Selenium (Se)

Food: Main functions:

µg/100g
• Plays an important role in thyroid
Tuna prepared 108 hormone synthesis and metabolism
Brown rice boiled 9 • Provides protection against oxidative
Beef steak prepared 14 damage and infection
Brazil nuts 1917 • Contributes to DNA synthesis
Tilapia prepared 54 • Supports reproductive health
Cheese 45+ 12
Red lentils boiled 11
(Dutch Food Composition Database, NEVO)

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Selenium (Se)
Selenium is an essential trace mineral that the body needs to stay healthy. It
is important for reproduction, thyroid gland function, DNA production, and
protecting the body from damage caused by free radicals and infection. The
richest sources of selenium are animal derived foods such as meat, poultry,
eggs, and dairy products, although some plant-based foods also contain
selenium. Selenium status can vary significantly due to low selenium soil and
animal feed in certain regions around the world. Furthermore, people who have
a predominantly plant-based diet can be at risk of inadequate selenium intake.
Functions Measurement
Selenium is a trace element required for a range of cellular Dietary assessment methods are considered an imprecise
functions. It is widely used for the biosynthesis of the unique way to measure selenium intake, largely due to the
amino acid selenocysteine, which is a structural element of considerable variability in the selenium content of food.
selenoproteins. As such, selenium is involved with Instead, plasma or serum selenium are commonly used as
antioxidant effects, the immune function, thyroid hormone status biomarkers. The analysis of selenium in hair and
metabolism, selenium homeostasis and transport, as well as toenails is also useful as a long-term biomarker.
skeletal and cardiac muscle metabolism.
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), which provides
scientific advice to assist policy makers, has confirmed that
clear health benefits have been established for the dietary
intake of selenium in contributing to:
• Maintenance of the normal function of the immune system
• Maintenance of normal hair
• Maintenance of normal nails
• Normal thyroid function
• Normal spermatogenesis
• Protection of cells from oxidative stress

Dietary sources
Selenium is found naturally in a variety of foods, mostly in
combination with amino acids in an organic form known as
‘selenomethionine’, which is readily absorbed by the human
body. There are also inorganic forms (selenate and selenite)
that plants accumulate and convert to organic forms.
The most important sources of selenium are meat, poultry,
eggs, and dairy products, although some plant-based foods
also contain selenium. In all cases, the selenium content can
vary significantly. Differences in the dietary feed used to
produce livestock, as well as the available selenium content
of the soil and water where crops are grown can all have an
impact. In China, for example, the selenium content of corn,
rice and soy beans can range from 0.005 to 45 µg/kg. While in
New Zealand, where intakes were previously low, levels have
improved following greater imports of high-selenium
Australian wheat.

Absorption and body stores

The selenium found in plant and animal sources is
incorporated into various proteins and enzymes in the body
(selenoproteins). Most selenium is stored in skeletal muscle
tissue, which accounts for around 28-46% of the total selenium
pool, although the thyroid holds the highest concentration.
Based on available data, EFSA estimates the absorption
efficiency of selenium from the average diet to be 70%.
 Possible reduction of disease risk factors
Physiological interactions
Cardiovascular disease
• Selenium and iodine play critical roles in thyroid
hormone metabolism. One of the enzymes in this Selenoproteins help prevent the oxidative modification of
metabolism is composed of two selenium atoms lipids, reducing inflammation and preventing platelets from
and catalyses the conversion of thyroid hormones. clustering (aggregating). Recent studies found that selenium
supplementation could significantly decrease serum levels of
• Complicated pregnancies are characterized by total cholesterol and triglycerides. Furthermore, a positive
increased oxidative stress (imbalance between free effect on reducing oxidative stress and inflammation in
radicals and antioxidants in the body, which can be coronary heart disease patients is also suggested.
harmful) in the placenta. Selenium and iodine
potentially work together to impact oxidative stress Thyroid disease
in the placental cells. Therefore, there may be an
interaction of selenium and iodine on placental and Epidemiological evidence suggests a relationship between
child health. selenium levels and thyroid gland function in women.
However, randomized, controlled trials of selenium
supplementation in patients with thyroid disease have had
various results. Additional research is needed to determine
Deficiency whether selenium supplements can help to prevent or treat
Adverse health effects are associated with selenium thyroid disease.
deficiency, including poorer immune function, problematic
fertility/reproduction in men and women, fatigue, muscle Effects on the brain
weakness, and cognitive decline. Worldwide, 1 billion people Low selenium status has been associated with increased risk
have been estimated to have low dietary selenium intake. of cognitive decline, while selenium deficiency can cause
Suboptimal selenium status was reported to be widespread irreversible brain injury. Evidence also suggests a correlation
throughout Europe, the United Kingdom and the Middle East, between low selenium status and the occurrence of seizures,
and these results agreed with previous reports highlighting Parkinson’s disease, poor co-ordination, and cognitive decline.
the problem. As animal-based foods are very rich in In addition, selenium supplementation has been shown to
selenium, people who have a predominantly plant-based diet reduce intractable childhood seizures in a few, small studies.
can be at risk of inadequate selenium intake. In addition, it is
predicted that the concentration of selenium in soil will Cancer
decrease in the future as a consequence of climate change.
Prospective studies have generally shown some benefit of
These losses could increase the global prevalence of
adequate selenium status, compared to low selenium status,
selenium deficiency.
on the risk of prostate, lung, colorectal, and bladder cancers.
However, findings from trials have been mixed. More research
is needed to confirm the relationship between selenium
concentrations and cancer risk in order to determine whether
selenium supplements can prevent any form of cancer.

Immune system
Low selenium levels are associated with poor immune
function. A growing body of evidence suggests that increasing
selenium status will enhance the immune function, in
particular the ability to respond to viral infection. However,
the mechanisms underlying these effects are not fully
understood and more research is needed.
Recommended Daily Intake (RDI) Safety
In the U.S., the daily intake recommendation for adults is Although selenium is essential for health, too much can lead
55 µg/day, while for women who are pregnant or breastfeeding to health problems. Early indicators of excess selenium intake
the values are slightly higher of 60 µg/day and 70 µg/day include a garlic odor in the breath and a metallic taste in the
respectively. Values also vary according to age for children mouth. The most common clinical signs of chronically high
under the age of 18 years. European health authorities have selenium intake (selenosis) are hair and nail loss or brittleness.
set an adequate intake (AI) for selenium of 70 µg/day for
The U.S. Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) has established
adult men and women, while values for children range from
upper intake limits (UL) from food and supplements of
15 µg/day to 70 µg/day, depending on age.
400 µg/day for adult, with values reducing according to age.
In Europe, EFSA has defined a safe upper intake level for
Recommended daily intakes (RDI)
selenium as 300 µg/day for adults, including pregnant and
lactating women. The UL values for children range from
Group Life stage Dose/day* 60 µg/day (1-3 years) to 250 µg/day (15-17 years).
Due to the potential for interactions, individuals on regular
Infants <6 months 15 µg**
medication should discuss their selenium status with their
Infants 7-12 months 20 µg** healthcare provider.
Children 1-3 years 20 µg
Children 4-8 years 30 µg Supplements and food fortification
Children 9-13 years 40 µg Selenium is available in a multivitamin/multimineral
Children 14-18 years 55 µg supplement, as well as a stand-alone option. The most
Adults 19-50 years 55 µg common forms used in supplements are selenomethionine or
selenium-enriched yeast (grown in high-selenium mediums),
Adults >51 years 55 µg
as well as sodium selenite or sodium selenate. Each form
Pregnancy >14 years 60 µg offers different bioavailability. For example, more than 90% of
Breastfeeding >14 years 70 µg selenomethionine is absorbed by the body, compared to around
50% of selenium from selenite. This distinction is important
* Institute of Medicine (2001) as it determines how much of this essential trace mineral is
** Adequate intake (AI) actually taken up to support important bodily functions.
If not otherwise specified, this table presents RDIs. Currently, selenium fortification is limited. It is added to
some breakfast cereals, sports drinks, salt, and infant foods.