sustainability

Article
Online Learning, Mobile Learning, and Social Media
Technologies: An Empirical Study on Constructivism Theory
during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Omar A. Alismaiel 1, *, Javier Cifuentes-Faura 2 and Waleed Mugahed Al-Rahmi 3

1 College of Education, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 13982, Saudi Arabia

2 Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Murcia, 30001 Murcia, Spain
3 Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, School of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Skudai 80990, Malaysia
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The study’s main purpose was to discover the important factors that impact university
students’ online learning and academic performance during the COVID-19 epidemic, as well as their
usage of social media throughout the pandemic. Constructivism theory was used and developed with
constructs mostly linked to leveraging social media for collaborative learning and student interaction
during the COVID-19 pandemic, given the context-dependent nature of online learning during the
epidemic. During the COVID-19 epidemic, additional components such as collaborative learning,
student participation, and online learning were implemented. The enlarged model, which assesses
Citation: Alismaiel, O.A.;
students’ happiness and academic performance during the COVID-19 epidemic in connection to
Cifuentes-Faura, J.; Al-Rahmi, W.M.
social media use, was validated using empirical data collected via an online survey questionnaire
Online Learning, Mobile Learning,
from 480 Saudi Arabian higher education students. AMOS-SEM was used to analyze the model’s
and Social Media Technologies: An
various assumptions (Analysis of Moment Structures-Structural Equation Modeling). The findings
Empirical Study on Constructivism
Theory during the COVID-19
revealed that (1) using social media for collaborative learning and students’ engagement has a direct
Pandemic. Sustainability 2022, 14, positive impact on students’ interactivity with peers and teachers; (2) students’ interactivity with
11134. https://doi.org/10.3390/ peers and teachers has a direct positive impact on online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic;
su141811134 (3) online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic mediates the relationship between students’
interactivity and satisfaction; (4) online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic mediates the
Academic Editors: Alfonso
Chaves-Montero, Javier
relationship between students’ interactivity and satisfaction. Students, higher education institutions,
Augusto Nicoletti, Francisco and educational technology application suppliers would benefit greatly from the conclusions of this
José García-Moro and Walter study, both theoretically and practically.
Federico Gadea-Aiello
Keywords: social media technologies; online learning; COVID-19 pandemic; constructivism theory;
Received: 30 July 2022
academic performance
Accepted: 31 August 2022
Published: 6 September 2022

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

with regard to jurisdictional claims in 1. Introduction
published maps and institutional affil-
In the worldwide COVID-19 epidemic, traditional or face-to-face schooling has en-
iations.
countered unprecedented obstacles. Countries have made attempts to limit huge crowd
meetings and maintain physical social distance in order to regulate the virus epidemic.
Therefore, most countries implemented quarantine periods, thus ending traditional educa-
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
tion [1,2]. Similarly, governments have switched from face-to-face to online education for
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. all subjects. During the COVID-19 epidemic, many undeveloped nations, such as Saudi
This article is an open access article Arabia, lacked digital channels, social media, or online learning to engage students and
distributed under the terms and instructors. Moreover, during the COVID-19 epidemic, they were unable to provide com-
conditions of the Creative Commons plete online learning [3]. COVID-19 has forced teachers and students in many developing
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// countries to connect online for the first time for academic reasons. Because many schools
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ lack an online learning management system (LMS) for the COVID-19 pandemic, leveraging
4.0/). social media to engage students and promote online learning throughout the pandemic

Sustainability 2022, 14, 11134. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141811134 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2022, 14, 11134 2 of 15

might be advantageous [4,5]. During the COVID-19 epidemic, the study focuses on the
participation of students and teachers on many social media platforms to drive online
social interaction and generate successful online learning [6]. The interactive elements
were interaction with group members or peers, interactivity with supervisors or lecturers,
active collaborative learning, and engagement. Perception criteria included perceived
ease of use, perceived utility, social media use, and research student delight. Therefore,
both interpersonal and perceptual factors impact research students’ academic achievement
in higher education. Social media may boost collaborative learning and engagement by
allowing individuals to work together to achieve a common goal [7]. Furthermore, study
students’ usage of social media suggests a positive relationship between academic success
and satisfaction [8,9]; also discovered a relationship between academic success and stu-
dent Facebook usage. It is uncommon for pupils to utilize social media for educational
purposes [10]. Furthermore, students use social media to socialize rather than actively
collaborate, participate, or achieve academic goals [8]. According to [11], a research model
of social media antecedents and consequences was used; however, the results showed a
higher perceived risk of using social media to waste time and a decreased willingness to
learn. In addition, several research have found that the quantity of time spent on social
media has a substantial influence [12]. It is likely that the majority of higher education stu-
dents use social media and spend substantial time on it, and that the monitoring students’
social media usage has a negative component. Excessive social media use is becoming
more of a problem since it can lead to a lack of drive. According to experts, motivation
might help a student’s inner drive to succeed academically [10]. Students’ strong desire to
participate in active collaborative learning and study using technology may lead them to
assume that social media may help them achieve this goal [13]. Thus, there is a negative
impact on student interactions [14]. Social media has an influence on and can complicate a
student’s academic transfer from a college to a university level of education, jeopardizing
research students’ academic success [15]. The effects of social media in active collaborative
learning environments were investigated, and it was revealed that using social media in
these scenarios might help students learn more effectively. Thus, researchers should look
at the interaction pattern that occurs during active collaborative learning [16]. Instructors
do not use social media to educate or engage their students, despite their expertise with
previous technology [17]. Professors are also lacking in social media abilities [18]. Students
are not convinced by the existing platforms of teacher interaction, according to [19], so
there is an excuse for effective active collaborative learning and understanding student–
teacher communication regarding their training. However, students are receptive to new
social media that will facilitate learning with teachers. According to educators, students
seldom use social media networks for educational objectives [20]. Educators who utilize
social media, however, have highlighted worries regarding the challenges it presents, as
well as the insufficient evaluation and assessment [21]. According to an empirical study,
students on campus demand more assistance in accessing additional social media active
collaborative learning options than they do in face-to-face sessions. Lecturers can help
students with quick inquiries, solutions, and coordination when it comes to using social
media for active collaborative learning and involvement [22]. Teachers and students were
given the opportunity to submit input during evaluative periods [23]. Experts claim that
Facebook has a negative influence on school achievement in general, with male pupils
being the most affected [24]. Therefore, the primary goal of this research is to identify
and correct the flaws in a model that shows interactivity, social media use, active collab-
orative learning, engagement, and satisfaction of research students in higher education
using the constructivism theor to evaluate academic performance during the COVID-19
pandemic [25]. As a consequence, this research is significant because it will disclose the
characteristics and variables, the relationship between social media usage for active collab-
orative learning and engagement, and how these factors affect research students’ academic
advancement in higher education. “What are the interaction aspects that increase active
collaborative learning and engagement, and hence academic success during the COVID-19
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11134 3 of 15

pandemic?” asks the researcher. This research will create a model of social media use for
active collaborative learning and engagement by interactive factors, which will have an
impact on academic performance in higher education institutions during the COVID-19
pandemic. It will also investigate the validity of constructivism for interactivity and social
media use for active collaborative learning and engagement, which will have an impact on
the academic performance of research students during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Social Media Use in Higher Education

Students in high school may utilize social media to evaluate and appreciate creative
work, offer and receive educational assistance, and validate and enjoy creative work
from classmates. Faculty usage [17,26], student engagement [27,28], and influence on, as
well as related to, academic accomplishment are all researched in the context of higher
education [29,30]. According to the researchers, university students who engaged in
interactive blogs had a more favorable attitude toward peer interaction and academic
achievement [31]. Students can use social media to communicate, cooperate, and interact in
a social setting [32]. The use of social media curricula in higher education for teaching and
learning has attracted the scholarly community’s interest. Cognitive abilities and motivation
for active collaborative learning in higher education, reflection, and metacognition are
essential components of social media [33]. Several research have shown that using social
media for student assignments results in higher levels of learning [34].

2. Interactive Variables Used with Theories

Students who were unable to achieve cognitive equilibrium and tried to become accus-
tomed to achieving equilibrium cognition and supported learners in building knowledge
can be found in social media networks to be interactive and with the perspective of the
allotment of knowledge and information or discussion with others, according to the social
constructivist theory [25]. As a consequence, constructivism [25] will be utilized to support
the research’s main thesis: learning is an active, creative process. The goal of this study was
to fill in the gaps in the literature by examining how the use of social media for active col-
laborative learning and engagement affects the academic performance of research students
during the COVID-19 pandemic. The constructivism theory was used to create the research
model. As a consequence, constructivism was chosen in this research since it claims that
engaging with classmates and lecturers leads to active collaborative learning [35]. Prior
work has paved the way for the creation and refinement of a research model to investigate
the influence of social media use in collaborative learning on academic achievement among
research students. As a consequence of the investigation, seven operational themes of
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
crucial factors on social media use for active collaborative learning and engagement 4 of 16
that
affect academic achievement were discovered and classified, see Figure 1.

Figure 1. Research model.

Figure 1. Research model.

2.1. Using Social Media for Collaborative Learning

In education, a social network is referred to as social media for allowing communi-
cation among research students, supervisors, professors, and experts, as well as enabling
learners to grasp processes and participate in groups through the group process [36]. To
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11134 4 of 15

2.1. Using Social Media for Collaborative Learning

In education, a social network is referred to as social media for allowing communi-
cation among research students, supervisors, professors, and experts, as well as enabling
learners to grasp processes and participate in groups through the group process [36]. To
support the learning processes required for the construction of a knowing society, new
learning platforms that allow collaborative and constructive learning are required [37].
Students can utilize collaborative learning assignments on a wiki to discuss their work
with others, receive feedback, and make changes before submitting the final version [38].
Students can utilize wikis to compile a collection of papers that represent the learning
group’s common knowledge. According to [39], active collaborative learning is more
successful in diverse knowledge scenarios, and learners have strong cognitive abilities
in this area. Several research looked at the possibilities of social media as a collaborative
and cooperative learning tool [40]. To investigate students’ perspectives of social media as
an interactive learning tool, [41] created social media profiles for four university courses.
Students who support using social media for academic purposes cited several benefits
of using a social media course page as a useful learning resource, including increased
interaction and engagement in discussions regarding course topics or research, as well as
exposure to relevant media and learning materials. Several participants, however, were
concerned regarding the necessity to stay on top of the social media course activities [42].

2.2. Using Social Media for Student Engagement

The engagement is centered on interactions between the person and the environment
in order to ensure social and intellectual connections between study group members and
the class in order to change student awareness and engagement [43]. Therefore, of the
widespread usage of social media, individuals have incorporated online contact into their
daily lives, demonstrating the various ways in which people interact with one another
through information sharing [44]. Furthermore, a number of research that looked at the
experience of utilizing social media networks revealed that it led to excellent learning
outcomes and engagement [45]. One of the good aspects of social media platforms [46] is
their influence on emotional components of the learning environment, as well as its impact
on motivation and student engagement for active collaborative learning.

2.3. Interactivity with Peers

Learner involvement in the course has increased as well, as seen by social media
activity logs, particularly with an evaluation task. According to recent research [46], virtual
interactions are one of the most effective strategies to improve communication, inspire
students to study, encourage them to take their learning assignments more seriously,
and boost social network. While research on the use of social media for teaching and
learning [17] is still in its early phases, these studies imply that it has the potential to be a
transformative method for learning and teaching in higher education as a social networking
tool. Before structuring their courses, selecting the pedagogical strategies they intend to
employ and the sorts of evaluations they feel would increase their students’ participation
in the learning process, educators must first analyze their students’ intellectual and social
backgrounds. The usage of social media in higher education can help increase professor–
student connection [47]. According to [48], social media use for learning is just as essential
as learning objectives; thus, they must have a social presence, include interactive learning,
and encourage active collaborative learning.

2.4. Interactivity with Teachers

Fluid interactions among research group members may be suffocated by traditional
learning approaches [49]. Student participation has an impact on academic success [50].
Despite the relevance of the concept of integration, the integration of commuting students
differs significantly from that of on-campus students, with socio-academic moments [51].
The traditional concept of engagement with peers and professors had more attraction
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11134 5 of 15

and importance for those students than the regularity with which these encounters took
place or the depth of relationship between researchers and supervisors. By providing new
opportunities to promote engagement, advanced technology has revolutionized the way
students connect with one another, both inside and beyond the classroom. Facilitating
relationships is crucial since it leads to more effective and better learning. Therefore, it is
possible that it will become a need for academic achievement [52].

2.5. Online Learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic

This study backs up statements from [53], that using social media for online learning
during the COVID-19 pandemic and academic communication, such as social media, can
promote social learning and social presence. It also claims that by creating an interactive
learning environment, encouraging social presence, and fostering social presence, using
social media for formal academic communication might improve learning results. Various
research have been produced that indicate the benefits of interpersonal connection because
online engagement has been thoroughly examined in recent decades. Human involvement
in online environments has been linked to student pleasure [54,55], faculty satisfaction [56],
and student academic achievement [54,55,57].

2.6. Students’ Satisfaction

Students from one cultural context may have various viewpoints on educational
interventions based on their actions in another cultural environment [58]. This highlights
the need of doing comparative research on online learner engagement as well as the
impact of cultural variations on online student cooperation [59]. Furthermore, active
collaborative learning environments, as well as students’ happiness with them, is a hot
topic that has spawned several research papers in the literature [60]. When it comes to user
adoption and enjoyment with technology, perceived usefulness and ease of use are crucial
elements to consider. They have been demonstrated to predict consumer happiness with
websites and computers [61]. According to [62], while some studies have indicated that
user entertainment has a significant impact on technology success, others have discovered
that user perceptions of technology-provided entertainment are linked to IS systems and
product adoption and satisfaction [63]. All forms of communication, according to [64],
are important and should be incorporated in online courses since they promote students’
learning and enjoyment. Furthermore, few studies have been performed on how students
interact, communicate, negotiate, and cooperate in online classrooms [65]. This shows
that students like connecting with peers who share similar interests, which boosts overall
satisfaction with active collaborative learning in homogeneous groups [66].

2.7. Students’ Academic Performance during COVID-19 Pandemic

Despite the fact that they mostly use it for social rather than academic purposes,
the majority of respondents agreed that social media had a positive impact on their aca-
demic performance during the COVID-19 pandemic, according to a study on the impact
of social media on students’ academic performance during the COVID-19 pandemic in
education [67]. It has been shown that there is a correlation between collaborative learning,
engagement, and academic accomplishment [27]. The usage of social media in higher edu-
cation has been recommended based on research [18]. Social media is viewed by learners
and their communities as a means of disseminating fresh information. Facebook may be
used to assist students or a specific group of people to communicate more successfully
in a variety of ways [68]. The amount of time and effort students spend on educational
activities is measured by student interaction and engagement [69]. The phrase “social
media” encompasses a wide range of networked tools or technologies that highlight the
Internet’s social aspects as a conduit for communication, active collaborative learning to
increase academic achievement, and creative expression in higher education [70]. They
lead to the use of social media to increase educational access and engagement [71]. Social
media platforms are widely used by students for both amusement and education. College
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11134 6 of 15

students utilize a variety of social media programs since it has become an important part of
their daily lives for both personal and educational aims [8].

3. Research Methodology
We sent out 500 questionnaires for the study and 491 were returned by respondents; after
human processing, 6 of the 491 questionnaires were incomplete (“students did not complete the
survey”) and had to be deleted, leaving 485. Outliers, defined as “data that differs abnormally
from other values in a random sample,” were found in 5 of the remaining 485 questionnaire
copies put into SPSS, bringing the total number of acceptable surveys to 480 students. Hair
et al. [72] argued for such exclusions, claiming that outliers might lead to erroneous statistical
conclusions and should be removed. For the purpose of the study, we built a conceptual model
based on constructivism theory to measure student satisfaction and academic achievement.

3.1. Instrument Development

Because Likert scales are widely used in information system (IS) research and have
been thoroughly assessed in both marketing and social science, they were employed to
examine the responses in this study [73]. This study’s variables were all graded on a
five-point Likert scale from 1 to 5: (1) Strongly disagree, (2) Disagree, (3) Undecided,
(4) Agree, and (5) Strongly Agree were the five options. When choosing and creating a
measuring scale, several aspects that affect the scale’s reliability, validity, and utility must
be taken into account. The study by Cooper and Schindlers [74] provided the foundation
for these factors. The questionnaire looked at how students and researchers in higher
education felt about using social media for active collaborative learning and engagement,
as well as how it influenced their academic performance during the COVID-19 pandemic,
was fine-tuned with the support of a pilot study with students, and tested beforehand.
A questionnaire with 27 items was prepared after minor layout changes, and the online
survey was administered toward the end of the semester in September 2021. Four items
derived from [75] were used to examine the use of social media for collaborative learning
in the questionnaire adapted from earlier studies. Students’ engagement with social media
was examined using three questions derived from [43]. A subset of six questions from [76]
was used to assess interactivity with peers and teachers. Four questions derived from the
questionnaire were used to assess online learning [77]. Students’ academic performance
during the COVID-19 pandemic was tested using four items from [78], and finally, student
satisfaction was examined using four questions from [63].

3.2. Sample Size and Data Collection

Sampling is a statistical approach that includes picking a subset of individual observations
from a population with the purpose of influencing student and researcher academic performance
during the COVID-19 pandemic and satisfaction in higher education by employing social media
for participation and active collaborative learning. The two types of sampling processes are
random and non-random sampling. This study employed a random sampling technique
because it assures that the research target group has an equal probability of being picked.

4. Data Analysis and Results

The current study’s empirical analysis aims to explore how the interrelationships of many
independent and dependent factors connected to using social media for active collaborative
learning impact the academic performance during the COVID-19 pandemic of students and
researchers. Structural Equation Modeling was the primary statistical tool employed in the
data analysis for a variety of reasons (SEM). SEM is the most rigorous and powerful statistical
research approach for dealing with complicated models, according to several specialists [72].
SEM is a set of statistical models aimed at explaining correlations between a large number of
variables. After the measurement model has been confirmed, the researcher moves on to the
second stage, which comprises estimating the structural model between the latent variables.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11134 7 of 15

The one-step technique, on the other hand, estimates the measurement model and structural
models at the same time [72]. The data are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI).

Model NPAR CMIN DF p CMIN/DF

Default model 80 839.735 298 0.000 2.818
Saturated
378 0.000 0 0.000 0
model
Independence
27 21,734.431 351 0.000 61.921
model
Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index (AGFI)
Tucker–Lewis index TLI 0.000 0.970
Incremental Fit Index IFI 0.000 0.975
Comparative Fit Index CFI 0.000 0.975
Root-Mean-Square Residual RMR 0.000 0.027

4.1. Validity and Reliability

In this study, AMOS 23 was used to calculate individual item dependability. The
item is deemed dependable if the squared multiple correlations in (R2) of each item in
the measurement model exceed 0.5. Individual item dependability is demonstrated if
the standardized loading is equal to or greater than 0.70 [72]. The entire amount of true
score volatility as a proportion of overall scale score variance is represented by composite
reliability (CR) [72]. The consistency of a collection of variables in a measurement is
determined using CR. The resulting coefficient is interpreted in the same way as Cronbach’s
alpha, with the difference that it accounts for true factor loadings rather than assuming that
each item in the composite load assessment is equally weighted [72]. The average variance
extracted (AVE) displays the total amount of variance in the indicators that the hidden
construct accounts for [72]. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) can be used to explore this
form of validity (see Tables 2 and 3).
Table 2. Relationship between factors (validity and reliability).

Composite Cronbach’s Average Variance Squared Multiple

Relationship between Factors and Items Estimate
Reliability (CR) Alpha Extracted (AVE) Correlations in (R2 )
SMCL4 <--- Using Social 0.789
SMCL3 <--- Media for 0.880
SMCL2 <--- Collaborative 0.862 0.891 0.900 0.599
SMCL1 <--- Learning 0.795
SME3 <--- Using Social 0.704
SME2 <--- Media for 0.840 0.873 0.889 0.610
SME1 <--- Engagement 0.757
INP4 <--- 0.782
INP3 <--- Interactivity 0.829
INP2 <--- 0.822 0.903 0.911 0.620
with Peers
INP1 <--- 0.782
INT4 <--- 0.773
INT3 <--- Interactivity 0.843
INT2 <--- 0.778 0.887 0.895 0.587
with Teachers
INT1 <--- 0.792
OL4 <--- 0.826
OL3 <--- Online 0.825
OL2 <--- Learning 0.814 0.907 0.881 0.633
OL1 <--- 0.813
SS4 <--- 0.795
SS3 <--- Students’ 0.785
SS2 <--- 0.793 0.890 0.864 0.641
Satisfaction
SS1 <--- 0.804
SAP4 <--- 0.793
SAP3 <--- Students’ 0.744
SAP2 <--- Academic 0.827 0.879 0.880 0.589
SAP1 <--- Performance 0.766
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11134 8 of 15

Table 3. Sample covariances reliability.

Factors Code SMCL SME INP INT OL SS SAP

Using Social Media for Collaborative Learning SMCL 0.855
Using Social Media for Engagement SME 0.373 0.841
Interactivity with Peers INP 0.267 0.313 0.840
Interactivity with Teachers INT 0.369 0.425 0.287 0.837
Online Learning OL 0.292 0.348 0.287 0.288 0.853
Students’ Satisfaction SS 0.308 0.363 0.376 0.340 0.293 0.903
Students’ Academic Performance SAP 0.282 0.345 0.328 0.328 0.259 0.358 0.883

4.2. Measurement Model Fit

The total model measure, according to [72], may be that the fit is evaluated using a
variety of goodness-of-fit metrics divided into three categories: absolute fit measurements,
incremental fit measures, and parsimonious fit measures. As a consequence of this advice,
theREVIEW
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER following indices were used in this investigation: RMR, lFI, TLI, CFI, RMSEA,9and of 162/df.
The Root-Mean-Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) was chosen for this study because
it is one of the most often used metrics for correcting the GOF test statistic’s propensity
to reject models with a high sample size or a large number of observable variables [72].
propensity to reject models with a high sample size or a large number of observable vari-
As ables
illustrated
[72]. Asinillustrated
Figure 2,inmany
Figurefit2,indices
many fitshould
indicesbe employed
should to evaluate
be employed a model’s
to evaluate a
goodness-of-fit, with a value of 0.90 or above [72].
model’s goodness-of-fit, with a value of 0.90 or above [72].

Figure
Figure 2. Measurementmodel.
2. Measurement model.

4.3.4.3. Hypothesis
Hypothesis Testing
Testing
Hypothesis
Hypothesis testingisisthe
testing thepenultimate
penultimate step
stepin
inthe
thedata
dataprocessing
processingprocess. TheThe
process. goalgoal
of of
this investigation was to look at the nine options listed in Table 4. The statistical signifi-
this investigation was to look at the nine options listed in Table 4. The statistical significance
cance
of the of the parameter
parameter estimated estimated
by SEMby SEM
was was determined
determined using
using the the Critical
Critical Ratio Ratio
(C.R.),(C.R.),
which is
which is defined as the parameter estimate divided by the standard error
defined as the parameter estimate divided by the standard error (S.E.) [72]. Smaller p-values(S.E.) [72].
Smaller p-values (p 0.01) are frequently regarded as very significant since they suggest
(p 0.01) are frequently regarded as very significant since they suggest that the observed
that the observed difference would only occur once in a hundred times if no genuine dif-
difference would only occur once in a hundred times if no genuine difference existed. To
ference existed. To summarize, when sample sizes or the number of observable variables
summarize, when sample sizes or the number of observable variables get larger [72], the
get larger [72], the statistical test or the resultant p-value becomes less relevant [72], as
statistical
seen in test or the
Figures resultant
3 and 4. p-value becomes less relevant [72], as seen in Figures 3 and 4.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11134 9 of 15

Table 4. Hypotheses relationships test.

Figure 2. Measurement model.
No Hypotheses Relationships Estimate S.E. C.R. p Results
H1 INP 4.3. Hypothesis
<--- SMCLTesting 0.422 0.026 16.147 0.000 Accepted
H2 INT <--- Hypothesis
SMCL testing is the penultimate0.028
0.297 step in the data processing process.
10.638 0.000 The goal of
Accepted
H3 INP <--- SME was to look
this investigation 0.361
at the nine 0.023
options listed 15.953
in Table 4. The0.000 Accepted
statistical signifi-
H4 INT <--- SME
cance of the parameter 0.273 by SEM 0.024
estimated was determined 11.295 0.000 Ratio (C.R.),
using the Critical Accepted
H5 OL <--- INP as the parameter
which is defined 0.278 0.024divided by
estimate 11.606
the standard0.000
error (S.E.)Accepted
[72].
H6 OL <--- INT (p 0.01) are
Smaller p-values 0.385 0.026
frequently regarded 14.782
as very 0.000they suggest
significant since Accepted
H7 SS <--- OL difference0.530
that the observed 0.022once in a 24.179
would only occur hundred times0.000
if no genuine Accepted
dif-
H8 SAP <--- OLTo summarize,
ference existed. 0.131when sample0.021
sizes or the6.235 0.000
number of observable Accepted
variables
H9 SAP <---
get larger [72],SSthe statistical
0.634 0.022
test or the resultant 28.691
p-value becomes less0.000 Accepted
relevant [72], as
seen in Figures 3 and 4.

Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16

Figure 3. Structural model.
Figure 3. Structural model.

Figure 4. p-value results.

Figure 4. p-value results.
The hypotheses indicate the interrelationships between the components that may im-
The hypotheses indicate the interrelationships between the components that may
pact how higher education research students utilize social media for active collaborative
impact howand
learning higher educationasresearch
involvement, students
well as their utilize
academic social media
achievement. for active
A two-step collaborative
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Table 4. Hypotheses relationships test.
5. Discussion
No
and Implications
Hypotheses Relationships Estimate S.E. C.R. p Results
This research
H1 INP adds
<--- to the current literature
SMCL 0.422 by0.026
adding16.147
constructivism
0.000 theory to better
Accepted
H2
understand INT <---
how students useSMCL 0.297
social media 0.028 Social
for learning. 10.638media,
0.000along
Accepted
with the Inter-
H3 revolutionized
net, have INP <--- the way
SME students0.361
interact,0.023
engage,15.953 0.000
and cooperate Accepted
throughout the
H4 INT <--- SME
world. Collaboration and engagement on0.273 0.024
social media 11.295
encourage a 0.000 Accepted
constructivist approach
H5 OL <--- INP 0.278 0.024 11.606 0.000 Accepted
H6 OL <--- INT 0.385 0.026 14.782 0.000 Accepted
H7 SS <--- OL 0.530 0.022 24.179 0.000 Accepted
H8 SAP <--- OL 0.131 0.021 6.235 0.000 Accepted
H9 SAP <--- SS 0.634 0.022 28.691 0.000 Accepted
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11134 10 of 15

to learning, in which students and teachers collaborate for mutual benefit [79,80]. They can
discuss and share useful knowledge in a group environment through social media sites. In
addition, effective social media use boosts participant engagement, collaborative learning,
and learner performance. Social media-based learning systems, rather than traditional
learning approaches, put online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in the hands of
students [81]. Students may foster healthy classroom conversations, student engagement,
peer integration, and teacher integration by using social media. These findings corroborate
those of [82], which discovered that social networks are simple to use and explore, as well as
being beneficial for interactive learning. Previous research on social networking networks
and their practical utility yielded similar results [9,83–85] and claims that using social media
in the classroom encourages greater contributions and participation in active student collab-
oration and engagement. Therefore, these virtual community interactions foster the desired
learning outcomes and student success. Employing online social media for collaborative
learning and interaction with instructors and peers boosts student engagement, which
improves academic achievement. Students’ intellectual capacities should be developed on
a platform provided by the higher education administration. Based on the outcomes of the
empirical study, it can be stated that social media communication devices assist students in
regaining knowledge and engaging with others in real-time while transferring educational
materials’ contents. Furthermore, modern communication devices would aid students
who are shy in front of their peers; instructors might open up on the web for collaborative
learning and teaching in a global setting; physically challenged students would benefit
from such technology. It also stands to reason that the widespread use of advanced tools
in practical training in higher education makes it simpler for professors and students to
engage digitally through web-based learning, discussion groups, and other techniques.
This research discovered that using social media for collaborative learning and engagement,
as well as interactions with peers and teachers, has a positive impact on students’ online
learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and academic performance during the COVID-19
pandemic, implying that implementing such sophisticated technological tools in higher ed-
ucation would result in innovative, drastic changes in international collaborative learning
and engagement. Here is a summary of the key research findings. Peer and teacher contact,
as well as students’ use of social media for educational reasons, enhance with collaborative
learning and engagement. Students’ use of social media enhances online learning dur-
ing the COVID-19 pandemic, interaction and engagement, as well as student–instructor
communication. The contact and participation of students have a favorable influence on
online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, online learning during the
COVID-19 pandemic has a strong favorable effect on student satisfaction and academic
achievement. Therefore, this research provides a framework for examining the influence
of students’ educational use of social media on collaborative learning and engagement.
This model was created based on observations from the literature and then tested using
structural equation modeling. Students’ usage of social media for educational purposes
was examined using constructivism theory basics. After that, the effects of students’ usage
of social media for online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic on student engagement,
faculty member involvement with students, and student course participation were exam-
ined. Finally, the overall effects of student interaction, instructor–student relationships, and
student course participation in collaborative learning were discovered to have an impact
on students’ happiness and academic achievement in online learning during the COVID-19
pandemic. According to this study, the indicators are well-representative of the constructs.
When all goodness-of-fit criteria were approved, the measurement model was likewise
judged to be adequate. The concept reliabilities and average variance extracted values were
determined in the current study, which looked at both convergent and discriminant validity.
The research model was found to be sufficient as a consequence of the data, and the study’s
nine hypotheses were confirmed and approved. The model was updated with additional
correlations, and the model’s validity was validated using the indices and goodness-of-fit
indices. All of these findings imply that social media offers a number of benefits, including
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11134 11 of 15

the ability to improve collaborative learning and engagement with peers and instructors;
all of which have an impact on online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, student
satisfaction, and academic achievement. This project provided a paradigm for harnessing
social media for collaborative learning and involvement in order to improve students’
academic performance during the COVID-19 pandemic. Students were most satisfied with
the assistance offered by teaching staff and their universities’ public relations during the
global lockdown and shift to online learning, all of which are results of our research [86–88].
Here are the scientific contributions:
• By integrating social media into instructional practices, students’ attitudes regarding
technology and their enthusiasm for using it for digital learning can be improved.
In order to improve their ability to study, succeed, and conduct research, instructors
and mentors should encourage students to use social media to solve problems, share
information, and trade expertise.
• It is recommended that colleges and universities support students who have used social
media in the classroom in lieu of pressuring those who have not. With this method,
students use elements and resources from social media in their educational process.
• Technology and resources have an impact on students’ attitudes toward and intentions
for using social media for digital learning. Digital learning choices based on social
media should be used by students.

6. Conclusions and Future Work

The study’s main goal was to look at the effects of a variety of factors on online
learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and student happiness in order to help students
improve their academic performance during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using social media
for collaborative learning, using social media for student engagement, interactivity with
peers, interactivity with teachers, online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, student
satisfaction, and student academic performance during the COVID-19 pandemic were all
included in the proposed model for this study, which was based on constructivism theory.
These factors were assessed using a structural equation modeling (SEM) technique and an
online questionnaire comprising 27 questions. Both collaborative learning and engagement
had a favorable impact on peer and instructor interaction, according to the findings; both
factors affected online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, which improved students’
happiness and academic success. The use of social media as a platform for educational
learning, cooperation, and student participation, as well as the use of social media as a
platform for interaction and online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, were all high-
lighted. These recommendations, when combined with a set of standards for using social
media in higher education, would benefit both students and institutions. According to the
findings of this study, future research could incorporate more characteristics to analyze the
impact of various aspects on online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and students’
academic performance during the COVID-19 pandemic through the use of social media for
collaborative learning and student engagement. Future research should look at additional
studies and variables that influence the usage of social media for online learning during
the COVID-19 pandemic, collaborative learning, and engagement to improve students’
academic achievement (e.g., environmental and cultural). Regardless of the insights it
offers, this study has its own limitations. The findings should be interpreted cautiously
because this study only examined one university, and behavior at other universities (both
private and public) may vary. This study’s emphasis on quantitative data is another draw-
back; as a result, researchers should use qualitative data instead (such as observations or
interviews) to avoid discovering inconsistencies between research themes. Future studies
should repeat this investigation in several nations, regions, and cultures to correct its flaws
and broaden the range of its conclusions. Due to the small sample size, it was not able to
conduct moderator research, hence the effects of age and gender were not examined.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11134 12 of 15

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, O.A.A.; methodology, O.A.A., W.M.A.-R. and J.C.-F.;

software, O.A.A. and W.M.A.-R.; validation, W.M.A.-R. and O.A.A.; formal analysis, J.C.-F., O.A.A.
and W.M.A.-R.; investigation, O.A.A., W.M.A.-R. and J.C.-F.; resources, O.A.A.; data curation, O.A.A.,
W.M.A.-R. and J.C.-F.; writing—original draft preparation, O.A.A.; writing—review and editing,
O.A.A., W.M.A.-R. and J.C.-F., visualization, O.A.A., W.M.A.-R. and J.C.-F.; supervision, O.A.A.;
project administration, O.A.A.; funding acquisition, O.A.A. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research, Vice Presidency for Grad-
uate Studies and Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia (Project No. GRANT139).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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