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Mindmaps +1 Chem

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Mindmaps +1 Chem

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xg82784xr9
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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MIND

MAP

+1 CHEMISTRY
MATTER
chemistry 08
FIRST IDENTIFY THE
LIMITING REACTANT
BY CALCULATING THE
REQUIRED MOLES &
THEN CALCULATE
THE AMOUNT OF
PRODUCT FROM
AVAILABLE MOLES THE AMOUNT OF
OF REACTANTS. LIMITING REACTANT

01
PURE

neet 2022
MIXTURE
SUBSTANCE

When 22.4L of H2(g) is mixed with 11.2L of Cl2(g),


ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS HOMOGENEOUS HETEROGENEOUS
each at STP, the moles of HCl(g) formed is equal to
(A) 0.5 (B) 1.5 (C) 1 (D) 2
AIPMT 2014

Which one of the following is not a mixture


(A) Tap water (B) Distilled water
(C) Salt in water (D) Oil in water

Laws of chemical combination


LAW OF
CONSERVATION
OF MASS
LAW OF
DEFINITE
PROPORTION
LAW OF
MULTIPLE
PROPORTION
LAW OF
GASEOUS
VOLUMES
AVOGADRO’S
LAW
07
02 A B C D
How many burgers can be made ?
Which part is the Limiting reactant ?
LAVOISIER JOSEPH PROUST JOHN DALTON GAY LUSSAC AMEDEO AVOGADRO
1789 1799 1803 1808 1811

The number of moles of hydrogen molecules


Which one of the following pairs of compound required to produce 20 moles of ammonia
illustrate the law of multiple proportions ? through Haber's process is
(A) H2O, Na2O (B) MgO, Na2O (A) 40 (B) 10 (C) 20 (D) 30 NEET 2019
(C) Na2O, BaO (D) SnCl2, SnCl4

ATOMS MAKE UP ATOMS OF ATOMS CANNOT BE


ALL MATTER THE SAME ELEMENT CREATED, DIVIDED,

06
ARE IDENTICAL OR DESTROYED

ATOMS OF DIFFERENT
ELEMENTS CAN COMBINE
IN CHEMICAL
REACTIONS, ATOMS ARE
03
TO FORM COMPOUNDS IN REARRANGED, COMBINED,
SIMPLE WHOLE NUMBER AND SEPARATED
RATIOS

Mole

6.022 X 1023
MASS OF
1 MOLE IS
VOLUME OF
1 MOLE GAS IS
MOLAR VOLUME
AT STP IS 22.4 L
04
PARTICLES MOLAR MASS MOLAR VOLUME OR 22400 ML

Which one of the followings has maximum


number of atoms?
05
(A) 1 g of Mg(s) [Atomic mass of Mg = 24]
(B) 1 g of O2 [Atomic mass of O=16]
(C) 1 g of Li(s) [Atomic mass of Li = 7]
(D) 1 g of Ag(s) [Atomic mass of Ag = 108]
NEET 2020
QUANTUM NUMBER
It describes subshell

01
It describes shell or
orbit Value from 0 to n-1 MAGENETIC
n = 1, 2, 3, 4,........ l=0 s l=2 d QUANTUM NUMBER
PRINCIPLE K, L, M, N,........ l=1 p Value of m = -l _
< m_ < l
l=3 f
QUANTUM NUMBER Total values of m = 2l +1
n = 4
UNCERTAINITY In nth Shell ,
Number of subshells = n
It describes size &
energy of shell.
AZIMUTHAL Orbital angular
momentum
l
l
=
=
0
1
m
m
=
=
0
-1, 0, +1
QUANTUM NUMBER
PRINCIPLE 1 h l = 2 m = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
= l (l+1) =
Number of orbitals = n2 r n2 E 2π l = 3 m = -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3
n2
Number of electrons =2n 2

Maximum no of orbital
It defines the angular
in a subshell =2l + 1
momentum
nh Maximum no of electrons
mvr =
h 2π in a subshell =4l + 2
Δx.ΔP >
- 4π SPIN
QUANTUM NUMBER
h If l=2
Δx.mΔv >
- 4π 1) Orbital = d CLOCKWISE (+ 1/2 )
Q. which of the following set of quantum

Q. Find angular momentum of Q. Find maximum no.of e numbers is correct?


2) No. of orbtals = 2(2+1)=5 SPIN
Q. According to Heisenberg's uncertainity principle, n l m s

Δx.ΔP >
h
which of the following is correct ? (i) 2s orbital (ii) 3d orbital (i) n=4,s= -1/
1) 4 0 0 +1/
2 (dxy,dxz,dyz,dx -y2,dz2) ANTICLOCKWISE
- 4π
2 (ii) n=3,l=1,m=0 2) 5 2 3 -1/ (- 1/2 )
a) It Δx = 0 then ΔP = ∞ 2
(iii) 4p orbital (iv) e in 4 orbit th
(iii) n=2,l=0 (iv) n=3,l=1 3) 2 -1 0 +1/ 3) Total e-s = 2(2l+1)= 10 e-s
b) It Δv = 0 then ΔP = o 2

c) It Δp = 0 then Δx = ∞ 4) 6 3 0 -1/
2
4) Orbital angular momentum =
d) All are correct
= 2(2+1) = 6

STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Q. Find uncertainity in velocity of ane if uncertainity
position is equal to uncertalnity in momentum.
h 1
a) h 1 h 1 h
2 πm b) c) d)
2m π m π mπ
2

Q. The uncertainty involved in the measurement of SHAPE OF ORBITALS


velocity within a distance of 0.1A0 is: Electron fills in the
ENERGY OF ORBITALS 1) s orbital - Spherical shape
a) 5.79 x 106 m/s

c) 5.79 × 10 m/s
b) 5.79 × 107 m/s
Aufbau increasing order of energy

principle
8
d) 5.79 x 105 m/s
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p
2) p orbital - dumb bell shape < 4s < 3d .........
1) Mono electronic species
Energy defined up on n 3) d orbital - double dumb bell shape
FILLING OF
Angular momentum 3s, 3p, 3d NODES ATOMIC ORBITAL
1s < 2s = 2p < 3s = 3p = 3d e- wave function
E 2s, 2p
in nth orbital 2

= mvr= n
1s probability of finding the
electrons
Pauli‛s No two electrons have same four
quantum numbers
2) Multi electronic species exclusion
* Node Probability of finding the principle 1s3- against Pauli‛s exclusion
Orbital angular momeutum 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d electron is zero. principle

= l(l+1) (n+l) rule * Node plane Plane where = o


2

As (n + l) ,E * Radial node n-l-1

Spin angular momentum If (n + l) is same as n E * Angular nodes = l Pairing is only after each
orbital singly occupied.
= s(s+1)
Orbital 2s 3d
* Total nodes = n-1 Hund‛s
(n+l)
n = 2 n = 3
l = 3
rule Against Hund‛s rule
value l = 0
n+l = 2 n+l = 5
• Law of Triads: Johann Dobereiner (1829) Cs
•Electronic Configuration is the distribution of electrons into orbitals of
• Law of Octaves: John Alexander Newlands (1865) K
Rb

an atom.
Br

•Lothar Meyer plotted a graph between atomic


Na Ca I

•In periods: Number of elements in each period is twice the number of


Sr Ba
Cl
Li

Atomic volume
volume and atomic weight. Elements with
F

Be Mg

similar properties occupied the similar positions atomic orbitals available in the energy level that is being filled.
on the graph.
Atomic weight

•Group wise: Elements in same group have similar valence shell electronic
• Periodic Law: Dimitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer.

Purpose
It states that the properties of the elements are periodic configurations. Same number of electrons in outer orbitals and similar
Genesis of
function of their atomic weights. periodic
classification properties. These are classified into four blocks i.e., s-block, p-block,
•Modern Periodic Law: Henry Moseley (1913)
It states that the physical and chemical properties
Periodic table
classification
d-block and f-block.
based on electronic
of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic configuration
numbers. ; Horizontal rows – Periods, Vertical columns –
Groups re numbered from 1 to 18.

s-Block Elements d-Block Elements


Derived from the atomic number of • Group 3-12
element using numerical roots for IUPAC
Nomenclature of Classification of Elements and • Group 1 (alkali metals) and Group 2
(alkaline earth metals) • Outer configuration is (n-1) d1-10 ns2 np6
0 and numbers 1-9 and "ium" is
elements with
atomic no. > 100 Periodicity in Properties • Outermost configuration is ns or ns
1 2 • Forms coloured ions.
added at the end. • Reactive with low IE. • Exhibit variable valence, paramagnetism.
• Metallic character and reactivity • Also called as Transition elements.
increases down the group
Properties Group Period • Some are used as catalysts.

Periodic trends in Periodic table


(a) Atomic Radius : properties of classification
elements based on types
Distance from the centre of the Increases Decreases of elements p-Block Elements f-Block Elements
nucleus to the outermost shell
containing electrons. • Group 13 to 18. • Also called as Inner Transition Elements.
Isoelectronic species
(b) Electron Gain Enthalpy : • Also called as representatives • Contains Lanthanoids and Actinoids.
Becomes Becomes
Energy released when a Atoms and ions with same number of electrons or main group elements • Outer configuration ie (n-2) f1-14 (n-1) d1-10 ns0-2
less more
neutral isolated gabelous atom eg: O2-,F-,Na+,Mg2+ have same number of electrons • All are metals.
accepts an electron from anion. negative negative • Outermost configuration varies
Size a (+) ve1charge a (-) ve charge • Actinoids are radioactive.
(c) Ionization Energy: from ns np to ns np
2 1 2 6

The minimum amount of energy • At the end of period are low


Decreases Increases ?) The increasing order of the ionic radii of the given ?) In the long form of the periodic table, the valence shell
required to remove the electron
from the outmost orbit of an
isoelectronic species is: reactive noble gases. electronic configuration of 5s2 5p4 corresponds to the
element present in
isolated atom in gaseous state. (a) S²-, Cl-, Ca2+,K+ (b) Ca²+, K+, Cl-, S²- •Halogens and Chalcogens have
(a) Group 16 and period 6
(d) Electronegativity : (c) K+, S²-, Ca²+, Cl- (d) Cl-, Ca²+, K+, S²- high negative electron gain
(b) Group 17 and period 5
Tendency of an atom to attract the Decreases Increases enthalpies. (a) Group 16 and period 5
shared pair of electrons towards
it "Group"self.
?) Which of the following statements is not correct? •Metallic character increases (b) Group 17 and period 6

(e) Electron Affinity Decreases Increases down the group


(a) Ionisation energy increases on going down a group in the periodic table.
(f) Valency: Increase (b) Among alkaline earth metals, reducing character increases down the group.
Number of univalent atoms from 1 to 4
which combine with an No Change and then (c) Fluorine is the most electronegative element.
decrease from
atom of given elemen 4 to 0. (d) Metallic character increases on going down a group in the periodic table.

(g) Metallic Character: Increases Decreases


(h) Non–Metallic Character Decreases Increases
01 EP
02
=CVE + no of MV
03 VALENCE BOND THEORY
05
BOND ORDER
Vsepr 2 HYBRIDSATION C - C = 1 bond 2 - 1 - Diamagnetic
MV Remaining
C = C = 1 + 1π 3 - 0.5 - Paramagnetic
2,0- Linear - 180o 2- SP - Linear C -
= C = 1 + 2π 4 - 0 - Diamagnetic
Monoatomic 5 - 0.5 - Paramagnetic
3,0- Triagonal planar - 120o BP LP 3- SP2 - Triagonal planar MOLECULAR ORBITAL THEORY 6 - 1 - Diamagnetic
2,1- Bent shape 7- 0.5- Paramagnetic
EP =CVE + 0 4- SP3 - Tetrahedral Up to N2 the energy order is, 8 - 0 - Diamagnetic
4,0- Tetrahedral - 109o28| 2 5- SP3d - Triagonal pyramidal 9 - 0.5 - Paramagnetic
3,1- Pyramidal - 107o DV Remaining 1s< *1s< 2s< *2s<(π 2px=π 2py) 10 - 1 - Paramagnetic
Diatomic 6- SP3d2 - Octahedral < 2pz<(π* 2px=π*2py)< *2pz 11 - 1.5 - Paramagnetic
2,2- Bent - 104.5o 12 - 2 - Diamagnetic
LP
7- SP d - Pentagonal bipyramidal
3 3
13 - 2.5 - Paramagnetic
BP
5,0- Trigonal Bipyramidal After N2 the energy order is,(for 02,F2,Ne2) 14 - 3 - Diamagnetic
4,1- See saw 15 - 2.5 - Paramagnetic
CH3-CH3 - sp3 1s< *1s< 2s< *2s< 2pz<(π 2px=π 2py)
16 - 2 - Paramagnetic
EP =CVE + negative charge - positive charge
3,2- T shape <(π* 2px=π*2py)< *2pz 17 - 1.5 - Paramagnetic
2 CH2=CH2 - sp2 18 - 1 - Diamagnetic
2,3- Linear - 180o MV/DV Remaining
B2-10 Paramagnetic π2p1x= π2py1 19 - 0.5 - Paramagnetic
CH=CH - sp 20 - 0 - Diamagnetic
π*2px= π*2py
1 1
6,0- Octahedral - 90 o Charged Compound O2-10 Paramagnetic
BP LP Odd number + 10&16 - Paramagnetic
5,1- Square pyramidal =C= - sp Even number except 10&16 - Diamagnetic

4,2- Square planar LP-LP > LP-BP > BP-BP


7,0- Pentagonal bipyramidal
6,1- distorted octahedral
In XeF6, oxidation state and state of
Total no. of Lone pairs in I3- The no. of unpaired electrons in O2
BOND PARAMETERS
Q3 Q4
hybridisation of Xe and shape of the

Q2 molecules are, respectively molecule is:


1) 3 2) 6 1) +6, sp3d3 distorted octahedral 1) 0 2) 1
In which of the following pairs are 2) +4, sp3d2 square planar

Q1 3) 9 4) 12 3) 2 4) 3
the two species triagonal pyramidal ? 3) +6, sp3 , pyramidal
BOND ORDER
4) +6, sp3d2 square pyramidal
1) BrO3- and XeO3 2) SF4 and XeF4 1
B.O Stability Bond
2) SO and NO3-
2-
3 4) BF3 and NF3 B.L
strength
B.O-O22+ > O2+> O2
3 2.5 3

B.L-O2>O2+>O22+

1) Max B.A-1800[sp]
1) Polar molecule, = 0 Resonance Changes B.O. 1) B.L with Size of atom
BOND 1) Hybridisation
DIPOLE Irregular geometry.
1) Benzene
BOND 2) Hybridisation BOND
MOMENT a) Different bonds RESONANCE ANGLE sp > sp2 > sp3 HI > HBr > HCl > HF
ENERGY sp> sp2 >sp3 ( ) b) Lone pairs
3 NO2+ > NO2 > NO2- LENGTH
2) B.E. B.O. (No. of Bonds)
c) Different surrounding atoms = 2 = 1.5 Sp Sp2 2) B.L decreases with
eg: SF4, CH3Cl 3) if LP B.A
N2> O2 >F2 2) Non polar molecule, =0 CH4 > NH3 > H2O [sp3]
multiplicity
B.L.: C2H6 > C6H6 > C2H4 > C2H2
3) B.E. E.N. difference Regular geometry 0 LP 1 LP 2 LP C-C>C=C>C=C
a) Same bonds B.O.: 1 1.5 2 3
HF> HCl > HBr > HI b) Zero lone pairs
4) If electronegativity of
2) O3 3 C.A B.A
4) Halogens c) Same surrounding atoms = 2
= 1.5 NH3 > PH3 > ASH3 > SbH3
eg: CH4, CO2
Cl2> Br2 > F2 > I2 CH3OH > CH3Cl > H2O> NH3> NF3> BF3 B.L.: H2O2 > O3 > O2 5) If electronegativity oF S.A B.A
X X X =0
BI3 > BBr3 > BCl3 > BF3
X
> B.O.: 1 1.5 2
O > O
X
O

Q9
The correct order of increasing
Q8
The correct order of bond angles:

Q5
Which of the following molecules
has the maximum bond enthalpy? Q6 Which of the following will
have maximum dipole moment?
Q7 The correct order in
which the O-O bond length 1) H2O > NH3 > CH4 > CO2
bond length of C-H,C-O,C-C & C=C is:
1) C-C < C=C < C-O < C-H
1) N2 2) CO decreases in the following is 2) H2O < NH3 < CO2 > CH4 2) C-O < C-H < C-C < C=C
1) NF3 2) NH3
1) O3 > H2O2 > O2 2) O2 > O3 > H2O2 3) H2O < NH3 > CO2 > CH4 3) C-H < C-O < C-C < C=C
3) F2 4) HF
3) CH4 4) PCl3 3) O2 > H2O2 > O3 4) H2O2 > O3 > O2 4) CO2 > CH4 > NH3 > H2O 4) C-H < C=C < C-O < C-C

Fajans Rule - Indicates Covalent character in an ionic bond.


Hydrogen bond- Formation of bond between hydrogen & most electronegetive elements like F,O,N 1) Size of the cation- Smaller the cation higher is the polarisation, so covalent character increases
Intermolecular - H – Bonding occur within one single molecule. LiCl > NaCl > KCl > RbCl > CsCl
2) Size of anion- As the size of anion increases, polarisation increases, covalent character increases
Intermolecular - H Bonding between two different molecules of same or different compounds. AgF < AgCl < AgBr < AgI
Intermolecular H bonding increases the boiling point. eg: Intermolecular H bond in p-nitrophenol 3) Charge on the cation- As the charge increases, Covalent character also increases
increases the boiling point. HF(HB) > HI > HBr > HCl. H2O(4HB) > H2Te > H2Se > H2S LiCl < BeCl2 < BCl3 < CCl4
�� �� �� �� ��

S tat e S o f M a
�� ��
Spontaneity
STATE FUNCTION PATH FUNCTION
ENTHALPY THERMOCHEMISTRY
H = U + nRT

n = 0, H = U
Properties which depends only Depends on path or process. n > 0, H > U
on initial and final state of system as well as in`tial and final state n < 0, H < U
1) Heat of Reaction ( Hrxn.)
& do not on process or path of the system
All exothermic process are spontaneous

BOND ENERGY

THERMODYNAMICS
Hrxn.= Hproducts - Hreactants
e.g. U, H , S etc. e.g. work, heat

2) Heat of Formation
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES ENTROPY A + B C + D
1 mole of substance ar 298 K and 1 atm Pressure (standard enthalpy of formation )
1 3 Bond energy: a b c d
N2 + H2 NH3
Sgas > Sliquid > Ssolid 2 2
A + B C + D Hreaction= Bond energy of reactants - Bond energy of products
EXTENSIVE INTENSIVE
heat of a b c d = ( a + b) - ( c + d )
ENTROPY CHANGE
formation
1) Isothermal NH3 = B.E = x
Properties which are dependent Hreaction= Heat of formation ofproducts - Heat of formation of reactants
Properties which are independent V2 P1 B.E of N-H = x
S = nR ln = nR ln = ( c + d ) - ( a + b)
of matter (size & mass)present of matter(size & mass) present in V1 P2 3
in system system Standard enthalpy of formation ( 298 K, 1 atm) of element at it‛s standard CH4 = B.E = x
e.g. Mass, volume, Internal energy e.g. Pressure, temperature, 2) Isochoric ( P O T)
state is zero B.E of C-H = x
heat capacity, Entropy, Enthalpy Melting point, density,Specific heat T2 P2 4
S = nCv ln = nCv ln O2 (g) = 0 Cl2 (g) = 0 Br (g) = 0 Br (l) = 0
etc. Surface tension etc P1
T1

3) Isobaric
3) Enthalpy of Combustion (1 mole, 298 K )
WORK dm3/ L
S = nCv ln
T2
T1
= nCv ln
V2
V1 (standard enthalpy of combustion )
W = P V = nRT
10-3 10-3 CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O ; Hcombustion

W =Joule
P Pascal 1 atm = 1.01 x 105 Pa
1 L atm = 101 J
Cm3 m 3
Stotal > 0, Spontaneous
A B ; H1
V m3 Stotal = 0, Equilibrium A + B C + D
10-6 a b c d
B C ; H2
Stotal < 0, Non-spontaneous Enthalpy of
combustion:

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Hreaction= Heat of combustion of reactants - Heat of combustion of products
A C ; H3 =
= ( a + b) - ( c + d ) H1 + H2
GIBBS’S FREE ENERGY
G = H -T S
Law of conservation of energy G < 0 Or (-)ve, Spontaneous A B ; H= x
U = q+W 4) Heat of Neutralisation ( H = (-)ve)
G > 0 Or (+)ve, Non-spontaneous
G = 0 , Equilibrium
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O ; Hneutalisation
B A ; H = -x
A B ; H= x
S.A + S.B H = -1313.7 k Cal = - 57 kJ

S.A + S.B > (S.A/ S.B + W.A/W.B)- > W.A+W.B


Equilibrium Temperature
SIGN CONVENTION nA nB ; H = nx
H
W W Te =
S
(+)ve system (-)ve

q q

Q = 0 ∆H ∆S ∆G = ∆H − T∆S Spontaneity. HESS' LAW CONSTANT HEAT


SUMMATION
Adiabatic process U = W = P V

Insulated, Rapid process


= nRT
(-) (+) Always Negative Spontaneous at all temp
T= 0, U= 0
Isothermal process Q + W = 0 Non-spontaneous at all
Q =- W (+) (-) Always Positive temperature.
∆H1
FLOT V = 0 A B
Isochoric process W= 0
U = Qv=nCv T
+ve @ low temp. Spontaneous at T> Te
W= P V (+) (+)
Isobaric process
U = Q + W ∆H ∆H2
-ve @ high temp.
FREE Pext =0 -ve @ low temp. ∆H3
EXPANSION Isobaric
Spontaneous at low
ISOTHERMAL
W=0, U=0,q=0
P
(-) (-) D C
dT =0; U=0 (for Inert gas); q =–W temperature, T< Te
Reversible Isothermal Irreversible Isothermal Isothermal +ve @ high temp.
Isochoric
Adiabatic
∆H = ∆H1 + ∆H2 + ∆H3
V
Equilibrium established in physical reactions. Chemical equilibrium approaches from both
The chemical reactions which takes place in both forward & backward direction
directions are called reversible reactions It is dynamic in nature. Chemical equilibrium is dynamic in nature.
In a reversible reaction both reactants and
products are unstable.
Here vapour pressure is constant at a constant temp For a general reversible reaction
Equilibrium is the end state of a reversible reaction.
aA + bB cC+ dD
Equilibrium is established only in a closed container. [C]C [D]d
At equilibrium, the rate of forward and backward K=
Established only at a constant temparature [A]a [B]b
reactions are equal. (m.p of solid ie, freeging point of liquid)
At equilibrium, the concentration of reactants &
products becomes constant. Ice-waler equilibrium established at ooc.
At any time during the reaction aA+bB cc+dD
the ratio [C]C [D]d is known as concentration qaotient, Q.
Established only in a Saturated solution [A]a [B]b

eg: Saturated sugar solution. At equilibrium Q = K


Equilibrium
foawand Sugar (dissolved) Sugar (undissolved)
product
equilibrium
Rate 1.
Conc Value of k does not depends upon initial concentration of
Here solubility depends upon pressure (Henry’s law) reactants and products.
reactant
backward eg: Soda water 2. Value of k does not depends upon the direction from which
Time Time
CO2 (dissolved) CO2 (undissolved) equilibrium is altained.

For the equilibrium A B, the variation of the rate of the forward (a) & Which of the given statements does not elucidate the equilibrium state In the given reaction: A+2B 2C, 2 moles each of A & B present in 10 L
reverse (b) reaction with time is given by precisely? of solution combine to form 1 mole of C. Calculate K for the reaction.
(A) The equilibrium can be approached from either direction.
(B) The equilibrium can be attained only if the system is an isolated system. (A) 1.5 (B) 6.67 (C) 0.15 (D) 2.3
(C) The free energy change at constant pressure and temperature is zero.
JEE 2020

(D) It is dynamic in nature.

AIIMS
chemical equilibrium
3. value of k depends only on temparature.
According to Le-chatelier's principle, if a system at equilibrium is
4. If K for the reaction aA + bB cC+dD is K, then subjected to a change in concentration, temperature or pressure,
K for the reaction cc+dD aA+ bB will be 1K If they are in solid or liquid phase, K can be represented as Kc. the equilibrium will shifts automatically in one direction which will
nullify the effect of the change.
If they are in gaseous or aqueous phase, K can be represented as Kp
5. If K for the reaction aA + bB cC+dD is K, then
For a general reaction 1. Conc. of reactant increases shift towards forward reaction.
K for the reaction naA+ nbB ncC + ndD will be (K) n
aA + bB cC + dD 2. Conc. of product decreases shift towards forward reaction.
6. During the addition of two reactants having equilibrium
[C]C [D]d PCc PDd 3. Conc. of reactant decreases shift towards backward reaction.
constants K1 & K2, then the net Constant K = K1 x K2 Kc = & Kp =
[A]a [B]b PAa PBb 4. Conc. of product increases shift towards backward reaction.
7. During the subtraction of a reaction having constant K2 from a 5. Pressure increases shift towards lesser number of moles
reaction having constant K1, then the net constant K = K1/K2 Kp = Kc (RT) n
n = np - nR 6. Pressure decreases shift towards higher number of moles
8. If Q<K, the reaction will proceed in forward direction 7. No of moles of reactants & products are equal, P has no effect.

9. If Q>k, the reaction will proceed in backward direction n 8. If temperature increases shift towards endothcomic

4
Unit of Kc = (mol/L)
10. If Q=K, the system is in equilibrium. n 9. If temperature decreases shift towards exothermic
Unit of Kp = (atm)
10. Catalyst helps to attain eqm state easily.
11. If K >10 , the reaction is almost complete in forward direction.
3 If n = 0, equilibrium constant has no unit After the establishment of eqm, catalyst has no effect.

12. If k <10-3, the reaction is in forward direction. 11. Addition of inert gas at constant volume, no effect.
In heterogeneous equilibrium, concentration of pure solid &
13. If K is in blw 10³ & 10-3, almost same reaction takes place pure liquid is taken as one
12. Addition of inert gas at constant pressure shift towards
in both forward and backward direction higher number of moles
eg : CaCO3(s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Kp = PCo2

At a given temperature, the equilibrium constants for the reactions,


1 Which one of the following conditions will favour maximum formation
NO (g) + O 2(g) NO2(g) & 2NO2(g) 2NO(g) +O2(g) of the product in the reaction A 2(g) + B2(g) X2(g). rH = -XkJ?
2

NEET 2018
are K, and K2 respectively. If K, is 4 x 10 -3 . then K2 will be (A) Low temperature and high pressure (B) High temperature and high pressure
JEE 2020
JIPMER

(A) 8x10- 3 (B) 16x10- 3 (C) 6.25x104 (D) 6.25x106 (C) Low temperature and low pressure (D) High temperature and low pressure
AFMC AFMC JEE AIPMT AMU

ELECTROLYTE ACID-BASE CONCEPTS IONISATION AND IONISATION CONSTANT VALUE OF IONIC PRODUCT IMPORTANT EQUATIONS
Substance which allow the flow of electricity through their 01 ARRHENIUS CONCEPT In all tonisation reactions concentration of water [H2O] is taken At 25°C, Kw = [H3O+] [OH-] = 1x 10-14 (mol/l)
aqueous solution or through their molten form. PH = - log [H+] PKa = - log [Ka]
Acids are H+ ions donors and bases are OH- ion donors. as constant
01 If [H ] = [OH ] = 1x10 mol/L : solution will be neulral
+ - -7

01 STRONG ELECTROLYTE HCl H+ + Cl- (acid) NaOH Na++OH- (base) POH = - log [OH-] PKb = - log [Kb]
electrolyte which dissociates completely into ions. 01 IONISATION OF WATER 02 If [H+] > [OH-] = i.e [H+] > 1x10-7mol/L solution will be acidic
02 BRONSTED - LOWRY CONCEPT PKw = PH + POH = 14
eg : HCl, NaOH H 2O + H 2O H3O +OH
+ -
Acids are protons (H+ion) donors and bases are proton acceptors. 03 If [H+] < [OH-] = i.e [H+] < 1x10-7mol/L solution will be basic KaxKb = Kw = 1x10-14at 25oC
02 WEAK ELECTROLYTE lonisation constant of water, Kw = [H3O+] [OH-]
Eg : CH3COOH + H2O CH3COO- + H3O+
electrolyte which dissociates partially into ions. or Kw = [H ] [OH ]
+ -
PH PH of a neutral solution is 7 PKa + PKb = 14 at 25oC
eg : CH3COOH, NH4OH acid base bace acid
02 IONISATION OF ACID PH = - log [H+] PH of an acidic solution is < 7
IONIC EQUILIBRIUM base + H+ Conjugate acid acid - H+ Conjugate base DEGREE OF DISSOCIATION ( )
CH3COOH + H O CH3COO-+H3O+ PH of a basic solution is > 7
Equilibrium established in between ions and unionised Salt Number of moles ionised Eg : 30% ionisation means
in a weak electr . Conjugate acid of H20 H 3O + Conjugate base of H20 OH- lonisation constant, K = [CH3COO-] [H3O+]
P SCALE
H = 30
03 LEWIS CONCEPT moles = = 0.3
Eg. In weak electr , equilibrium is established between [CH3COOH] 100
Bases are lone pair e- donors & acids are lone pair e- acceptors.
ions and the unionized molecules. This type of equilibrium or Ka = [CH3COO-] [H+]
Lewis acid - Substances having Vacant space in their valence Weak acid Weak base
l.involves ions in aqueous solution. II.is called physical equilibrium.
shell to accomodate lone pair of e- [CH3COOH] Ka = C 2 K b= C 2
III.is due to complete ionization IV.is called ionic equilibrium. 03 IONISATION OF BASE
The correct statement(s) is/are Eg : BF3, AlCl3, H+, Ag+ = Ka /c = Kb /c
Eg : NH4OH [NH4+] [OH-]
(A) I and IV only (B) II and III only (C) IV only (D) I, II, III and IV Lewis base - Substances having lone pair of e- in their valence
shell lonisation constant of base Kb = [H3O+] = C [OH-] = C
ANS : (A) [NH4OH]
Eg : NH3, H2O, Cl-, OH- [H+] = Ka. c [OH-] = Kb. c

ionic equilibrium
AFMC AMU AFMC 2009 AIPMT 2015 NEET 2016

ACID STRENGTH POLY PROTIC ACIDS & POLY HYDROXY BASES HYDROLYSIS OF SALTS COMMON ION EFFECT SOLUBILITY PRODUCT
acid strength Ka Salt + H2O hydrolysis acid + base lonisation of a weak electrolyte can be suppressed by the addition Solubility is the concentration of an ion in a saturated solution(S)
Acids having ionisable hydrogen are known as porotic acids or
basic acids. eg :- HCl, H2SO4, H2C2O4, H3PO4, CH3COOH etc SALT OF STRONG ACID & STRONG BASE of salt which contain common ion.
Solubility product is the product of conc. of ions in a Saturated
1 Strong acid (SA) & strong base (SB) Neutral, It’s PH = 7 Ionisation of a weak acid, CH3COOH can be suppressed by the solution. ie, product of solubility (KSP)
acid strength
PKa eg :- NaCl Na2SO4 addition of a salt like CH3COONa. Common ion : CH3COO-
Here H2SO4, H2C2O4 & H3PO4 having more than one ionisable NaOH + HCl Neutral Sparingly soluble salt - salt which dissociate slightly into ions
hydrogen, they are known as polyprotic acids NaOH + H2SO4 Neutral Ionisation of a weak base, NH4OH can be suppressed by the
For an acid HA SB SA SB SA addition of a salt like NH4Cl. Common ion : NH4+ eg: AgCl, BaSO4, PbCl2, etc.
Note : Neutral salts donot undergo hydrolysis
As HA bond strength decreases, acid strength increases Polyprotic acids ionises in stepwise. SALT OF STRONG ACID & WEAK BASE. (SA + WB acidic), It’s PH < 7 BUFFER SOLUTIONS KSP can be calculated easily by using a sparingly soluble salt.
eg :- NH4Cl NH4OH + HCl acidic Solution which can resist the change in pH on addition of small drops Consider the ionisation of a sparingly soluble salt AgCl
Here the removal of H+ ion from neutral molecule is easy, but it is of acids or base.
As we move from top to bottom, size of anion increases difficult to remove further H+ ions from their corresponding anions WB SA AgCl Ag+ + Cl-
HA bond strength decreases & acid strength increases. SALT OF WEAK ACID & STRONG BASE (WA + SB Basic), It’s PH > 7 1. Acidic buffer : Mixture of equimolar concentrations of a weak acid S S
Ka1 >Ka2 >Ka3
eg :- Acid strength of HI > HBr > HCl > HF and it's salt with a strong base. CH3COOH / CH3COONa.
eg :- CH3COONa CH3COOH + NaOH Basic KSP = [Ag+] [Cl-] = S x S = S2
[salt]
SALT OF WEAK ACID & WEAK BASE PH = PKa + log Henderson - Hasselbalch equation
As we move from left to right, electronegativity increases In case of polyhydroxy bases or polyacidic bases like Fe(OH)3, [acid]
Ba(OH)2 etc having Kb1 >Kb2 >Kb3 WA + WB slightly acidic/basic If the value of ionic product = KSP, solution is saturated.
HA bond becomes more polar & acid strength increases. 2. Basic buffer : Mixture of equimolar concentrations of a weak base
1 and it's salt with a strong acid. NH4OH / NH4Cl. If the value of ionic product < KSP, solution is unsaturated.
eg :- Acid strength of HF > H2O > NH3 > CH4 PH = 7 + 2 [PKa - PKb]
[salt] If the value of ionic product > KSP, solution is super saturated.
POH = PKb + log
eg : (NH4)2 CO3 [base] here precipitation takesplace
OXIDATION OXIDISING AGENT: BALANCING OF
REDOX REACTIONS
A reagent which REDOX REACTION
NUMBER can increase
the oxidation
RULES TO ASSIGN OXIDATION NUMBER number;Oxidants 1) Identify oxidation and reduction
1) Oxidation number of an element in
free elemental state or Uncombined state zero
REDUCING AGENT: 2) Make increase and decrease in O.N equal
2) For ions oxidation number is equal to the charge
A reagent which 3) Balance atoms except O & H
OXIDATION: can decrease
3) The oxidation number of oxygen in most REDOX REACTIONS: 4)
the oxidation
of the compounds is -2 Increase in the Reactions which ACIDIC BASIC
number;Reductants
In peroxides -1 oxidation number involve change
In superoxides —1/2
In O2 F2 +1 in oxidation number - Oxygen with H2O - Charge with OH-
In OF2 +2 REDUCTION: of the - Hydrogen with H+ - Oxygen with H2O
4) Oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 in Decrease in the interacting species
most of its compounds(In metal hydrides -1) oxidation number
5) Oxidation number of fluorine is always -1 and
other halogens also have -1 in halide ions
6) Alkali metals have oxidation number +1 and
alkaline earth metals have oxidation number +2
7) The algebraic sum of the oxidation number of all
the atoms in a compound must be zero.
8) In polyatomic ion, the algebraic sum of all the
REDOX REACTION
oxidation numbers of atoms of the ion must equal
the charge on the ion.
TYPES OF REDOX REACTIONS
>
+1 x -2
KMnO4 1 + x + 4x(-2) = 0 x = +7

COMBINATION REACTION DECOMPOSITION REACTION DISPLACEMENT REACTION DISPROPORTIONATION REACTIONS


A redox reaction in the form Reaction leads to the breakdown of a An ion (or an atom) in a compound In a disproportionation reaction an element
POINTS TO A+B→C compound into two or more components is replaced by an ion (or an atom) of
in one oxidation state is simultaneously
REMEMBER Either A and B or both A and B must be in
at least one of which must be in the another element.
oxidised and reduced.
elemental state. X + YZ → XZ + Y
the elemental form for such a reaction to be It always contains an element that can exist
eg: H2O → H2 + O2
Fe3O4 a redox reaction. in at least three oxidation states.
Carbon suboxide CaOCl2
+2 O +2 +2 +3 +1 -1 eg: H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl eg: 2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
O = C = C = C = O FeO. Fe2O3 Ca(OCl)Cl
All combustion reactions
Comproportionation reaction:
CrO5 Tribromooctaoxide
A reaction in which an element in a
-2
O
higher oxidation state reacts with the
-1 O O O
-1
O same element in a lower oxidation state to
= =

= =

= =

O +6 +4 +6
O= Br Br =O
Cr
Br
give the element in an intermediate
O
-1
+6 O-1 O O O oxidation state
METAL NON-METAL eg: Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 → 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
DISPLACEMENT DISPLACEMENT
Tetrathionate ion A metal in a compound can be Non-metal in a compound can
O O
Highest O.S— Reduction—Oxidising agent displaced by another metal in be displaced by a metal or a
-
O S
+5 O
S
O
S S
+5
O
- the uncombined state. non-metal
Lowest O.S — Oxidation—Reducing agent eg: CuSO4 + Zn → Cu + ZnSO4 eg: Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
O O
Intermediate O.S — Oxidation & Reduction Na + H2O → NaOH + H2
—Oxidising Agent & Reducing Agent
Occurrence: Most abundant in universe. - Resembles alkali metals (lose one e- to form unipositive ions)
Preparation
Preparation: - Resembles halogens (gain one e- to form uninegative ion)
By exhaustive electrolysis
of water - Forms oxides, halides and sulphides
– Laboratory Method:
Uses - Very high ionization enthalpy
Zn+2H+ Zn2++H2 As a moderator in nuclear - Does not possess metallic characters under normal conditions
reactors. - Forms diatomic molecules. TYPES
Zn + 2NaOH Na2ZnO2 + H2
In exchange reactions for
the study of reaction (i) Ionic/saline/salt-like
–Commercial Method:
mechanisms. Stoichiometric compounds of
Electrolysis
2H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g) dihydrogen formed with s-block
Traces of acid/base 1
Protium: Predominant form. ( H( elements
2 1
By electrolysing warm aqueous barium hydroxide Deuterium: ( H)
Solution between Ni electrodes. 1 (ii) Metallic/non-stoichiometric/interstitial
Tritium : Radioactive ( 3H ( Formed by d-block & f-block
1270 k 1 elements
nCO+(2n+1) H2

S
CnH2n+2+nH2O

IE
Ni H
EA

RT
-CO + H2 is called water gas VY (iii) Covalent/molecular

PE
O
W Formation of molecular compounds from

PR
1270 k AT
-Cool Gasification : C(s)+H2O(g) CO(g)+H2(g)
ER ISOTOPES dihydrogen and p-block elements
Water-gas shift reaction : a) Electron deficient (Group 13)
CO(g)+H2O(g) 1270 k CO2(g)+H2(g) b) Electron Precise (Group 14)
DES

HYDROGEN
DIHYDROGEN RI c) Electron rich (Group 15,16,17)
Physical Properties: HYD
Colourlers, odourless, tasteless and combustible
Lighter than air, insoluble in water.

Chemical Properties:

OX EN
E
PER DROG
ID
H2(g)+X2(g) 2HX(g)(X=F,Cl,Br,I) W
Uses AT
ER
HY
0
Temporary hardness
2H2(g)+O2(g) 2H2O(l) Δ H =-285.9 KJmol-1 • As hair bleach,disinfectant
Catalyst or
Heating
0 • Manufacture chemicals used Removed by boiling, Clark's method.(Due to presence of
3H2(g)+N2(g) 673K,200atm
Fe 2NH3(g) Δ H =-92.6 KJmol-1 in detergents. magnesium and calcium hydrogen carbonates)
• In industries as bleaching
H2(g)+2M(g) 2MH3(s)Where M=alkali metal Permanent hardness
agent
• In environmental chemistry Removed by treatment with washing soda, Calgon's method,
H2(g)+Pd2+(aq) Pd(s)+2H+(aq) Ion exchange method, synthetic resins methods.
H2+CO+RCH=CH2 RCH2CH2CHO2 (Due to presence of soluble salts of Mg & Ca in the form of
chlorides and sulphate)
H2+RCH2CH2CHO RCH2CH2CH2OH
Physical properties
Uses: Colourless, miscible with water.
Synthesis of ammonia. Structure : Non-Planar
Preparation
In manufacture of vanaspati fat. Chemical Properties 3) Oxidising action in basic medium
In manufacture of bulk organic chemicals. 2Fe2++H2O2 2Fe3++2OH- 1) BaO2 .8H2O(s)+H2SO4(aq) BaSO4(S)+H2O2(aq) +8H2O(l)
1) Oxidising action in acidic medium
For manufacture of metal hydrides Mn2++H2O2 Mn4++2OH- Electrolysis
2Fe2+(aq)+2H+(aq)+H2O2(aq) 2Fe3+(aq)+H2O(l) 2) 2HSO-4aq) HO2SOOSO3H(aq) 2HSO-4(aq)+ 2H+(aq)+ H2O2(aq)
Preparation of HCl
In metallurgical processes. PbS(s)+4H2O2(aq) PbSO4(s)+4H2O(l) 4) Reducing action in basic medium O2(air)
As a rocket fuel. I2+H2O2+2OH- 2I-+2H2O+O2 3) 2-ethylanthraquinol H2O2 + Oxidised Product
2) Reducing action in acidic medium
In fuel cells H2/Pd
2MnO +6H +5H2O2
- +
2Mn +8H2O+5O2
2+ 2MnO4-+ 3H2O2 2MnO2+3O2
4

HOCl+H2O2 H3O++Cl-+O2 +2H2O+2OH-


ALKALI METAL HYDRIDES
REACTION WITH OXYGEN Sodium
carbonate
METALS ATOMIC SIZE

Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs


2M + H2 2MH
LiH, NaH, KH, RbH, CsH
Li forms only normal oxide Li2O
Na forms normal oxide (Na2O) & Peroxide (Na2O2)
K forms normal oxide, Peroxide & Superoxide (KO2) METAL HYDROXIDES
washing soda
Na2CO3 . 10H2O
Solvay Process:
Li <Na+ <K+< Rb+ <Cs+ THERMAL STABILITY Rb forms normal oxide, Peroxide & Superoxide
LiH > NaH > KH > RbH > CsH Cs forms normal oxide, Peroxide & Superoxide Reactants- NH3, CO2
REDUCING CHARACTER KO2 ,RbO2 ,CsO2 (Superoxide) - Paramagnetic & coloured BASIC CHARACTER Regeneration of NH3
- Using Ca(OH)2
LiOH < NaOH < KOH < RbOH < CsOH
LiH < NaH < KH < RbH < CsH Caustic Soda Byproduct - CaCl2
Sodium bicarbonate/
NaOH we can’t obtain K2CO3 Because
Baking Soda/
KHCO3 obtained in 2nd step is
NaHCO3
(i) It is a white crystalline water soluble

IONISATION
REACTION WITH H2O solid (i) It is white crystalline solid
(ii) Deliquescent in nature (ii) It is sparingly soluble in water
ENERGY ELECTROPOSITIVE
CHARACTER / Li React with water (iii) Reaction with acidic (iii) It is not stored with strong
REACTIVITY oxide
Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs
Na React easily with water REACTION WITH NITROGEN NaOH +CO2 �Na2CO3+H2O
bases like NaOH, because
1 k it has acidic H
1E
Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs (fast reaction) Only Li react with N2 gas to form Li3N
NaHCO3+ NaOH �Na2CO3+H2O
Rb Give explosive reaction with water which on hydrolysis give NH3 gas.
Cs
6 Li(s) + N 2(g)� 2Li3N
Na/K/Rb/Cs + N2 �X
Li3N + 3H2O � 3LiOH +NH3
MELTING HYDRATION COMPLEX
POINT ENERGY FORMATION

Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs Li+ > Na+ > K+ > Rb+ > Cs+ COMPOUNDS OF SODIUM
In alkali metals,
BOILING POINT only Li form complex
due to small size
Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs eg: LiCl 2H2O
Anomalous behaviour of Li ( Due to small size & High charge density)
Diagonal relationship with Mg
• The melting point and boiling point of lithium are higher that than other alkali metals.
Charge • Li & Mg � harder
• The hardness of lithium is higher than other metals. • Same
IONIC MOBILITY
DENSITY
Radius • Li & Mg react with cold water
• The alkali metal chlorides do not have the capability to form hydrates but lithium
I Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs chloride crystallizes to form a hydrate • Li & Mg both form nitride which on hydrolysis give NH3 gas
Li3N + 3H2O � 3LiOH + NH3
hydration >
LiCl2, H2O
Li+ < Na+ < K+ < Rb+ < Cs+ K > Vacant d orbital
> Density • Lithium nitrate decomposes to form an oxide whereas other metals on heating Mg3N2+ 6H2O �3 Mg(OH)2+ 2NH3
give nitrites.
• Compounds of lithium are partially soluble in • LiCl and MgCl2 both are deliquescent in nature.
water whereas the alkali metals are highly soluble in water.

S-BLOCK ELEMENTS
ALKALINE
EARTH METAL HYDRIDES
REACTION WITH OXYGEN
1) Be, Mg ��Normal oxide BeO & MgO
Calcium oxide/
Quick lime/ CaO

METALS ATOMIC SIZE


Be < Mg < Ca < Sr < Ba
MgH2, CaH2, SrH2, BaH2
THERMAL STABILITY
2) Ca, Sr, Ba ��Normal oxide & Peroxide.
Peroxide is diamagnetic, but shows METAL HYDROXIDES
1) CaO + H2O
Quick lime
Ca(OH)2
Slaked lime

BeH2 > MgH2 > CaH2 > SrH2 > BaH2 colour due to Lattice defect Uses
REDUCING CHARACTER BASIC CHARACTER Used as basic flux
BeH2 < MgH2 < CaH2 < SrH2 < BaH2 CaO +SiO2 CaSiO3
Slaked lime/Ca(OH)2
basic acidic CaSO4.2H2O
flux slag
1) Used in white wash impurity Gypsum

2) In manufacturing of
IONISATION
REACTION WITH H2O bleaching powder,
ENERGY ELECTROPOSITIVE
glass etc CaSO4.1/2H2O
Be > Mg > Ca > Sr > Ba
CHARACTER /
REACTIVITY 1) Be ��Steam
1 2) Mg ��Hot water
REACTION WITH NITROGEN Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 �Ca(OCl)2 Plaster of Paris
IE Bleaching powder
Ca All elements react with nitrogen to form
Be < Mg < Ca < Sr < Ba
3) Sr ��React with cold water nitrates of type M3 N2 3) In removing temporary
Ba hardness of water
CaSO4
Mg3N2 + H2O ��Mg(OH)2 + 2NH3
Dead burnt plaster

MELTING HYDRATION COMPLEX


POINT ENERGY FORMATION

Be > Ca > Sr > Ba > Mg Be2+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ > Sr2+ > Ba2+ Be, Mg & Ca form complexes
BeCl2 + 2H2O BeCl2 . 2H2O
COMPOUNDS OF CALCIUM
BOILING POINT BeF2 + 2F- BeF42-
max. C.N = 4

Be > Ba > Ca > Sr > Mg Ca+EDTA Ca EDTA

Anomalous behaviour of Be ( Due to small size & High charge density)


Diagonal relationship with Al
C.N = 6

1) The coordinate number of Be is not more than 4 where as other alkali Charge
metals have coordiante number of 6 • Same
IONIC MOBILITY
DENSITY Radius
I
Ca < Mg < Be < Sr < Ba 2) The M.P and B.P are higher when compared to the other elements Be & Al are not attacked easily by acids[HNO3] forms protective layer
hydration of the group BeCl2 & AlCl3 ��Lewis acid and form dimer
Be2+ < Mg2+ < Ca2+ < Sr2+ < Ba2+
3) They forms covalent bonds whereas the other members of BeCl2 in vapour as dimer and solid as polymer
the group, ionic bonds BeO, Be(OH)2 , Al2O3 , Al(OH)3 ��Amphoteric
4) Be does not react with H2O like the other companions of the group Both form complexes - [BeF4]2--sp3 [Al(H2o)6]3+-sp3d2
NITROGEN FAMILY

PREPERATION OF N2 OXIDES OF NITROGEN REACTION WITH METALS - Pyrophosphorous acid (H4P2O5) OXIDES OF PHOSPHORUS PH3,phosphene Oxides
2. Red phosphorous CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Zn+dil. HNO3�Zn(NO ) +N O P-H 2 Home signals (Ca3P2 + CaC2) -Generally it forms oxides
NH4NO3� Cu+dil. HNO �Cu(NO ) +NO
3 2 2
of the type A2O3 and A2O5
P-OH 2 CaC2+ H2O � C2H2(Flamable)
NH4NO2 Zn+Conc. HNO �Zn(NO ) +NO
3 3 2
Basicity=2
Hydrides
3 3 2 2 -Acidic character increases with
(NH4)Cr2O7 BROWN RING TEST PHOSPHOROUS & Bond Angle increase in oxidation number
PHOSPHORIC TYPE NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
NO+NO2 AMMONIA IT‛S ALLOTROPES N2O < NO < N2O3 < NO2 < N2O4 < N2O5
Ba(N3)2 Basicity
- Hypophosphoric acid (H 4P2O6) NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3 -In a group of thermal
PROPERTIES OF N2 Pb(NO3)2� COMMERCIAL PREPERATIONS
HABER‛S PROCESS
} P-O-P=6
P-O=12 } } P-O=16 }
P-O-P=6
1. White phosphorous
P P P
(Reducing nature/ ability to act as RA) stability of oxides
decreases down the group
P-OH 4 573 k
Acidity
2NO2(g) � P�
Basicity=4 P P P P
Mg+N2� Mg3N2 BiH3 > SbH3 > AsH3 > PH3 > NH3
Fe catalyst, N2O5 > P2O5 > As2O5 > Sb2O5 > Bi2O5
Mo (Promoter) HALIDES OF PHOSPHORUS P P P (Due to large size of Bi,
CaC2+ N2� CaCN2+C N2+3H2 2NH3 - Orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4)
P4O10+HNO3 �
it can easily release H+)
1) PCl3 2) PCl5 -Grey luster
NITROLIME P-OH 3 Nature of Oxides
REACTIONS


Basicity=3
Preparation Preparation -Insoluble in water and CS2 Thermal stability/
Bond dissociation energy

}
OXYACIDS OF NITROGEN CuSO4+NH3+H2O P4 + 2SOCl2� PCl3 P4 + SO2Cl2 � PCl5 + SO2 -Non poisonous N 2O 5
OXIDES OF NITROGEN - Pyrophosphoric acid (H4P2O7) (white) (thionyl chloride) (white) (sulphuryl chloride)
P Acidic
[Cu(NH3)4] SO4+ (NH4)2SO4 -No chemiluminescence NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
COMMERCIAL PREPERATIONS + SO2 + S2Cl2 P 2O 5
60O -Obtained by heating (Bi can easily release H+ and
THERMALLY STABLE +2 (NEUTRAL
OSTWALD‛S PROCESS P-OH 4 P P white P at 573 K
hence have low thermal stability)

}
GAS)
Basicity=4 Properties Properties As2O5
Pt OXOACIDS OF PHOSPHORUS P -Occurs as polymer. Amphoteric
NH3+O2�NO
+1 (NEUTRAL
BP
GAS) PCl3 [ 5+3
= 4
[
�(3,1) PCl5 5+5
= 2 �(5,0) Sb2O5
So it is less reactive
2
2 BiH3 > SbH3 > NH3 > AsH3 > PH3
NO+O2�NO2 PHOSPHORUS TYPE -Translucent white waxy solid
� BP )
Shape : Pyramidal
+3 (ACIDIC Cl (As molecular mass


META PHOSPHORIC


}
BROWN GAS) Cl
P -Poisonous & show chemiluminescence
NO2+H2O�HNO3 - Hypo phosphorous acid (H3PO2) - cyclo metaphosphoric (HPO3)3 3. Black phosphorous Bi2O5 Basic
+4 (ACIDIC Cl P -Soluble in CS2 but insoluble in H2O
BLUE SOLID)
Cl Cl Cl
Cl MP
REACTION WITH NON METALS P-H 2 -Occurs in descrete units - black phosphorous NH3 > SbH3 > AsH3 > PH3
Cl
I2+HNO3�HIO3+NO2 -Highly reactive due to angle strain - Prepared by heating
+4 (ACIDIC P-OH 1 (due to similar size of N
COLOURLESS
Basicity=1
In gaseous & liquid phase exist as Red P at 803 K and H, NH3 has high M.P)
P4+HNO3�H3PO4+NO2 -Fumes in air due to formation of P4O10
GAS)

- Orthophosphorous acid (H3PO3) trigonal bipyramidal


-In basic medium,it disproportionate to - black phosphorous
+5 (ACIDIC S/SO2+HNO3�H2SO4+NO2 In solid phase,it exist
COLOURLESS form PH3 & NaH2PO2 - Prepared by heating
P-O-P Bond=3
C + HNO3�CO2+NO2
GAS)
P-H 1 as ionic crystal
P-OH 2 P-OH 3 white P at 473 K
PCl5�[PCl4]+[PCl6]- P4 + 3NaOH + 3H2O � PH3 + 3NaH2PO2
Basicity=2 Basicity=3

OXYGEN FAMILY p-BLOCK ELEMETS HALOGENS & NOBLE GAS


31
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OXOACIDS OF SULPHUR 3) Peroxo type Uses:
1.Act as a bleaching agent due to the
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES COMPOUNDS OF CHLORINE 2)HCl
NH3+HCl �� NH4Cl
NOBLE GASES
All these, except Radon & Oganesson occur
1) Cl2 Preparation : Commercial in the atmosphere.
Electrom affinity/EGE Aqua regia (HCl:HNO3=3:1)
Electron gain enthalpy 1) Thionous type formation of nascent atomic hydrogen in
Deacon‛s Process dissolve Au and Pt by release of Physical properties
i) Peroxomono sulphuric acid H 2O - Cl2 > F2 > Br2 > I2
nitric acid -Atomic radii� down the group

��
- S > Se > Te > Po > O H2SO5 Oxidation State HCl + 1/202 � H2O
CuCl2
+ 1/2 Cl2
i) Dithionous acid +3 Au [AuCl4]- + NO -IE� down the group
Aqua regia

SO3

��
(Caro‛s acid) - F shows only 1 O.S
723 K

H2S2O4 - All other shows -ve & +ve O.S Properties Pt [PtCl6]- + NO
Aqua regia
-He is having maximum ionisation
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Properties HCl is a strong acid which energy of all known substances
(S2O42-) Bond dissociation energy - Greenish yellow coloured gas
decomposes salt of weak acid
�� ��
-Ne is having high positive value of
i) Peroxo disulphuric acid
� HOCl + HCl
SO3 6/2=3(3,0) bent shape (120o) - Cl2 > Br2 > F2 > I2 - Cl2 + H2O electron gain enthalpy
��liquid SO
Hydrides OXOACIDS OF HALOGEN
H2S2O8 100% oleum/sulphan Bond dissociation energy of F2 is -B.P� down the group

��
}
3 greenish yellow
F HOF
ii) Dithionic acid +5 (Marshall‛s acid) lower than that of Cl2 & Br2 due colourless Cl HOCl, HCl02,HCl03,HCl04 -He is having lowest B.P among all
- With NH3
Bond Angle H2 S 2 O 6 ALLOTROPES OF SULPHUR to its inter electronic repulsion Br HOBr, HCBr2,HBr03,HBr04 known substance (4.2K)
H2O > H2S > H2Se > H2Te 1) NH3 + Cl2 ��NH4Cl + N2 I HOI, HI02,HI03,HI04 COMPOUNDS OF Xe
(S2O62-) 1) Rhombic Sulphur [ ] CHEMICAL PROPERTIES (excess) 1) Acidic character Xenon Fluoro compounds
H2SO4 -Exist in room temperature
1) Oxidising Power: 2) NH3 + Cl2 ��NCl3 + HCl �����HClO < HCl02 < HCl03< HCl04 Preparation:
Thermal Stability -Soluble in CS2 but insoluble in H2O
2) Reducing character 673 K.1 bar
-Yellow in colour - F is the strongest oxidizing agent (excess) -Xe(g) + F2(g) XeF2(S)
H2O > H2S > H2Se > H2Te iii) Polythionic acid +5,0
Preparation �����HClO < HCl02 < HCl03< HCl04 (Xenon in excess)
-Exist below 369 K - Order F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 - With Alkali 3) Stability:
H2 S 4O 6 Contact process -Xe(g) + 2F2(g)
673 K.1 bar
XeF4(S)
2) Monoclinic Sulphur [ ] -F2 displaces Cl2, Br2 & I2 a) NaOH + Cl2 ��NaClO + NaCl + H2O �����HClO < HCl02 < HCl03< HCl04
Acidic Character ��
FeS2 + O2 Fe2O3 + SO2 [1:5 ratio]
(S4O62-) -Soluble in CS2 -Cl2 displaces Br2 and I2 (Cold & dilute) INTERHALOGEN COMPOUNDS -Xe(g) + 3F2(g)
573 K.60-70 bar
XeF6(S)
H2Te > H2Se > H2S > H2O 2SO + O ����2SO
V 2O5
-Obtained by melting rhombic
-Br2 + 2KI ��2KBr + I2
[1:20 ratio]
2 2
Pt
3
NaOH + Cl2 ��NaClO3 + NaCl + H2O Compounds forms b/w 2 different halides -XeF4 + O2F2 XeF6 + O2
sulphur above 369 K
SO + H SO ��H S O
Reducing Power iv) Thiosulphuric acid +6,-2 3 2 4 2 2 7 -I2 + KBr ��No reaction (Cold & Conc.) Types: XX1
��ICl,BrF Structure
b) Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 � XX31��ClF3,BrF
H2Te > H2Se > H2S > H2O H 2S 2 O 3 H2 S 2 O 7 + H 2 O ��2H SO (98%) Transition Temperature: 2) With H2O: XeF2�� 8+2 =5(2,3) � linear
XX51��BrF5
2 4
2
- F+ H2O ��HF + O2 (Release O2
Ca(OCl)2 + CaCl2 + 2H2O
(S2O32-) XeF4�� 8+4 =6(4,2)
Properties 369 K, at which both monoclinic &
(calcium hypocloride) XX71��IF7,ClF7
� square planar
B.P sulphur exist. Above this temperature from H2O, good oxidizing agent) 2
Oxidising property monoclinic exist, below this - Cl2/Br2 + H2O ��HCl + HOCl Ca(OCl)2 + CaCl2 ��Bleaching powder XeF6�� 8+6 =7(6,1)
� Distorted Octahedral
H2O > H2Te > H2Se > H2S temperature rhombic sulphur exist.
Properties and uses 2

2) Sulphurous type
3S + 2H2SO4 ��3SO + 2H O 2 2
HBr + HOBr
- I2 + H2O ��No reaction uses -ClF3 & BrF3 ��Uranium enrichment Properties On reacting with H2O,they get hydrolysed
��CuSO + SO + 2H O for flurinating (U )
235
Cu + H2SO4 when XeF2 hydrolyses, it gives Xe,HF & O2
��Spectroscopically detected
4 2 2

+ 2H SO ��CO + 2SO + 2H O
- Powerful bleaching agent -IF
-XeF2 + H2O Xe +HF + O2
i) Sulphurous acid C
3) With H2: Hydrides due to oxidizing property ��Exist in 2 polymeric form a & b
2 4 2 2 2
-ICl
XENON-OXYGEN COMPOUND
H2SO3 - Bleaching powder -Inter halogens are very reactive
SO2 Properties Acidic Character Structure XeO3�8/2=4(3,1) Pyramidal
��HI > HBr > HCl > HF �������������������Ca(OCl)2 + CaCl2
than halogens
ii) Sulphuric acid -Act as reducing agent(in aqueous medium) At elevated temperature (1000K) S2 Structure XeOF4=
8+4
=6(5,1) Sq. Pyramidal
- Preparation of poisonous gas 2
is dominant species and is Reducing Power XX‛��X-X
H2SO4 ��linear
SO2(aq) + HNO3 + H2O ��NO + H2SO4
1) Tear gas ��CCl3NO2
��HI > HBr > HCl > HF
8+2
-Act as oxidizing agent in the presence of paramagnetic like O2 (Vapour) state XX3‛��7+3 =5(3,2)T-Shaped XeO2F2= =5(4,1) Sea saw
iii) Pyrodisulphuric acid ��Strong reducing agent partly exist as S2 molecule which Thermal Stability 2) Phosgene ��COCl2 2 2
Preparation
XX5‛��7+5 =6(5,1) Square Pyramidal
��HF > HCl > HBr > HI
has unpaired electrons in 3) Mustard gas
��XeOF + HF
+4 O

H2S2O7 (Oleum) SO2 + CO ��S + CO2 2 XeF6 + H2O


π orbitals like O2
��Cl-(CH2)2-S-(CH2)2-Cl
4

BP ��HF > HI > HBr > HCl XX7‛��7+7 =7(7,0) Pentagonal bipyramidal
��XeO F + HF
+4 -2
SO2 + Fe ��FeS + FeO XeF6 + 2H2O 2 2
2 (excess)
Environmental Pollution

Atmospheric Pollution Water Pollution Soil Pollution

Tropospheric Pollution Stratospheric pollution

Pesticide:
Biological Oxygen Demand B.O.D
Gaseous pollutants chemical used to kill/ stop growth of unwanted organism.
Ozone layer depletion
oxygen required by bacteria to break down organic
eg: SOx,NOx,COx,H2S,CxHY Main reason for depletion is CFC‛s (AC, Fridge) matter in water in a certain volume of water. Insecticide:
uv Pure water- BOD < 5 ppm DDT, BHC, Aldrin (stays in soil for long
CF2Cl2 → CF2Cl + Cl
Green house effect: Highly polluted water- BOD > 17ppm period & contaminates root crops like potato,carrot,
uv
Trapping of infrared radiation by green house gas CFCl3 → CFCl2 + Cl radish etc.
will lead to heating of earth atmosphere uv
Cl+O3 → ClO + O2 Eutrophication
Green house gases: Process in which nutrient enriched water bodies support Herbicide: NaClO3, Na3AsO3
uv
CO2, CH4, O3, CFC, Nitrous oxide and water vapour. ClO + O→ Cl + O2
a dense plant population, which kills animal life by
1 molecule of CFC‛s destroys 1000 ozone molecule.
depriving it of oxygen and results in subsequent loss of Fungicide:
Global warming: Ozone hole biodiversity is known as Eutrophication. Organo mercury compound. It leaves mercury in soil which is toxic.
Increase in concentration of green house, will lead In September and October each year ozone hole
to rise in global temperature, which again leads to develops over Antartica
melting of polar ice caps & flooding in low areas. International standard of drinking water
In summer
ClO reacts with NO2 & CH4 to form chlorine sink
Fluoride: 1ppm. Above 2ppm:- brown molting of teeth,
Acid Rain: ClO + NO2→ ClONO2
over 10ppm :bones and teeth damage. Green Chemistry
Normal rain has pH = 5.6 Lead: 50ppb. >50ppb- damages kidney, liver,
Cl+CH4→ CH3 + HCl
When pH of rainwater is less than 5.6, it is acid rain. reproductive system.
It is due to the presence of HNO3, H2SO4 This prevents ozone layer depletion. Nitrate: 50ppm. >50ppm- blue baby syndrome(methemoglobinemia) Dry cleaning of clothes:
In winter Sulphate: 500ppm. >500ppm: laxative effect Earlier used: Cl2C=CCl2(carcinogenic)
Effect: Special type of clouds are formed called polar
stratospheric clouds which contains HNO3.3H2O or ice
Replaced by: liquid CO2
1. Harmful for agriculture
2. Damages aquatic ecosystem ClO + NO2→ ClONO2
Presently used: H2O2
3. Respiratory Illness ClONO2→ HOCl + HNO3
H2 O

4. Damage building made up of stone, marble, metal.


ClONO2→ Cl2 + HNO3
HCl
Bleaching of paper:
eg: Tajmahal and Acid Rain
(discolouration and lustreless) During Spring
Earlier used: Cl2 gas
Presently used: H2O2

ENVIRONMENTAL
HOCl →hn
OH + Cl
Cl2 →
hn
Cl + Cl
The chlorine radicals thus formed initiate the chain
reaction for ozone depletion. Ethanal preparation

CHEMISTRY
Done in a harmful method previously
Presently used: Pd/Cu/H2O
Particulate pollutants Catalyst
H2C=CH2 CH3CHO
Pd/Cu/H2O
Smog:

� �
Smog = smoke + fog


Classical smog Photochemical smog/ Formation of Photochemical Smog
or London smog Los Angeles smog
Both NO2 and O3 are strong
Cool and Warm and oxidising agent and reacts with unburnt
humid climate dry climate hydrocarbon to produce formaldehyde,
Which one of the following is not a common Which oxide of nitrogen is not a common pollutant
Contains oxides Contains oxides acrolein, PAN (peroxy acetyl nitrate) introduced into the atmosphere both due to Among the following, the one that is not a
of sulphur of Nitrogen
house gas is:
Contains primary Contains secondary
pollutant pollutant

Reducing nature/ Oxidising nature/


Reducing smog oxidising smog

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