood memories, unconscious mind thoughts, to identify and correct
etc. maladaptive cognitions.
This theory divides the psyche into three Thoughts are the primary determinants of
functions i:e Id, ego and superego emotions and behavior.

People can gain insight into their current It involves internal mental processes
state of mind by bringing the content of including perception, thinking, memory,
the unconscious into conscious awareness attention. Language, problem solving and
learning.
.