Dispersion of air pollutants in the

atmosphere

Dr. Animesh Debnath

Asstt. Prof, CE Deptt
NIT Agartala
1
 Dispersion of Air Pollutants into theAtmosphere

• When once a pocket of smoke, containing air pollutants, is

released into the atmosphere from a source like an automobile
or a factory chimney, it gets dispersed into the atmosphere into
various directions depending upon
the prevailing winds
temperature
and pressure conditions in the environment.

2
Lapse Rate.
• In the troposphere, the temperature of the ambient (surrounding)
air normally decreases with an increase in the altitude (height).
• This rate of change of temperature is called lapse rate.
• This rate will differ from place to place, and from time to time
even at the same place.

3
Environmental lapse rate (ELR)
• The prevailing lapse rate at a particular time and the particular
place, is known as the prevailing lapse rate, or the ambient lapse
rate, or the environmental lapse rate (ELR).

Adiabatic lapse rate (ALR)

• After emission from source, as the air parcel moves up, its
temperature decreases as its own heat energy is expanded due to
increase in the volume of air parcel.

• This rate of change of temperature within the parcel of air mass is

called adiabatic lapse rate(ALR).

• Dry air, expanding and cooling adiabatically cools @ 9.8°C per

km, and it is called dry adiabatic lapse rate.
• In saturated (wet) air, this rate is calculated to be 6°C per km, and
is known as wet adiabatic lapse rate.
4
 Stability of the environment
• Depending upon the relative positions of the two lines (i.e. ALR
line and ELR line), the stability of the environment is determined.
• Three types of stability
Unstable
Stable
neutral
• Adiabatic lapse rate (ALR),
representing cooling of the
emitted smokes, will be some
where between the dry
adiabatic rate (9.8°C/Km) and
wet adiabatic rate (6°C/Km).

5
 Unstable environment
• When the ELR (say 15°C/Km) is greater than the ALR (say
8°C/Km), then the environment is said to be unstable.
• In such a case, the rising parcel of air will always remain warmer
than the surrounding environment.
• This is because, as we go up, the
Super adiabatic lapse rate environment is getting cooler
more quickly than the rising
parcel of lighter air, and hence
the rising parcel air will always
remain warmer than the
environment.
• The reverse is also true
• The parcel of air will continue
to accelerate in the direction of
displacement

6
 Stable environment
• When ELR is less than the ALR, the environment is said to be
stable, and this prevailing environmental lapse rate is called the
sub-adiabatic lapse rate (as it is less than the adiabatic lapse rate).

• This is not a favorable condition for air pollutants dispersion.

7
 Neutral Environment
• The third case would be the one, when ELR equals the ALR, and
both the lines coincide.
• The environment in such a case is called neutral.

Negative Lapse Rate and Inversion.

• In an unusual case, the temperature of the environment (i.e.
ambient air) increases with altitude, then the lapse .rate becomes
inverted or negative from its normal state.

• Inversion condition occurs

when the warmer air lies over
the colder air below.
• Such condition represents
highly stable environment.

8
 Types of Inversion
There are two types of inversion
• Radiation Inversion and
• Subsidence inversion
Radiation inversions • Radiation inversions are the
most common type of
inversion.
• In some places, they occur
almost nightly.
• Radiation inversions generally
happen in places where it cools
off a lot at night.
• During the night, the ground
cools off, radiating the heat to
the sky.

9
10
 Subsidence inversions
• The subsidence inversion is usually associated with a high
pressure system, and is caused by the characteristic sinking
subsiding motion of air in a high pressure area surrounded by low
pressure area (i.e. anti-cyclone).
• The air, circulating around the stationary high pressure, descends
gently@ about 1000 m per day
• As the air sinks, it is
compressed and gets
heated to form a warm
dense layer over the
cooler air below.
• Such inversion layers
maybe formed from the
ground surface to
around 1600 m or so.

11
• Sometimes, both the radiation as well subsidence inversions may
occur simultaneously, causing what is known as double inversion.

12
 Typical Plume behaviors

1. Looping plume

2. Neutral Plume

3. Coning Plume

4. Fanning plume

5. Lofting plume

6. Fumigating plume

7. Trapping plume

13
 Looping Plume

• Looping plume has a wavy character and occurs in super-adiabatic

environment; which produces highly unstable atmosphere,
because of rapid mixing.
• During the high degree of turbulence, the dispersion of plume would
be rapid, yet higher concentrations near the ground may occur
• Hence, in areas where environment is generally super-adiabatic,
higher stacks may be needed to prevent premature contact of
pollutants with the ground.

14
Neutral Plume

• Neutral plume is the upward

vertical rise of the plume from
the stack, which occurs when
the environmental lapse rate
is equal to or very near to
the adiabatic lapse rate.

• The upward lifting of the

plume will continue till it
reaches an air of density
similar to that of the plume
itself.

15
 Coning Plume
• The neutral plume tends to
cone, when the wind velocity
is greater than 32 km/hr, and
when cloud cover blocks the
solar radiation by day and
terrestrial radiation by night.

• Coning plume also occurs under

sub-adiabatic conditions (i.e.
when environmental lapse rate is
less than the adiabatic lapse
rate).

• Under such conditions, the environment is slightly stable, and

there is a limited vertical mixing, thereby increasing the
probability of air pollution in the area.

16
 Fanning Plume
• Under extreme inversion
conditions, caused by negative
environmental lapse rate, from
the ground and upto a
considerable height, extending
even above the top of the stack,
the emission will spread only
horizontally, as it cannot lift due
to extremely stable environment.

• In such a case, there will be no

vertical mixing, and the plume
will simply extend horizontally
over large distances.
• Such a plume pattern is called a fanning plume.

17
 Lofting Plume

• When there exists a strong

super adiabatic lapse rate
above a surface inversion,
then the plume is said to
be 'lofting'.
• Such a plume has
minimum downward
mixing, as its downward
motion is prevented by
inversion, but the upward
mixing will be quite
turbulent and rapid.
• The dispersion of pollutants will therefore, be rapid, and no
concentrations will touch the ground.
• Hence, this would be the most ideal case for dispersion of
emissions.
18
 Fumigating Plume

• When an inversion layer occurs

at a short distance above the top
of the stack, and super adiabatic
conditions prevail below the
stack, then the plume is said to
be fumigating.
• In such a case, the pollutants
cannot escape above the top of
the stack because of inversion
layer,

• They will be brought down near the ground due to turbulence in the
region above the ground and below the inversion
• This represents quite a bad case of atmospheric conditions for
dispersion.

19
 Trapping Plume
• When inversion layers
exist above the emission
source, as well as below
the source, then
naturally, the emitted
plume will neither go
up, nor will it go down,
and would remain
confined between the
two inversions

• Such a plume is called a trapping plume, and is considered a bad

condition for dispersion, as the dispersion cannot go above a
certain height

20
 Predicting Pollutant Concentrations by Dispersion Models
• Several empirical equations have been developed by several
investigators.
• These equations or models do estimate the concentrations of
pollutants in the plume at any distance x, y, and z, in horizontal
down-wind direction, horizontal cross-wind direction, and vertical
direction, respectively.
Fick's law of turbulent diffusion

Where, Kx, Ky and Kz are eddy diffusivity coefficients in three

directions an Qx,y,z represents the source or sink, expressed in
appropriate terms.

21
Gaussian Distribution

where C = the concentration of

pollutant in gm/m3
Q = the pollutant emission rate
in gm/sec,
u = mean wind velocity in m/sec,
x and y = downwind and cross-
wind horizontal distances,
respectively in m
σy = Plume's Standard deviation
in cross-wind direction in m
σz = Plume's Standard deviation
in , vertical direction in m
H = Effective height of stack.

22
 Gaussian Distribution

Case-I,
when concentration is required only along x-direction, i.e. in the
downwind horizontal direction along the center line of the plume,
then naturally y = 0.
Then…

Case-II
when the smokes are emitted at ground level, the effective stack
height (H) is zero, then….

23
Determination of σy and σz

24
Determination of σy and σz

25
 Determination of σy and σz

The maximum ground level concentration occurs where

σz = 0.707H, provided σz is constant with downwind distancex.

26
Problem 1
A coal fired thermal power plant burns 6.25 tonnes of coal per hour,
and discharges the combustion products through a stack having an
effective height of 80 m.
The coal has a sulphur content of 4.7%, and the wind velocity at the
top of the stack is 8.0 m/sec. Atmospheric conditions are moderately to
slightly unstable.

(a) Determine the maximum ground-level concentration of SO2 and the

distance from the stack at which this maximum occurs.

(b) Also determine the ground level concentrations at a distance of two

km downwind at: (a) The Centre line of the plume; and (b) at a
crosswind distance of 0.5 km on either side of the center line.

27
28
29
(b) Also determine the ground level concentrations at a distance of two km downwind at: (a)
The Centre line of the plume; and (b) at a crosswind distance of 0.5 km on either side of the
center line.

30
31
 Effective Height of a Stack

Effective height consists of actual height plus plume height

where h = actual height of stack in m

h = Plume height in m.

32
 Holland's equation

where Δ h = rise of plume above the stack in m

vs = stack gas velocity i.e. emission velocity from the stack in
m/sec
D = inside exit dia. of stack in m
u = wind speed in m/sec
P = atmospheric pressure in milli-bars
Ts = stack gas temperature in °K
Ta = air temperature in °K.
• Above equation is quite suitable for computing h from neutral
conditions. For unstable conditions, the above value of h should be
increased by 10 to 20%, and for stable conditions, it should be
decreased by 20 to 10%.
33
 Davidson and Bryant equation

Problem 2

Determine the effective height of a stack, with the following

given data:
(a) Physical stack is 180 m tall with 0.95 m inside diameter.
(b) 'Wind velocity is 2.75 m/sec.
(c) Air temperature is 20°C.
(d) Barometric pressure is 1000 millibars.
(e) Stack gas velocity is 11.12 m/sec.
(j) Stack gas temperature is 160°C.
34
35
Determination of Minimum Chimney Height

36
Problem 3
An industry utilises 0.3 ML of oil fuel per month.It has also
been estimated that for every 1ML of fuel oil burnt in the
factory, per year, the quantities of various pollutants emitted are
given as: Particulate matter = 2.9 t/yr
SO2 = 60 t/yr
NOx = 8 t/yr
HC = 0.4 t/yr
CO = 0.5 t/yr,

Calculate the height of the chimney required to be provided for

safe dispersion of the pollutants.

37
38
39
End of Chapter

40