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① Introduction
 Instrumentation: To obtain final product with an economic and
standard specification Via:
 Monitor
 Control
 Protection

 Automated control system:

1) Sensors: (switch, transmitter, Gauge).

2) Controller: (PLC, DCS, PID).

programmable
Distributed
Control logic
Systems
controller

3) Final control element: (Pump, control Valve, Heater).

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  Control Loop System:
1) Open loop control
Non feedback Control

2) Closed loop control

With feedback element

3) Cascade loop control

 Using two controllers (the first controller O/P providing the set point for
the second.
 With two feedback element.

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  Process Variables:
1) Physical: (pressure – Temperature – Level - Flow).
2) Chemical: (PH – Conductivity – Oil Detector).
3) Mechanical:( Vibration – Speed – Fraction).

 PH: is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity, measure of how
acidic/basic water is. The range goes from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. PH of
less than 7 indicate acidity, whereas a PH of greater than 7 indicates a base.

# water supplying the boiler ( PH = 9 : 10.5 & 0.05 𝝁S/cm )

 Conductivity: is a measure of its ability to conduct electricity. The SI unit of
conductivity is Siemens per meter (S/m).
# Sea water: 50,000 𝝁S/cm
# Raw water: 700 – 1000 𝝁S/cm
# TDS = conductivity * 0.64 ( Total Dissolved Solid)

 Passive Device: Need external electrical current like (Resistance – Inductor

– Capacitor).

 Transducer: change physical parameter to electrical parameter.

 Transmitter: change between electrical parameter to send it to controller.

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 ② P & ID

A diagram which shows the interconnection of process equipment and the

instrumentation used to control the process. They usually contain the following
information:

 Mechanical equipment, including:

o Pressure vessels, columns, tanks, pumps, compressors, heat
exchangers, furnaces, wellheads, fans, cooling towers, turbo-expanders
o Bursting discs, restriction orifices, strainers and filters, steam traps, moisture traps,
sight-glasses, silencers, flares and vents, flame arrestors, vortex breakers, eductors

 Process piping, sizes and identification, including:

o Pipe classes and piping line numbers
o Flow directions
o Interconnections references
o Permanent start-up, flush and bypass lines
 Process control instrumentation and designation (names, numbers, unique tag
identifiers), including:
o Valves and their types and identifications (e.g. isolation, shutoff, relief and safety
valves, valve interlocks)
o Control inputs and outputs (sensors and final elements, interlocks)
o Miscellaneous - vents, drains, flanges, special fittings, sampling lines, reducers.

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ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 6
 Process Device Device/Condition Condition
Pressure P Controller C Controller C High H
Temperature T Transmitter T Transmitter T Low L
Level L Recorder R Recorder R
Flow F Indicator I Valve V
Analysis A Alarm A High H
Switch/Safety S Low L
Gauge G
: PLC : Physical :DCS
Symbol Instrument Symbol

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 ③ Pressure Measurements
𝐅

𝐀

 5
2
2




 PSI : Pound / inch2

 𝜌 : Density in (kg/m3)
 𝑔:acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)
 ℎ : depth in liquid in (m)
 1 𝐵𝑎𝑟 = 29.53 in.Hg
 𝑃𝑆𝐼 𝐀 = 𝑃𝑆𝐼 𝐆 + 14.7

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 Pressure Measurements

Gauges Switches Transmitters

 Mechanical
 Contact
Digital Mechanical gauge
 Electronic
 Diaphragm Transducer
 Diff Pressure
 Bellow
 Capsule 
Manometer Strain Gauge
 Piston  Capacitance
 Bourdon  Potentiomete
Tube  U Tube r
 C-Shaped  Well Type  LVDT
 Spiral  Barometer Piezoelectric
 Helical  Inclined Tube
 Micro

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 Pressure Gauge
 Digital Pressure Gauge:
 With an accuracy up to 0.025% of span, it can be used
for calibration.
 They are expensive.

 Mechanical (Analog) Pressure Gauge:

Based on pressure sensing(primary) element.

 Bourdon Tube:

 Used for medium & high pressures.

 Range: (0.6: 7000) Bar.
Advantages Disadvantages
Accurate results at high pressure Not suitable with low pressure
Low cost Not suitable with overload protection
Simple construction Not suitable with critical media
Safe even for high pressure

Pressure Gauges Brands :

 WIKA
 ASHCROFT
 WISE
 WINTERS

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  C-Shaped Bourdon Tube:
 Cover the majority of applications.
 Pressure is measured by Bourdon Tube
converted motion that transmitted directly
to the pointer.
 Can be used for positive, negative pressure.
 Range: [ (0:1) Bar – (0:1360) Bar].

 Spiral Bourdon Tube:

 Can be used for positive, negative pressure.
 More sensitive & accurate.
 Used for Low pressure range (< 0.7 Bar).

 Helical Bourdon Tube:

 Helical is a bourdon tube wound in the form of helix. It allows the tip
movement to be converted to a circular motion.
 By installing a central shaft inside the helix along its axis and connecting
it to the tip, the tip movement become a circular motion of the shaft.

 Higher over range protection.

 More sensitive & accurate.
 Range: [ (0:2) Bar – (0:5000) Bar].
 Very expensive.

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  Diaphragm Pressure Gauge:
 The pressure is transmitted wave shape diaphragm
to a link this then transfer the pressure
to the movement of pointer.
 More accurate .
 Insensitive to vibration.
 Low pressure range:( 0:16 mBar & (0:40 Bar).
 Overload protection (5X,10X).
 Critical media (Chemicals&Viscous).

 Capsule Pressure Gauge:

 Diaphragm is a single sheet , joining
Two diaphragm to form a capsule.
 Very Low pressure range:( 0:2.5 mBar & (0:600 mBar).
 High accuracy ( 0.1 % : 2.5 % ).

Pressure Gauges failure & safety risk :

 Temperature
 Corrosion
 Vibration
 Overpressure

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 How to select Pressure Gauges :
1. Accuracy ( ±1% ) .
2. Dial size ( 1.5 " : 10 ").
3. Mounting ( Bottom – Back ) Connection.
4. Environment ( Water – Chemical – Vibration – Oil - Gas ).
5. Process connection size ( 0.25 " NPT – 0.5 " NPT ) . #National Pipe Thread
6. Pressure range [ max range in between(25%:75%)].
7. Accessories ( fill media-Siphons-Diaphragm seals).

How to calibrate Pressure Gauges :

1. Gauge comparator ( Pump).
2. Reference gauge ( Digital ).
3. Gauge under calibration.

 Basic procedure of pressure gauge calibration:

 Connect the equipment’s as shown .

 Apply pressure 0%(zero adjust).
 Adjust the zero screw or put the pointer on
0%.
 Apply pressure 100%(span adjustment).
 To correct the indication increase or decrease the sector arm.

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  Apply pressure 50%(linear adjust).
 Adjust the length of link or pull the pointer
using puller and place at correct spot.
 Check points 0%,25%,50%,70% and 100%.
 Repeat these steps to get correct values.

Pressure Transmitter

Physical
Transducer Transmitter Controller
Variables

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 What’s inside of a pressure transmitter?
 Pressure Port
 Sensor (Transducer)
 Signal conditioning electronics module
 Electrical connection

 Transducer:
1) Strain Gauge
2) Capacitance
3) Potentiometer
4) LVDT

1) Strain gauge:
The strain gauge is a classic example of a
piezoresistive element, Piezoresistive
means “pressure-sensitive resistance,” or a
resistance that changes value with applied
pressure.
2) Capacitance:

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 Capacitive-type transducers, illustrated in Figure, consist
of two flexible conductive plates and a dielectric.
In this case, the dielectric is the fluid.
As pressure increases, the flexible conductive plates will
move farther apart, changing the capacitance of the
transducer.
This change in capacitance is measurable and is
proportional to the change in pressure.

3) Potentiometer:
A potentiometric pressure transducer is
composed of three major parts:
 Capsule
 sliding contact wiper
 resistance wire winding.
The capsule is connected to the wiper through
a linkage rod. When pressure is applied to the
capsule, it changes the position of the wiper
across the potentiometer. As a result, there is
also a change in resistance between the wiper
and the potentiometer. Therefore, the mechanical deflection is converted into a resistance
measurement.
4) Linear Variable Displacement Transducer (LVDT):

LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and the displacement which is a
non-electrical energy is converted into an electrical energy.

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 And the way how the energy is getting converted is described in working of LVDT in a
detailed manner.

IT converts linear displacement into an electrical signal. It comprises one primary and two
secondary coil windings. Both windings are an equal number of turns and they are
connected in series to each other. The primary winding is placed as opposed to the two
secondary windings as shown in the below figure.

The primary winding is excited by the alternating current; the core is placed inside of it. The
alternating current induces flux in primary and by mutual induction, the flux is induced in
secondary.

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  Signal conditioning electronics module:

It converts sensor signal into standard normalized

electric output such as :
 4:20 mA
 0:20 mA
 0:5 V
 0:10 V

 Electrical Connection:
It’s used to wire a pressure transmitter to a measuring system.

Why 4:20 mA is the best ?

 (0:10 V) : Current signals can extend much further than voltage signals, allowing
robust signal wire lengths of up to 1,000 meters ( Voltage drop).
 (0:20 mA ) : In this case, it would be extremely difficult to identify that either
0mA current is due to open circuit of the transmitter or it is due to no pressure of
the fluid. (Live Zero)
 Current signals are less susceptible to noise than voltage signals. Therefore, the
4-20mA output is inherently noise-resistant.( and it's possible to use unshielded
cable when installing them)
 The electronic chips required to function proper 3 mA as the minimum current .
 Dangerous current threshold for the heart is over 30 mA.
 Induced eddy current (result fault at reading )
has affect at less than 4 mA.
 Easy conversion from 4:20 mA to 1:5 VDC
using 250 𝒐𝒉𝒎 .
 For easy calculation (20% bias ) 4-20 mA
(analog devices)like 3-15 PSI (pneumatic
devices).

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 Why I need to convert 4:20 mA to 1:5 VDC ?
 Pressure transmitter send 4:20 mA to Analog input module.
 AI module need to convert analog signal to equivalent binary signal (010101)
that PLC or DCS processor can deal with.
 AI module consist of A/D converter (ADC).
 A/D converter need voltage as input signal to convert them to equivalent
binary signal (0,1) so we had to convert 4:20 mA to 1:5 VDC using 250 ohm as
a standard resistance.

What is an P/I converter?

 We can construct a pressure to
current converter using a
Flapper- Nozzle arrangement
, Bellows and a Linear Variable
Differential Transformer
(LVDT) circuit.
 Input pressure is given to
Flapper-Nozzle arrangement
and the output current will
come through the LVDT.

What is an I/P converter? Working Principle, Applications

 I/P converter is a current to pressure transducer that works on the flapper
nozzle method. I/P converter translates the input 4 to 20mA current signal
into equivalent output of 3 to 15 PSI pressure.

 Pneumatically operated
control valves require a
converter or transducer
to change the
proportional electrical
signal to a proportional
pneumatic signal.
Generally, the converter
comes as part of the
valve.
 Its purpose is to convert
the analog signal output

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 of a control system into an accurate repeatable value of pressure to control
pneumatic actuators/operators, pneumatic valves, dampers, vanes, etc.
 The controller output sends an electronic signal to the current-to-pressure
(I/P) transducer, which in turn sends a pneumatic signal to the control valve.
The control valve changes position in response to the signal to adjust the flow
rate to the set point. As the flow changes. It is detected by the flow
transmitter.
As long as the detected flow is equal to the set value, the valve position will
remain the same. Whenever there is a system disturbance or set-point
change, the flow control automatically responds to reach the programmed set
point.

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 How to select pressure transmitter?
1. Type of pressure measured [ Gauge – Absolute – Differential].
2. Pressure range [actual measurement is as 80% of range].
3. Measured media [ gas – viscous-sea water].
# sea water : high nickel content alloys { INCONEL alloy718}.
4. System maximum overload.
5. Accuracy level [ 0.05%: 0.5%].
6. Operating temperature range.
# at high temp you can install condensing , radiator or siphon .
7. Power supply & output signal.
8. Working environment [ vibration – electromagnetic interference].
#IP : Ingress Protection {first digit : Solid & 2nd digit : Liquid}
9. Pressure interface connection [M20x1.5].

Transmitters mounting rules?

 Prevent moisture to reach transmitter cable connection.

 Used shielded cables if theirs is close power equipment.

 Cable shield must be completely undamaged.
 Avoid to mount the transmitters cable upwards.

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 How to calibrate Pressure Transmitters :

 First isolate the main process isolation valve.

 De-pressurize the pressure transmitter by opening the vent valve
 Isolate the manifold valve and open the vent plug.
 Fix proper instrument fitting ( for eg:1/4”npt fitting)
 Connect the calibrator fitting in to the vent plug entry of manifold valve.
 The vent valve should be opened.
 The HART communicator cable should be placed as per transmitter wiring diagram.
 Apply pressure as per the range given in the transmitter or check with
the HART communicator.
 Check the transmitter reading by applying pressure for 25%, 50%, 75%, and span
range.
 If the transmitter needs to be calibrated use the HART communicator for calibration
purpose.
 Zero & span trims can be done by using HART communicator.
 After calibration checking remove the pressure calibrator from the transmitter and
flush the line.
 So that hydraulic oil or water will not be inside the transmitter.
 Close the vent plug.
 Isolate the vent valve and open the main isolation valve.
 Open the manifold isolation valve slowly, if u open fast sudden pressure may
damage the transmitter diaphragm.
 After completion of the calibration ensure the transmitter is reading showing
properly.
 Then enter the reading in calibration report format.

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 How to connect HART communication?

Highway
Addressable
Remote
Transducer
Protocol

Figure 1-3 and Figure 1-4 illustrate typical wiring connections between the HART
Communicator and any compatible device.

Resistance value:
The HART specification defines the loop resistor value to be in the range of 230 ohms to
600 ohms. Typically, 250 ohms is used. This value provides an easy conversion from a
current value to a voltage value used in some control systems. In this case 4mA through a
250 ohm resistor is 1Vdc and 20mA is 5 Vdc.

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 Figure 1-5 shows how to connect the optional 250 ohm load resistor.
NOTE: To temporarily install the optional 250 ohm Load Resistor:
1. Insert the load resistor into the lead set jacks.
2. Open the loop to allow connection of the resistor in series in the loop.
3. Close the loop using the lead set connectors.

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 Pressure Switch
 Mechanical Pressure Switch:
 Measure or maintain Pressure , Level of liquid or gas.
 It has spring to return switch.
 Can be used in exponential area.
 Micro switch is used.
 High level electrical power process[250 V–20 A ].
 Digital Signal.

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# System start at 3 bar , Stop at 2 bar ( Diff=1).
# you can rotate the RANGE/DIFF screw to adjust
RANGE/DIFF setting.

 Contact Pressure Gauge:

 Gauges with switch contacts.
 Can be read on site.
 The switch limits can easily be set.
 Used in indication, Protection &control.

Types :

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  Electronic Pressure Switch:
 More accurate & reliable.
 Easy programming of the operation logic.
Consist of :
 Pressure sensor element.
 Electronic board.
 Solid state relay.

 Differential Pressure Switch:

 Filter clogged check by applying
differential pressure before and after the
filter

How to select pressure Switch?

1. For low pressure [ Diaphragm & Bellow].
For medium pressure [ Bourdon & Piston].
2. High service life (operate more than 1 Million) [ Piston].
Less than 1 Million [ Diaphragm & Bourdon].
3. Fast cycling [ Piston].
4. High accuracy [ Diaphragm & Bourdon].
5. Adjustable range . [ the set point should be in middle of 30% : 65%].
6. Types of switch action :
 Standard pressure
 Differential pressure
 Dual switch sense
7. Fluid media.
8. Proof pressure (is the highest pressure that the switch will stand without
permanent deformation), usually defined as 1.5 times max working range.

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 How to calibrate Pressure Switch?
There are several terms that describe the function of a switch which need to be
understood when testing a pressure switch:
Set point: The pressure which the switch will change state.

Normal State: The state of the switch when at barometric pressure or ideal state.

Depends on Pressure switch type.(typically it would be either OPEN or CLOSED).

Reset: The pressure at which the switch resets back to the normal state.

Tolerance: The allowable variation from the set point pressure.

Repeatability: The closeness of agreement between the results of consecutive

measurements.

Dead Band: The pressure difference between the change-of-states. (i.e. OPEN to CLOSE or
CLOSE to OPEN)

Trip Type: This is the direction to which the change-of state should happen

If the trip type is low, this means the change-of-state happens when the pressure is falling.

If the trip type is high, this means the change-of-state happens when the pressure is rising.

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 Calibration Procedure :

1. First we connect the pressure gauge and Pressure switch to the hand pump as shown
in above figure.
2. Then we need to measure the present status (NO/NC) of electrical output of the
switch with the multimeter. Put multimeter in Continuity mode.
3. Note: Here in this example our pressure switch considered is Normally open type. So
when you connect the multimeter before calibration we have default Normally Open
(NO) signal as output.
4. With our connections complete, we are ready to perform the calibration. We do this
by increasing pressure until we detect a change in the switch.
5. Now increase the pressure with the help of hand pump.
6. When we see the switch change state from open to close, we record the result.
7. Next, we decrease the pressure till we see the switch reset (change from close to
open) and record the results.
8. Also record the dead band.
9. Lastly, we would repeat this test at least once to determine repeatability. The
difference between set point and rest pressures is the dead
band.The dead band must be within the range. The deadband & setpoint of pressure
switch available on nameplate of pressure switch.
10. For Normally closed Pressure switch calibration also follows the same above
mentioned procedure. But the default status of Normally closed type Pressure switch
will have N.C. signal as output. When testing with increasing pressure the output state
changes from N.C. to N.O and while on decreasing pressure the output state changes
from N.O. to N.C. Remaining all steps are same.

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 ④ Temperature Measurements
Temperature is one of the most common process variables measured in
industries.
Temperature Sensors

RTD Thermocouple Thermistor Semiconductor

 RTD (Resistive Temperature Detector):

 The RTD wire is a pure material (platinum, nickel, copper) which

change their electrical resistance as a function of temperature.
 RTD is a passive device (Need external electrical current).
 Type : [ PT100 , PT300 , PT1000 , …. ].

 PT100:
 Mean : 100 ohm at 0 ℃
 Type: 2 wire , 3 wires , 4 wires
 R = Ro(1+𝛼T)
Ro =100 , 𝛼 = 0.0038
1 (ohm) = 2.5 ℃ (above 100 ohm )
#110 ohm>>> 10 * 2.5 = 25 ℃

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With a 2-wire
connection, the
resistance of the cable
is added as an error in
the measurement.

The simple two wire RTD connection shown in Figure is used only where high
accuracy is not essential - the resistance of the connecting wires is always
included with that of the sensor, leading to errors in the signal (resistance of
element + lead resistance, usually copper). In fact, a standard restriction with
this installation is a maximum of 1 - 2 ohms resistance per conductor - which is
typically about 300 feet of cable. This applies equally to balanced bridge and
fixed bridge systems. The values of the lead resistance can only be determined
in a separate measurement (without the RTD sensor) and therefore a
continuous correction during the temperature measurement is not possible.

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The influence of the lead resistance
is compensated to the greatest
possible extent with a 3-wire
connection.

A better wiring configuration is shown in Figure In this RTD circuit diagram,

the two leads of the sensor are on adjoining legs. Although there is lead
resistance in each leg of the bridge, the lead resistance is cancelled out from
the measurement. It is assumed that the two lead resistances are equal,
therefore demanding high quality connection cables. This allows an increase to
10 ohms - usually allowing cable runs of around 1500 feet or more, if
necessary.
Also, with this wiring configuration, if fixed bridge measurement is being
made, compensation is clearly only good at the bridge balance point. Beyond
this, errors will grow as the imbalance increases. This, however, can be
minimized by using larger values of resistance in the opposite bridge circuits
to reduce bridge current changes.
The pt100 3 wire configuration is very popular for general industrial
applications and is widely used in terminal heads when used with 4 to 20mA
current transmitters and where dual element duplex sensors are used.

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The 4-wire connection completely
eliminates the influence of the
connection lead on the measuring
result since any possible
asymmetries in the lead resistance of the connection lead are also
compensated.
The best wiring arrangement is the four wire configuration as depicted in figure. This
provides for full cancellation of spurious effects with the bridge type measuring technique.
Cable resistance of up to 15 ohms can be handled with this arrangement, accommodating
cable runs of around 3,000 feet. Incidentally, the same limitation as for three wire
connections applies if the fixed-bridge, direct-reading approach is being used.
The resistance thermometer can also be energized from a constant current source, and the
potential difference developed across it measured directly by some kind of potentiometer.
An immediate advantage is that here, incidentals like conductor resistance and selector
switch contact resistance are irrelevant. The essentials for this voltage-based method are
simply a stabilized and accurately known current supply for the RTD sensor (giving a
direct relationship of voltage to resistance and thus to temperature) and a high impedance
voltmeter (DVM, or whatever) to measure the voltage developed with negligible current
flow.

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 Example: Measuring error at 150 °C, cable length 10 m, conductor cross-section 0.22 mm2:

 The highest measurement accuracies are only achievable with a Pt100 in

a 4-wire connection.
 A Pt1000 measuring element in class A also offers good measurement
accuracies in a 2-wire connection and represents an economical
alternative to 3- or 4-wire connections for machine building.

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 What happen if we connect PT100(2-wires) far from controller?
Error occurs because of cable resistance.
 Use 3 – 4 wires .
 Use temperature transmitter.

 What happen if we connect PT100(3-wires) to 4-wire controller?

 make brigde near to sensor NOT near the controller.

 What happen if we connect PT100(2-wires) to 4-wire temperature transmitter?

 make junction as close to the sensor as possible.

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 RTD Sensor Connections :

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 TC (thermocouples):
It’s a simple device consisting of two dissimilar
wires joined at their ends , it generate (mv)
when heat is applied to hot junction.
 Common Thermocouple Types

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 Reference(cold) junction:
 Tc has two junctions; the difference is
temperature of these junctions is
what is used to measure temperature.
 Cold junction is located in a
transmitter or signal conditioner.
 The voltage measured at cold junction
directly affects the temperature
difference between the hot & cold
junction.
 Therefore, the temperature at cold
junction should be known; and the process to determine exact cold
junction temperature is known as (cold junction compensation).
 cold junction compensation can be performed by either the temperature
transmitter, TC input card for DSC or PLC, alarm trip or other signal
conditioner.

# The simplest case occurs when the cold

junction is at 0°C, also known as an ice-
bath reference. If TC = 0°C, then VOUT =
VH. In this case, the voltage measured at
the hot junction is a direct translation of
the actual temperature at that junction.

V out = V H – V C
= 𝜶 (T H – T C )
The scale factor (𝛂) which relates the
voltage difference to the temperature
difference, is known as the Seebeck
coefficient.

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 Do I need an RTD Sensor or a Thermocouple?

Whether you choose a thermocouple or an RTD Pt100 sensor depends on the application
and measurement requirements (accuracy, speed of response, temperature range etc.) of
the user. It is not a case of one being better than the other as both thermocouples and RTD
Sensors have their own merits and uses.
Temperature Range: Thermocouples have a wider temperature range than RTD Sensors,
with some able to measure temperatures up to 2900ºF and beyond. For most industrial
applications RTD Sensors are limited to 1100ºF and more often to 480ºF.
Accuracy: If high accuracy is of most importance, then a Pt100, which is the most common
RTD sensor in general use, is the better choice.. Even the least accurate Pt100 (Class B)
will usually be more accurate than a thermoocouple. Pt100s are available with very high
accuracies, 1/10 DIN elements for example, have an accuracy of ±0.03ºC at 0ºC.
Stability: Thermocouples tend to drift over time due to chemical changes such as
oxidation, whereas measurements from RTD Pt100 sensors are stable and repeatable if
the sensor is kept within the temperature range of the RTD sensor.
Response Times: Whilst ever smaller diameters have improved RTD response times
considerably, thermocouples, especially with a grounded or exposed junction, are still
very much faster in response to changes in temperature.
Durability: Because of the more fragile nature of Pt100 elements, thermocouples are
considered more rugged and durable especially for high vibration applications where
Pt100 sensors are not suitable. In summary, a thermocouple is a simple rugged sensor
that can withstand significantly more mechanical abuse than a Pt100.
Cost: Thermocouples are generally less expensive to manufacture and have lower material
costs, except for the cabling where thermocouple wires are slightly more expensive than
the copper wires used for RTD sensors.
Advantages and Disadvantages of RTD Sensors and Thermocouples

Sensor Type Advantages Disadvantages

Passive
High Accuracy
RTD Pt100 Low vibration resistance
High stability
Slower response
Highly repeatable
Low range ( Motor winding)

Wide Temperature Range(Boiler)

Fast response Less accurate
Thermocouple Less stable
Very small size
Low cost Long term drift

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  Temperature Gauge:

A temperature gauge is a device used for the accurate measurement and reading of
temperature gradient. The term temperature gauge usually, though not always, refers to a
device showing readings on a numbered dial.

Dial thermometer gauges are often found in industrial and commercial settings. They are
also common in certain everyday domestic settings and appliances.

Temperature measurement gauges fall into two broad categories - contact thermometers,
and non-contact thermometers. People often buy a temperature gauge to help monitor
ambient temperatures at the mounting location. These are non-contact sensors.

Certain types of contact temperature gauge are also designed to be coupled with a probe
or thermistor. These can then be used to check the surface or inner temperature of an
object or medium they are in direct contact with, such as a water temperature gauge.

Temperature gauges measure the thermal state of a homogeneous substance. The

measuring system must be brought as closely together as possible with the body to be
measured. The most widely used measuring methods for temperature measurement rely
on temperature-dependent characteristics of the body and substance.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 41

  Temperature Switch:
A mechanical device that is used to monitor and control the temperature in manufacturing
and industrial processes by turning ON & OFF switch contacts once a fixed temperature
range is reached is known as a temperature switch.
This switch is a small and cost-effective solution to
measure temperature within moveable & space-
constrained applications. The temperature switch
symbol is shown.

The switching condition of these switches mainly changes based on the input
temperature. So this function is used as protection from overheating. So, these switches
are mainly responsible for monitoring the temperature of equipment & machinery.

Temperature Switch Construction

The different components used in this switch
mainly include switch case, range nut, range
spring, main spindle, bollows, capillary, and
temperature sensing bulb. The construction
diagram of the temperature switch is shown
below.

As shown in the above diagram, the fluid within

the temperature sensing bulb responds to
variations in temperature. Once temperature
increases, the pressure within the bellows
increases. So the increase in the temperature
sensing bulb will compress the bellows & moves
the spindle up until the force of spring as well as
the pressure of bellows are in equilibrium. The
spindle movement is moved toward the switch &
causes ON & OFF action based on the set point of the switch.

Working Principle
The working of a temperature switch mainly depends on the variations of temperature
taking place within an enclosed space. The function of a temperature switch is to trigger
when changes in temperature occur.

Once the sensing probe in this switch detects an increase in temperature, then it opens the
electric contacts. Similarly, if the switch detects a decrease in temperature then electrical

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 42

contacts will be closed. So these variations in temperature can be used to activate a
switching mechanism.

Specifications
The temperature switch specifications include the following:

 Voltage supply ranges from12 to 30VDC.

 Its accuracy is ±0.1%FS ±0.3%FS ±0.5%FS.

 Pressure resistance typically min 40bar to maxi 300bar.

 Long-term stability (1 year): ±0.1%FS

 Response time T=90°C at 5.4s and T=50°C at 2.3s.

Temperature Switch Types

These switches are categorized into two types mechanical temperature switches and
electronics temperature switches.

Mechanical Temperature Switches

Mechanical temperature switches are available in two types bimetallic and liquid
expansion temperature switches which are used for measuring or detecting the change in
temperature.

The advantages of a liquid expansion thermometer include less cost, compact size, and
more accurate whereas the disadvantages are; that response time is high, leakage occurs,
resistant to temperature & shock, etc.

Electronic Temperature Switch

This temperature switch mainly includes a power supply source, measuring element, and
electronic circuit. This switch is used to measure temperature by changing it into a
switching signal through the change in temperature of the measuring element. This
switching signal changes in proportion to the temperature & can be calculated
accordingly. Electronic temperature switches are applicable where high accuracy is
necessary.

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Temperature Switch Vs Thermostat

The difference between a temperature switch and a thermostat includes the following:

Temperature Switch Thermostat

The temperature switch is also known as a The thermostat is also known as an indicator or
thermal switch. thermometer.

The main function of this switch is to measure A thermostat device’s function is to regulate
temperature. temperature,

This switch is a bi-stable electromechanical

device. This is a closed-loop control device.

Generally, these switches are classified into two Thermostats are classified into three types
types electronic and mechanical. programmable, non-programmable and smart.

This switch includes two main parts like sensing The thermostat includes different parts like
part and snap-action contacts. flange, frame, housing, and wax element.

What is the Purpose of Temperature Switch?

The main purpose of the temperature switch is to monitor the temperature of machinery
& equipment. These are used to limit temperature in industries and protect machinery
from overheating.

What is the Deadband of Temperature Switch?

The deadband of the temperature switch is the difference within temperature between
the increased set point & decreased set point.

Are Temperature Switches Normally Open or Closed?

When the temperature switch is Normally Open (NO), then the switch contacts are NO
normally open at minimum temperature. Similarly, Normally Closed (NC) means that the
switch contacts are NC at minimal temperature.

This switch gets activated by a change in temperature & changes its condition from NO to
close or from NC to open. The NO thermal switch contacts usually stay open which will
close with the increase in temperature.

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Simulating thermocouples and RTDs for calibration and testing :
Thermocouples and RTDs are the most common
sensors used in process temperature
measurements.
Simulating a process sensor signal into a process
instrument or control system input enables a
technician to verify whether the device responds
correctly to the temperature measured by the
instrument. There are many ways to perform
RTD and thermocouple simulation for testing
purposes.
You can use a mV dc source and a mV vs
temperature look up table for simulating
thermocouples or a resistance decade box and
resistance vs temperature look up table for
simulating RTDs. This method, however, has
become outdated with modern temperature calibrators that do the conversion for the
user. With modern calibrators, simply select the sensor type to simulate, input the
temperature to source and connect to the devices under test.
How to perform the test via RTD and thermocouple simulation?
To use a thermocouple simulator to test a device with a thermocouple input:

1. Disconnect the process measurement sensor and connect the test connection wires
in its place (Figure A).
2. Connect the mini connector from the test wires to the TC source connection of the
calibrator.
3. Connect a DMM or other measurement tool to the tested device’s mA output.
4. Verify the devices range or span. Apply the 0% value with the simulator and verify
with the DMM that the output mA value or voltage is as expected.
5. Repeat the test, applying the 50% and 100% temperature signals.
6. If the measured output of the device is within limits, the test is complete. If not,
adjust the device at zero (offset, 0%) and span (gain, 100%).
7. Repeat steps 4 and 5 and verify for a correct response.

To use an RTD simulator to test a device with an RTD input:

1. Connect the calibrator to the device input as shown in figure B.

2. Connect the calibrator output with the right combination to match the device
configuration (2, 3 or 4-wire).
3. Use the test procedure at left for thermocouple testing, starting at step 3.

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Temperature transmitter calibration
The performance of temperature transmitters and related instruments can decline,
especially in the harsh environments found in industrial settings. Temperature
transmitter calibration maintains reliability and uptime.

Fluke calibrators, such as the Fluke 724 Temperature Calibrator or the Fluke 754
Documenting Process Calibrator, can provide the three things necessary to accurately
calibrate a temperature transmitter – sourcing temperature, providing loop power and
measuring the resulting output current.
Most advanced documenting process calibrators, such as the Fluke 754, can also test and
calibrate both temperature and pressure instruments, which keeps the number of
instruments a technician needs to carry to a minimum. The 754 can even calibrate the
most-used tasks of HART electronic instrumentation, including pulsed instruments such
as RTD transmitters. A calibrator combined with a dry well such as the Fluke
Calibration 9142 Field Metrology Well provides a complete closed-loop solution.
When comparing calibrators, the traceability of test equipment is also an important factor.
Traceability means the calibration’s test and measurement functions have been verified to
perform within required specification and those specifications are traceable to national
and international standards. All Fluke test equipment can be ordered with a NIST-
traceable calibration.

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Calibrating a HART temperature transmitter
Calibrating a HART temperature
transmitter requires an accurate
temperature simulator or
temperature source, mA
measurement, and a HART
communication tool for calibration.
You can use separate tools or a
calibrator that integrates all three to
perform this task. HART is an
industry standard defining the
communications protocol between
smart field devices and a control
system that uses 4-20 mA wiring.
Before going to the field, gather the needed calibration and communication test tools. If
testing an RTD transmitter, be sure to bring extra test leads for connections. Testing a 3-
wire RTD requires five test leads—three for simulating the RTD sensor and two for
measuring the mA signal. If using a separate communicator, you will need its test lead set
as well. For thermocouple (TC) calibrations, be sure to have the correct TC test wire type
with a mini-connector terminated with the correct TC connector type (i.e. Type K wires
and connector to simulate a Type K thermocouple).

Ensuring accuracy
Your mA measurement tool and temperature source calibrator should be at least four
times more accurate than the device being tested. To make that determination, refer to the
data sheets of both the transmitter and the calibrator being tested, and account for
temperature and stability (time). The Fluke 754 Documenting Process Calibrator has the
HART functionality built in to enable smart trims on transmitters. It can also document
transmitter performance before and after adjustment and calculate pass/fail errors.
The Fluke 154 HART Communicator is a tablet-based HART communication tool that pairs
with a documenting process calibrator or a multifunction process calibrator to give you a
complete HART calibration and configuration solution.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 47

How to perform the test:
This example assumes that the transmitter is isolated from the process and is not
electrically connected to a loop power supply. A separate 250-ohm resistor is not
necessary because the Fluke 754 incorporates a resistor in series with the loop supply
through its mA jacks. The 3144 in this example is configured for a type K thermocouple
sensor with a span of 0 °C to 300 °C.

1. Select MEAS mA, SOURCE T/C type K to configure the calibrator to measure the
analog mA output of the transmitter and source the correct temperature stimulus at
the 3144 input. Press ENTER to select.
2. Press the As Found softkey, then press ENTER to select Instrument for a linear
transmitter calibration. Fill in the appropriate test tolerance and press the Done
softkey.
3. Press the Auto Test softkey to begin calibration. Once the test is complete, an error
summary table is displayed. When done viewing the table, press the Done softkey.
Press Done again to accept, or ENTER to change the tag, serial number or ID fields.
4. If the As Found test failed, then adjustment is necessary. Press the Adjust softkey.
Select Sensor Trim and press ENTER. Select Perform user trim – both and press
ENTER.
5. For best results, press LRV to apply the LRV for the Lower Trim value. Press Trim
and then Continue to move to the Upper Trim. Press URV, then Trim, then Done. If
the 3144 is used with the digital PV output, skip to step 7 and perform the As Left
test. If the analog 4-20 mA output is used in the process, continue to step 6.
6. Select Output Trim and press ENTER. The value of the primary variable (PVAO) is in
the upper right corner of the display. This is normally a 4-mA signal. The mA value
is in the center of the display. Press Fetch to load the measured mA value. Press
Send to send the value to the 3144 to trim the output section for the 4-mA value.
Press Continue for the 20-mA trim and repeat this step.
7. After completing Output Trim, press Done and proceed with the As Left verification
test. Press As Left. Press Done and then press Auto Test. On completion, an error
summary table is displayed. If errors are highlighted, the test has failed, and further
adjustment is required. Return to step 5 for adjustment of the 3144.

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 ⑤ Level Measurements

Level measurement

continuos
Point level
level
1. Float Switch 7. Ultrasonic
2. Capacitance 8. Radar
3. Optical 9. Displacer
4. Conductivity 10. Hydrostatic
5. Tuning Fork 11. Diff Pressure
6. Magnetic

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 49

① Float Switch:
Float switches use a float, a device that raises or lowers when a product is applied or
removed, opening or closing a circuit as the level rises or falls, moving
the float.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Non – Powered.  Must touch the liquid.
 Direct indication.  Have moving Parts.
 Inexpensive  Large in siza.

② Capacitance:
A capacitance level sensor is a proximity sensor that emits an
electrical field and detects a level based on the effect on its
electrical field. ( # low farad at empty tank)

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Small.  Must touch the liquid.
 Less expensive.  Have to be calibrated.
 Accurate.  Detect certain liquids.
 No moving parts.
 For liquids & Solids.

③ Optical:
Optical sensors convert light rays(infra-red) into
electrical signals, translating the physical quantity
of light into a measurement.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Small.  Required cleaning.
 No moving parts.
 Can used in liquids
 Not affected by high pressure or temperature.

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④ Conductivity:
A conductivity or resistance sensor reads conductivity with a probe. The probe has two
electrodes and uses alternating currents to power them. When a liquid covers the probe,
the electrodes connect to an electric circuit, causing current to flow and signaling a high or
low level.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Low cost.  Must touch product.
 No moving parts.  Only for conductive liquid.
 Easy to use.  Probe will erode overtime.

⑤ Tuning Fork:
They employ a sensing element in the shape of a fork
with two tines. The fork vibrates at the frequency of its
natural resonant frequency. Therefore, the frequency
of the fork detecting the level will change as the level
changes.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Inexpensive and small.  Must touch product.
 simple to install.
 used in the mining, food and beverage, and
chemical processing industries.

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⑥ Magnetic:
The strength of the magnetic coupling between
the float and the indicator must be directly
proportional to the distance separating them.
We must not allow any dirt or debris in the
chamber, it can be lodged between the float and
the inner wall, and it could prevent the float
from following the change in the liquid level so
the measurement will be badly affected. The
magnetic level indicator is designed for specific
liquid density so if the float is not properly
manufactured or the density of the process
fluid changes then there will be an error in the
measurement. We must not use the magnetic
level indicator for the process fluid that has less specific gravity than that of the float.

The magnetic level indicator must be made of stainless steel or other materials that could
be compatible with the process fluid. The float must be selected according to the density
of the liquid. The length of the magnetic level indicator must be suitable for the level range
of the application. It must not be used for the liquid-liquid interface. We must make sure
that the float and the chamber are designed according to the design pressure and
temperature.

In a magnetic level, indicator floats are used to indicate the level, this type of level
measurement is done with the attraction between two magnets. This device has a magnet
that is enclosed in a float and it also has a second magnet which is called the magnet
follower and it is in a non-ferrous metal tube. The magnet in the float attracts the magnet
in the tube as the float raises and lowers with the level of the process liquid and this
would cause the magnet inside the tube to raise and lower. By checking the position of the
magnet the level of the liquid in the tank can be determined.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 It is cheap  Must touch product.
 Easy to install  Need clean liquids.
 High accuracy
 It is not affected by material characteristics such as
conductivity and dielectric constant.
Used for { Waste treatment , Chemical industry, petro-
chemistry, Power stations, Food and beverage industry}

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⑦ Ultrasonic:

Ultrasonic-level sensors generate and receive

ultrasonic waves using the time it takes to reflect and
measure distance. Ultrasonic sensors have no moving
parts, are compact, extremely reliable, non-invasive
(non-contact), unaffected by the properties of the
material they are sensing, and self-cleaning due to
vibrations produced. They are, however, costly and
may be affected by the environment.

# work by transmit & receive ultrasonic waves ( Time 𝜶 Level ).

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Non-contact  More expensive.
 Self-cleaning  Negative effects of environment.
 used in Solid  Need to be calibrated (Zero Trim).

⑧ Radar:

These sensors use an antenna on the radar sensor to transmit

microwaves. The product being sensed reflects these
microwaves to the antenna, and the time between signal
emission and reception is proportional to the product level.
Radar sensors offer many benefits. They are not affected by
temperature, pressure, or dust and can measure liquids, pastes,
powders, and solids. They are also very accurate and do not
require calibration, and they are non-invasive because they do not have to touch the product. They
are, however, expensive and have a limited detection range. Radar sensors, like ultrasonic sensors,
are ideal for hot liquid storage tanks. # work by transmit & receive high frequency
electromagnetic waves ( Time 𝜶 Level ).

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Accurate  More expensive.
 No Calibration.  Limited detection range.
 Non-touchable(Non-invasive).
 Non-affected by (Temp, Pressure or
dust).
 Measure liquids , powders , solids.

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⑨ Displacer:

Displacer level sensor use

Archimedes’ Principle to observe
liquid level by unendingly
measurement the load of a displacer
rod immersed within the process
liquid.
The displacer is cylindrical in form
with a continuing cross-sectional area
and created long or short as needed.
Normal heights range from fourteen
inches to one hundred twenty inches.
As liquid level can increase, the
displacer rod experiences a bigger
buoyant force, creating it appear
lighter to the sensing instrument, that interprets the loss of weight as a rise in level and
transmits a proportional o/p signal.
As liquid level decreases, the buoyant force on the displacer rod decreases with a
corresponding weight increase that is understood as decreasing level by the level detector
that then provides a corresponding signal output.

# Transmission level and torque tube transmit movement of the displacer and
convert it rotor motion.
(RVDT ) transfer it to electrical signal (4:20 mA).

RVDT : Rotary Variable Differential Transformer

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 54



(RVDT) is an electro-mechanical transducer that provides a variable AC output voltage

that is proportional to the angular displacement of its input shaft. As RVDT is an AC-
controlled device, there is no electronic component inside it. Also, the electrical output of
RVDT is obtained by the difference in secondary voltages of the transformer, so it is also
called a Differential Transformer.

RVDT is an electro-mechanical inductive transducer that converts angular displacement

into the corresponding electrical signal. It is the most widely used inductive sensor due to
its high accuracy level. Since the coil of RVDT is designed to measure an angular position,
it is also known as an angular position sensor. Unlike LVDT, RVDT is also a passive
differential transducer.

The design and construction of RVDT is similar to LVDT. The only difference is the shape
of the core in transformer windings. LVDT uses the soft iron core to measure the linear
displacement whereas RVDT uses the Cam-shaped core (Rotating core) for measuring the
angular displacement.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 55

The working principles of RVDT and LVDT both
are the same and based on the mutual induction
principle. When AC excitation of (5-15) Volt at a
frequency of 50-400 Hz is applied to the primary
windings of RVDT a magnetic field is produced
inside the core. This magnetic field induces a
mutual current in secondary windings. Then due
to transformer action, the induced voltages in
secondary windings (S1 and S2) are Es1 and Es2 respectively. Hence the net output voltage will
be the difference between both the induced secondary voltages.

Hence Output will be E0 = Es1 – Es2.

Now according to the position of the core, there are three cases that arise. So Let’s discuss these
three cases one by one in detail.

 Case 1: When the core is at the Null position: When the core is at the null position then
the flux linkage with both the secondary windings will be the same. So the induced
emf (Es1 and Es2 ) in both the windings will be the same. Hence the Net differential output
voltage E0 = Es1 – Es2 will be zero (E0 = Es1 – Es2 = 0). It shows that no displacement of the
core.
 Case 2: When the core rotates in the clockwise direction: When the core of RVDT
rotates in the clockwise direction. Then, in this case, the flux linkage with S1 will be more
as compared to S2. This means the emf induced in S1 will be more than the induced emf
in S2. Hence Es1 > Es2 and Net differential output voltage E0 = Es1 – Es2 will be positive.
This means the output voltage E0 will be in phase with the primary voltage.
 Case 3: When the core rotates in the anti-clockwise direction: When the core of RVDT
rotates in the anti-clockwise direction. Then, in this case, the flux linkage with S2 will be
more as compared to S1. It means the emf induced in S2 will be more than the induced
emf in S1. Hence Es1 < Es2 and Net differential output voltage E0 = Es1 – Es2 will be
negative. This means the output voltage E0 will be in phase opposition (180 degrees out
of phase) with the primary voltage.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 56



Displacer level instruments may be used to measure liquid-liquid interfaces just the same
as hydrostatic pressure instruments. One important requirement is that the displacer
always be fully submerged (“flooded”). If this rule is violated, the instrument will not be
able to discriminate between a low (total) liquid level and a low interface level. This
criterion is analogous to the use of compensated-leg differential pressure instruments to
measure liquid-liquid interface levels: in order for the instrument to solely respond to
changes in interface level and not be “fooled” by changes in total liquid level, both process
connection points must be submerged.

For example:
Light liquid has SG = 0.85 &&& Heavy liquid has SG = 1.1
SG: Specific gravity
The specific gravity of an object is the density of that object divided by the density of
water. The density of water is 1,000 kilograms per meter cubed

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 57

⑩ Hydrostatic:

Hydrostatic pressure sensors are used for the

measurement of level or filling height of a liquid.
Hydrostatic pressure measurement is suited for level
measurement due to the hydrostatic effect of non
flowing fluids.

Hydrostatic pressure and level measurement enjoys a consistently high popularity due to
it’s high robustness, high reliability and simple installation of this technology.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Highly Accurate (0.25%).  Need to calibrate (Span Setting).
 Ideal for wide range of liquids.  Unsuitable for bulk material
 Ranges up to 30 M water.
 Used in sea water, oil, chemical, …

Note : Accurate measurement requires either media with constant density or

continuous density measurement of the medium

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 58

⑪ Differential Pressure:

Differential Pressure Transmitter can be used to measure the vessel level. We said earlier
that the pressure at the bottom of a vessel is directly related to the level of the liquid in the
vessel. In that case, if we connect a Differential Pressure Transmitter to the reference, or
zero percent point of that vessel, we can use the pressure measurement to determine the
level.
Another variable that has a major effect on the pressure at the reference point of the
vessel is the relative density of the liquid in that vessel. Relative density is also called
specific gravity.
There is a relationship between pressure, relative density, and liquid height. That
relationship can be expressed as:
Pressure (inches of water) = Relative density × Liquid height (inches)

we can measure the level of an open vessel using a differential pressure transmitter
>>> The High-Pressure Port is connected at the 0 meters point and the Low-Pressure
Port is vented to atmosphere.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 59

 ∆𝑝 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

Open Vessel Closed Vessel

Dry leg

Wet leg

At Zero level = 0 mmwc

At Span level = H x Specific gravity

= 500 mmwc

Then Range = 500 – 0 = 500 mmwc

So, we have to set Lower Range Value

(LRV) = 0 mmwc and Upper Range Value
(URV) = 500 mmwc in the DP Transmitter using HART communicator.

When zero suppression is used then H1 height always filled with process fluid.
At zero level (LRV) = H1 x specific gravity

= 100 x 1.0

= 100 mmwc

At 100% level (URV) = (H1 + H2) x specific

gravity

= (100 + 500) x 1.0

Range = URV – LRV = 600 – 100 = 500 mmwc

So, we have to set Lower Range Value (LRV) = 100 mmwc and Upper Range Value (URV) = 600 mmwc in
the DP Transmitter using HART communicator.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 60


 In closed tank DP level measurement, LP leg is connected to the top of
tank.
There are two methods in closed tank DP Level Measurement.
Dry leg method:
 Dry leg method is used in
normal close tank where
vapor is not condensate
and temperature of
process is equal to
atmospheric.
 Simply when LP side of
the DP transmitter is
filled with any gas/air
then we call it as Dry Leg
& we apply Dry Leg
Method for calculations.

At zero level (LRV) = pressure acting on HP leg – Pressure acting on LP leg

=H2 x specific gravity – 0
= 200 x 0.9 – 0
= 180 mmwc

At 100 % level (URV) = pressure acting on HP leg – Pressure acting on LP leg

= (H2+H1) x specific gravity – 0
= (200 + 500) x 0.9 – 0
= 630 mmwc

Range = URV – LRV = 630 – 180 mmwc = 450 mmwc

So, we have to set Lower Range Value (LRV) = 180 mmwc and Upper Range Value
(URV) = 630 mmwc in the DP Transmitter using HART communicator.

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Wet leg method:
Wet leg method is used
where vapor has a
tendency to make the
condensate and
temperature of process is
high or low from the
atmospheric.
 For DP Transmitter
Configuration, we
have to find out Zero
Level & Span Level.
Accordingly, we have
to configure Lower
Range Value (LRV) and Upper Range Value (URV) using HART
communicator.

Y = H1 +H2 = 500 + 200 = 700 mm

At zero level (LRV) = pressure acting on HP leg – Pressure acting on LP leg

= H2 x SG1 – Y x SG2
= 200 x 0.9 – 700 x 1.0
= 180 – 700
= – 520 mmwc

At 100 % level (URV) = pressure acting on HP leg – Pressure acting on LP leg

= (H2+H1) x SG1 – Y x SG2
= (200 + 500) x 0.9 – 700 x 1.0
= 630 – 700
= -70 mmwc

Range = URV – LRV = -70 – (-520) = 450 mmwc

So, we have to set Lower Range Value (LRV) = -520 mmwc and Upper Range Value
(URV) = -70 mmwc in the DP Transmitter using HART communicator.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 62

 Differential Pressure Transmitter with 5 Way Manifold Valve:

Some differential pressure

transmitters are equipped
with 5 way valve manifolds.
These valve networks allow
for blocking, equalizing, and
bleeding of the transmitter’s
two pressure ports, the
valves being arranged in this
pattern:

What can be done with this manifold that cannot be done with a three-valve
manifold?

 Normal valve positions:

 Both block valves open.

 Both equalizing valves closed.
 Vent valve closed.

 Removing differential pressure transmitter from service:

 Close one block valve.

 Open both equalizing valves (which one first
does not matter).
 Close the other block valve.
 Open the vent valve.
 Tag all valves, notifying of transmitter’s planned
return time/date.
 Disconnect the transmitter from the manifold.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 63

Restoring the transmitter back to service is as simple as reversing all the steps taken
to remove it from service (i.e. go through the list backwards, doing the reverse of each
instruction).

 Difference between 5-valve manifold and 3-valve manifold?

One feature that 5-valve manifolds provide over 3-valve manifolds is the ability to
route a vent tube to a remote (safer) location, for use with particularly hazardous
process fluids.

5-valve manifolds allow for in-place transmitter calibration, provided one of the ∆P
transmitter’s sides has an atmospheric vent. By connecting the calibrating pressure
source to the vent line, one can route the calibrating pressure to either side of the
transmitter (only), while keeping the other side vented.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 64

 ⑥ Flow Measurements
 A flow meter is an flow instrument that is used to indicate the amount of liquid, gas, or vapor moving
through a pipe or conduit by measuring linear, non-linear, mass, or volumetric flow rates. Since flow
control is often essential, measuring the flow of liquids and gasses is a critical need for many
industrial applications – and there are many different types of flow meters that can be utilized
depending on the nature of the application.

V : Flow velocity
 Mass flow rate = Volume flow rate * density
A : Cross Section Area
M = Q * 𝝆
SCCM: Standard cubic CM / M
Q= V*A
 Q ( m3 / s ) , ( ft3 / s ) , ( GPM ) , (SCCM)
 M ( Kg /s )
 𝝆 ( Kg / m3 )

flow Measurements

Obstructive Non Obstructive

 Positive displacement (Oval Gear)  Electromagnetic
 Mechanical (Turbine)  Ultrasonic
 Vortex  Coriolis
 Rotameter
 Differential Pressure

Primary Element Secondary Element Electronic Hosing

 Orifice Plate
 Differential Capacitance
 Flow Nozzle
 Strain Gauge
 Venturi Tube
 Pitot Tube
 Laminar Flow
element
 Wedge Element

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① Positive displacement (Oval Gear)
 There are two oval gears inside the meter, the flow of the
fluid causing the gear rotation every revolution called
(Pocket).
 Counting the pocket frequency gives a measurements of the
volumetric flow rate.
 A sensor detects the rotation of the gears to determine the
volume flow rate of liquid.
 Rotational velocity is directly proportional to volume flow rate. (Q = VA)

 Designed for use with higher-viscosity fluids.

 It’s suitable for flow measurement for different measuring
media (acid, alkali, chemical, petroleum, oil, food industries).
 The flowmeter can be made of (cast steel, stainless steel 316).
 The display meter has the functions of displaying cumulative
flow, instantaneous flow and zero return.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Accurate (0. 5%).  Unsuitable for steam.
 Simple to install.  Unsuitable for high & low Temperature
 Handling high pressure. applications.
 Working temperature = 160 oc  Unsuitable for low viscosity fluids including
water.
 Accuracy affected by bubbles present in
fluids.

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② Mechanical (Turbine):
 A Turbine Flow Meter is inserted in a pipe directly in the flow path.
 The mechanical part of the Turbine Flow Meter has a turbine rotor placed in the path of a flowing
stream.
 The only moving part of the Turbine Meter is the mechanical rotor.
 The rotational speed of the rotor depends upon the flow velocity.
 The rotor blades are usually made of stainless steel.
 As the rotor spins, the passage of each rotor blade past a pickup point will generate an electrical
pulse.
 The electrical pulses are created in different ways depending upon the rotor blades themselves and
the pickup unit characteristics.

 the turbine rotor will turn at a different speed

depending upon the fluid flow velocity.
 Fluid Velocity is a measurement of the distance a
particle of a substance traveled per unit of time.
Typical velocity units are feet per second or meters
per second.
 Fluid Velocity plays a very important role in the
operation of a Turbine Flow Meter, but in most
applications, a Turbine Flow Meter is used to
measure Volumetric Flowrate.
 Volumetric Flowrate indicates the volume of fluid
that passes a point in a unit period of time.
 If you could count the number of gallons of liquid
flowing past a certain point in one minute, you
would be able to state the Volumetric Flowrate.
 Volumetric Flowrate is expressed in units such as:
– gallons per minute (GPM)
– cubic meters per second (m³/s)
– cubic feet per second (ft³/s)

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 67

You will find Turbine Flow Meters in oil and gas including fracking, water and wastewater, chemical,
power, food and beverage, aerospace, pharmaceutical, and pulp and paper.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Accurate (0. 5%) can be improved 0.2 %.  Not suitable with too high viscosity.
 The material of its body is stainless steel.  Need frequent calibration.
 Suitable for { gases , liquids }.  Deal only with clean liquids.
 Max temperature = 120 oc

Installation of a turbine flow meter:

Typical installation requires 10 pipe diameters upstream of straight pipe and 5 pipe diameters
downstream.

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③ Vortex:
Vortex measures vortices, essentially, a sensor tab will bend and flex from side to side as
the vortex passes. The bend and flex action will then produce an output frequency that is
proportional to volumetric flow.

oscillation

Q𝜶V vortices

F𝜶V

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Suitable for low viscosity liquids.  It has poor anti-vibration
 Suitable for { gases , steam }. performance.
 Low pressure loss.  Can’t measure dirty media.
 High accuracy.
 High stability.
 Wide measurement range.
 Reliable and advanced instruments.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 69

④ Rotameter:
 A rotameter is a device that measures the flow of fluid volume per unit
of time in a closed tube.
 There are several types of rotameter applications, including chemical
injection/dosing and tank blanketing.
 A rotameter is a gauge for measuring fluid flow using a graduated glass
tube with an enclosed free float.
 Also known as variable area flow meters, rotameters are used to measure liquid or gas volumetric
flow rates as they pass through the tapered tube of the rotameter.
 The flow of the liquid or gas raises the meter’s float, increasing the area through which the media may
pass. The larger the amount of flow, the higher the float is raised.
 A rotameter can be used for purge applications to keep process lines clear. In simple flow
measurement, an alarm or an electrical output makes it possible to check flow conditions and control
them continuously.
 How Rotameters Work?
 Fluid enters the tube from the bottom and escapes through the top. This fluid is the one whose flow is
measured. The float will rest at the bottom of the tube when there is no flow in the instrument. In
such a situation, the total diameter of the float is nearly equal to the inside diameter of the glass tube.
 The flow area of the annular opening increases when the fluid
enters the tube, thus making the float move upwards. It moves
upwards until the lifting strength produced from the difference in
pressure across its upper and lower surfaces begins to equal the
float weight.
 The lifting force and pressure difference will temporarily increase
due to the flow rate increase in the rotameter. Afterward, the float
travels to the top and increases the area in the annular opening.
 Due to this, the lifting force will decrease, and the force of the fluid
will become the same as the float weight. The difference in
pressure remains the same by changing the area of the annular
opening in relation to the flow rate. The scale marked on the glass
tube indicates the flow rate.
 When using rotameters, calibration must be undertaken for a given gas or fluid at a given set of
conditions. Normally, the conditions are written on the sides of the flow meter along with its range of
flow and the units of measurement. In using rotameters, one is always advised to correct the flow
tube readings according to any changes in flow conditions. Usually, manufacturers detail the required
corrections for the meters, but this is not always the case.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Measuring very low to high flow rate.  Must be mounted vertically.
 No external power.  Low accurate with high flow rate.
 Simple.
 Low cost.
 Low pressure drop.
 Repeatability.
 Optional flow switches, alarms.
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⑤ Differential Pressure:
Primary element Secondary element Electronic hosing
(Transducer) (Transmitter)
1- Orifice plate Differential capacitance
2- Flow nozzle Strain gauge
3- Venture tube
4- Pitot tube
5- Laminar flow element
6- Wedge element

 A common method of flow measurement is done by using

a Differential Pressure Transmitter (also called a DP
Transmitter). The Differential Pressure Transmitter often
referred to as a Delta P transmitter.
 When plotted on a graph, the relationship between flow
rate (Q) and differential pressure (ΔP) is quadratic, like
one-half of a parabola. Differential pressure developed by
a venturi, orifice plate, pitot tube, or any other
acceleration-based flow element is proportional to the
square of the flow rate

 Unfortunately, the Differential pressure across the orifice is not proportional to the flow rate but
is actually proportional to the square of the flow rate. That’s why in applications like this, we need
a Square Root Extractor. Sometimes this square root function is built into the transmitter and
sometimes a Square Root Extractor is a separate signal conditioning instrument connected to the
output of the
transmitter.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 71

  The square-root function placed
immediately after the flow
element’s “square” function – the
result is an output signal that
tracks linearly with flow rate
(Q).

 If we are using square root

extraction function which is
available inside the transmitter
(software configuration).
 This way, no external relay device is
necessary to characterize the DP
transmitter’s signal into a flow rate
signal.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 72

 An Orifice Meter is basically a type of flow meter used to measure the rate of flow of
Liquid or Gas, especially Steam, using the Differential Pressure Measurement principle.
 It is mainly used for robust applications as it is known for its durability and is very
economical.
 As the name implies, it consists of an Orifice Plate which is the basic element of the
instrument. When this Orifice Plate is placed in a line, a differential pressure is
developed across the Orifice Plate.
 This pressure drop is linear and is in direct proportion to the flow rate of the liquid or
gas.
 The Orifice plates in the Orifice meter, in general, are made up of stainless steel of
varying grades.

 Orifice meters are built in different forms depending upon the application-specific
requirement, The shape, size, and location of holes on the Orifice Plate describe the
Orifice Meter Specifications as per the following:
 Concentric Orifice Plate: used with pure liquid like gases.
 Eccentric Orifice Plate: used for viscous flow.
 Segment Orifice Plate: used for viscous flow.
 Quadrant Edge Orifice Plate: used for crude oil, high-viscosity syrups or slurries.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 At higher fluid velocity
 very cheap. causes turbulences.
 Less space is required to Install.  Solids in fluids causes
 Operational response can be designed with perfection. damages.
 Installation direction possibilities:  Low life time.
Vertical / Horizontal / Inclined.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 73

The main parts of flow nozzle arrangement used to measure flow rate are as follows:

1. A flow nozzle which is held between flanges of pipe carrying the fluid whose flow
rate is being measured. The flow nozzle’s area is minimum at its throat.
2. Openings are provided at two places 1 and 2 for attaching a differential pressure
sensor (u-tube manometer, differential pressure gauge etc.,) as show in the
diagram.

 Operation of Flow Nozzle

1. The fluid whose flow rate
is to be measured enters
the nozzle smoothly to the
section called throat
where the area is
minimum.
2. Before entering the nozzle,
the fluid pressure in the
pipe is p1. As the fluid
enters the nozzle, the fluid
converges and due to this
its pressure keeps on
reducing until it reaches
the minimum cross
section area called throat.
This minimum pressure p2 at the throat of the nozzle is maintained in the fluid for a
small length after being discharged in the downstream also.
3. The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2 records
the pressure difference (p1-p2) between these two points which becomes an
indication of the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Installation is easy and is cheaper when  Pressure recovery is low
compared to venturi meter.  Maintenance is high
 It is very compact  Installation is difficult when
 Has high coefficient of discharge. compared to orifice flow meter.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 74

  The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the entry section of the venturi
meter with a pressure P1.
 As the fluid from the entry section of venturi meter flows into the converging
section, its pressure keeps on reducing and attains a minimum value P2 when it
enters the throat. That is, in the throat, the fluid pressure P2 will be minimal.

 The differential pressure sensor attached between the entry and throat section of
the venturi meter records the pressure difference(P1-P2) which becomes an
indication of the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.
 The diverging section has been provided to enable the fluid to regain its pressure
and hence its kinetic energy. The lower the angle of the diverging section, the
greater the recovery.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Fewer changes of getting clogged with  large in size.
sediments  Expensive initial cost, installation,
 The coefficient of discharge is high. and maintenance.
 Its behavior can be predicted perfectly.  Greater cost to manufacture
 Can be installed vertically, horizontally, or  Less experimental data than
inclined. orifice plates
 Low-pressure drop (around 10% of Δp)
 Lower sensitivity to installation effects than
orifice plates
 Less susceptibility to damage
 More suitable for gas flows with entrained
liquid.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 75

 how to carry out piping delta p flow meter?
Gas Liquid Steam

Self-venting Self-drain Condensate

Calibration Procedure:
 Removing the Transmitter from
Service
The transmitter must be removed from
service before any checks or calibration
can be performed. Let’s go through the
following steps:

– Close the Low-Pressure Block Valve

– Open the Equalizing Valve

– Close the High-Pressure Block Valve

Calibration Chart
We are going to ignore the square root extractor for now as we will be looking at the
output current from the flow transmitter.

The first thing we need is a calibration chart or table. A table like this or similar is usually
kept on file at your place of work.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 76

This table is important from a calibration perspective as it indicates what we need to
apply to the transmitter, and what the expected current output will be.

Calibration Setup
Here’s the calibration setup. The scissor-type hand pump with a digital pressure readout
is connected to the high-pressure side of the transmitter.
There are several different types of pressure sources used in the industry. Note that the
low-pressure side of the transmitter is vented to the atmosphere.
A digital multimeter set to measure current is connected in series with the transmitter
and the 24-volt power supply.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 77

From the table, we can see that if we set the hand pump input pressure to 50 inches of
Water Column, our multimeter should read 8 milliamps.

OK, now we’ve seen how the calibration table will work for us. We’ve got the transmitter
all set up, let’s do some testing.
First of all, we’re going to check to see if the transmitter needs to be adjusted. We begin by
applying the desired pressure input values from the calibration table to the high input on
the flow transmitter and record the output current measured for each input value.
If the output currents measured are outside of the acceptable ranges as established by
your company, then the transmitter must be recalibrated using the Zero/Span
adjustments.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 78

We perform the actual calibration using the Zero/Span adjustments on the transmitter
Apply the 0% input pressure value, which for us is 0 inches Water column, to the
transmitter and adjust the Zero until we get an output current of 4 milliamps.

Apply the 100% input pressure value, which for us is 200 inches Water Column, to the
transmitter and adjust the Span until we get an output current of 20 milliamps. Repeat the
steps until adjustments are no longer required.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 79

 Returning the Transmitter to Service
Now that you’ve recalibrated, it’s a good idea to apply all of the values from the calibration
table and record the corresponding
output current values.

Let’s return the transmitter to service

now that it’s been calibrated.

– Begin with all valves closed

– Open the equalizing valve

– Open the High-Pressure Block Valve

(slowly)

– Close the equalizing valve

– Open the Low-Pressure Block Valve

 Remember, we ignored the square root extractor when we calibrated the transmitter. Let’s connect
the square root extractor to the output of the transmitter and see what happens.
We now have a linear and directly proportional relationship between the flow rate and the current
output of the square root extractor. Perfect! That’s exactly what our PLC or DCS needs to see.
The math is a bit complicated, but let’s try an example. When we have a 50% flow rate of 25 gallons per
minute, the square root extractor output is 12 milliamps, or 50% as well. But, the Flow transmitter
output is 8 milliamps or 25%.
How do we convert 8 milliamps to 12 milliamps?
Very simply, the square root extractor will ensure that its output is the square root of its input.
The square root of 25% is 50%! Try the math on a calculator. So, with a Flow Transmitter output current
of 8 milliamps, the square root extractor will produce an output current of 12 milliamps

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 80

⑥ Electromagnetic:
 The measured liquid must be water based or
conductive.
 This makes the mag meter a great choice for
waste water or process water that is considered
fouled or dirty.
 Mag meters are volumetric meters that have no
moving parts. This is ideal for those areas where
you wouldn’t want to be exposed to the measured
liquid while working on the meter.

 The way a mag meter works is based on a formula

called Faraday’s formula. Firstly, again, the liquid must
be conductive. A voltage is measured that is dependent
on the average velocity of liquid times the strength of
the magnetic field times the length of the conductor
(this is the distance between the electrodes).

 We don’t need to know Faraday’s formula to use a mag

meter. We don’t necessarily even need to know what
that formula is, we just know that whomever invented
the mag meter used the formula to produce a signal
voltage that can be measured by your automation
process.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 81

⑦ Ultrasonic:

 The principle behind these meters is that an ultrasonic signal is transmitted

downstream or in the direction of the flow while another signal is transmitted
upstream.
 The delta or differential time is used to calculate the velocity of the liquid.
 That velocity is then used to calculate the volumetric flow through the pipe.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 82

 ⑧ Coriolis:
Each Coriolis flowmeter has one or more
measuring tubes which an exciter causes to
oscillate artificially. As soon as the fluid starts to
flow in the measuring tube, additional twisting is
imposed on this oscillation due to the fluid‘s
inertia. Two sensors detect this change of the tube oscillation in time and space as the “phase
difference.” This difference is a direct measure of the mass flow.

In addition, the fluid density can also be determined from the oscillation frequency of the
measuring tubes. The temperature of the measuring tube is also registered to compensate
thermal influences. The process temperature derived from this is available as an additional
output signal.

Application Range:
 Chemical: containing chemical reaction
system
 Petroleum: moisture content analysis
 Lipids: including vegetable oils, animal
fats and other oils
 Textile printing and dyeing
 Fuel: crude oil, heavy oil, coal slurry,
lubricant and other fuels
 Food: gas dissolving beverage, health drink and other liquid
 Transportation: pipeline liquid measurement
 High pressure fluid, like slurry flow measurement for oil drilling cementing.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 higher cost.
 Extremely accurate and repeatable  large and heavy.
 Not affected by changes in media density  Require an inline installation.
 Good for applications where the media’s  they are not good for dual-phase
properties aren’t already well known media.
 Do not require straight piping runs
 Some models can also measure density,
temperature, volumetric flow, or viscosity

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 83

 ⑦ Control Valves
control valve is simply a variable orifice that is used to regulate the flow of a
process fluid according to the requirements of the process

Valve types

Linear Rotary

 Gate  Butterfly
 Globe  Plug
 Diaphragm  Ball
 Pinch

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 84

 Actuator Positioner Regulator Solenoid Valve

 Manual  Direct acting

 Diaphragm  Manual reset
 Electro-Hydraulic  Pilot operated
 Motorized Pneumatic Electro pneumatic Digital valve
controller
 Piston

 With Diaphragm Actuator

 With Piston Actuator
 With Rotary Actuator

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 85

Manual Actuators :
- Useful where automatic control is not required.
- For manual control of the process during maintenance or shutdown of the
automatic system.
- Much less expensive.
- Are available in various sizes for both globe-style valves and rotary-shaft valves.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 86

Diaphragm Actuators:
- Uses input signal from the I/P converter , Positioner or other source like
Manual Loader.
 Advantages :
- Dependable - Simple - Economical
 Types :
- Direct Acting
- Reverse Acting

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 87

Electro-Hydraulic Actuators:
 Disadvantages:
- More complex.
- More expensive than pneumatic Actuators.
Offers Advantages where :
- No air supply source is available.
- Low ambient temperature could freeze the condensed water in pneumatic
supply.
- Large stem forces are needed.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 88

Piston Actuators:
- Uses high pressure plant air up to 150 psig.
- Provides fast stroking speeds.
 Types :
- single acting - Double acting
- No return spring.
- Can produce work in only one direction.
- Able to work in both directions.
- Uses Built-in spring.
- Same two ports are used for supply
 Limitation :
and exhaust ports.
- Stroke length is limited.
 Applications :
 Applications :
- mostly used where max. force is
- Fail open or fail closed operation.
required in both directions.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 89

Pneumatic Positioners :

Electro pneumatic Positioner:

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 90

Digital Valve controllers :
- Communicating (HART, Field-Bus) , Microprocessor based current-to-pneumatic
instruments.
 Features :
- Easy access to information which is critical to process operation.
- Avoids high cost of running separate power and signal wiring.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 91

Air Filter Regulator:
A pressure regulator is
an adjustable valve that
is designed to
automatically control
the pressure
downstream of the
regulator.

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Solenoid Valves:
- A solenoid valve is a combination of two basic functional units:
1. Solenoid (electro-magnet) with its core (plunger).
2. A valve containing an orifice in which a disc or plug is positioned to
stop or allow flow.
- The valve is opened or closed by movement of the magnetic core
which is drawn into a solenoid when the coil is energized.

- Direct operated valve :

In a direct operated valve the solenoid core is mechanically connected to
the valve disc and directly opens / closes the orifice, dependent upon
energization and de-energization of the solenoid.

- Pilot operated valve :

The pilot-operated solenoid valve is usually used in big diameter and high
pressure occasions. As the valve is open, the minimum pressure of the
solenoid valve is not allowed to be lower than 0.05MPa. So, the pilot
pressure is required, otherwise it cannot be opened. In addition, the flow
capability of the pilot-operated solenoid valve is bigger than that of the
direct acting solenoid valve. It has a relatively higher requirement to the
purity of the compressed air. Instead, the directly operated solenoid valve
has no such high requirement.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 93

 Differences between pilot-operated and direct acting solenoid valve:
 Pressure tolerance
The pilot-operated solenoid valve has a higher tolerance of liquid pressure than the direct
acting solenoid valve.
 Response time
The starting speed of the direct acting solenoid valve is quicker than that of the directly
operated type. It is mostly used for the occasion of fast connection and disconnection.
Because the small valve opens in the first and the main valve opens later when the pilot-
operated solenoid valve is supplied with power. Instead, the directly operated solenoid
valve is opened with its main valve directly. When the pilot-operated solenoid valve is
energized, the small valve opens at the first and the main valve opens later. However, as to
the direct acting solenoid valve, the main solenoid opens directly.
 Flow capacity
The flow capacity of the pilot-operated solenoid valve is bigger than that of the directly
operated type. Generally, the CV value can reach 3 or above. However, the directly
operated solenoid valve usually has the CV value of below 1.
 Power and consumption
The power and consumption of the directly operated solenoid valve are higher than that
of the pilot-operated type.
 Purity of the medium
The pilot-operated solenoid valve has a relatively high requirement to the purity of the
flowing medium. However, the direct acting type has no such strict requirement.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 94

 Types of Valves :
2/2 (2-Way Valves) 3/2 (3-WayValves) 4/2 and 5/2 (4-Way Valves)
- It has one inlet and one - Three pipe connections - Four or five pipe connections
outlet pipe connection. and two orifices Used to one pressure, two cylinder and
alternately apply pressure one or two exhausts.
-Normally Closed: to and exhaust from
Valve is closed when diaphragm.
deenergized and open - Normally closed
when
energized.

-Normally Open :
Valve is closed when
energized and open
when de-energized. - Normally Open

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 95

Air Lock Relay :
Air Lock valve is used to hold the operating air inside actuator chamber to not
make any disturbance in valve opening when any Pneumatic air supply or
source failure occurs in the air operated process control line.

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 ⑧ Detection Device (Fire – Gas – Duct)

Components of a Good Fire and Gas System:

A good F&G system combines innovative fire and gas detectors, conventional and analog
addressable fire panels, clean agent and inert gas fire suppression systems, and a SIL 3-
certified fire and gas logic solver into a consistently designed and executed solution. An
integrated system provides common tools, operating interface, and networking, resulting
in a common platform with independent systems.

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 97

 Gas Detector

Flammable Toxic

Catalytic
Electro-Chemical cell
Infrered
Semi-Conductor
Open path

Flammable Gas Detectors:

Detects the percentage by

volume of flammable gas in air
in terms of LFL (Lower
Flammable Limit) and UFL
(Upper Flammable Limit)

The three types of Flammable gas detectors are:

 Catalytic Gas Detectors
 Infrared Gas Detectors
 Open Path (Line of Sight) Gas Detectors

ENG / AHMED ABO GABAL 98

 Catalytic (Pellistor) Gas Detectors :

Working Principle: Catalytic gas detectors

determine gas concentration through
oxidization which results in heat, and this is
sensed by a bridge circuit. It follows that
catalytic gas detectors under-read in the low
oxygen atmospheres which exist with gas-
rich releases.
Set Point: Catalytic detectors have a typically
recommended minimum alarm setting of 20
% LFL and 60 % LFL to indicate a low and
high level of gas

Infrared Gas Detectors:

Working Principle: Infrared Gas Detectors make use of the property of Hydrocarbons and
other gases to absorb infrared energy at certain wavelengths but not others. For HCs the
absorption peak occurs around 3.4 µm. A reference measurement is normally made close
to the measurement wavelength that is not absorbed by expected gases. The ratio from
the two measurements gives the gas concentration free from variations in signal intensity
and detection sensitivity.
Set Point: Infra-red detectors have a typically recommended minimum alarm setting of 20
% LFL and 60 % LFL to indicate a low and high level of gas

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 Open Path (Line of Sight) Gas Detectors:
Working Principle: Open path gas detectors make use of properties of gases to absorb
infrared energy at certain wavelengths but not others. This property coupled with high
energy sources enables open path detectors to sense gas over relatively long distances.
Set Point: Open path detectors have a typically recommended minimum alarm setting of
0.5 LFL m (50 % LFL extended for one meter)

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 Toxic Gas Detectors:
Detects the concentration in ppm of Toxic gas in terms of TLV (Threshold Limit Value)
Major 2 categories are available:
 Detectors for gases which create an immediate health hazard (eg. H2S, CO, HF, HCl, Cl2)
 Detectors for gases that create a health hazard on long term exposure (eg. Vinyl
Chloride, Benzene, Toluene etc.)
H2S detectors:
The two types of H2S detectors available are:
Electro-chemical cell type:
This type is based on an electrochemical cell, developed to react exclusively to H2S. As a
result of the chemical reaction of the cell organic electrolyte with H2S, an electric current
is generated, which is proportional to the H2S concentration in the sample gas.

Semi-conductor (MOS) type:

Working principle: The semi-conductor type is based on the adsorption of H2S molecules
on the surface of a solid-state semiconductor crystal which causes a change in electrical
resistance of the electrical circuit of which the semi-conductor forms the part.
Set Point: H2S detectors have
a typically recommended
minimum alarm setting of 5
ppm. If a second stage alarm
is used, 10 ppm shall be used.

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 Fire Detectors

fire Detectors

Smoke Heat Flame

Ionization UV/IR

Photo- Spark/Ember
Electric

1. Smoke Detectors:
There are two types of smoke as mentioned above
Ionization Smoke Detector
Detection Principle:
These Detectors have an
ionization chamber with an 8
particle radiator consisting of
an Americium-241 foil at its
center and it ionizes the air
inside the chamber.
An electric voltage is applied to
the needle electrode and as a
result, a known current flows
through the detection chamber
when the detector is in its
normal state. In the event of a
fire, minute aerosol particles (soot particles, combustion gases, etc.) attach themselves to
the ionized particles. This increases the resistance in the chamber and consequently
reduces the current flow within the detection chamber. This change is registered by
Detector’s electronics and a fire signal is sent to the Control Panel.

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 Photo electric (Optical) Smoke Detector
Detection Principle:
The sensor consists of a transmitter LED and a receiver photo-diode. These two devices
are installed at a specific angle to one another and separator by a screen, so that light from
the LED cannot impinge directly on the receiver diode.
The transmitter LED emits infrared light into the detection chamber. In the event of a fire,
visible combustion products enter into the chamber and some of the light emitted by the
LED is scattered by the particles so that it impinges on the receiver diode. This naturally
increases the signal level generated by the receiver, which is registered by the detector
electronics, which in turn triggers the alarm signal.

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2. Heat Detectors:
Heat or Thermal Detectors register the increase in temperature caused by a Fire.
Fixed Temperature
It triggers automatically when a preset ambient temperature is reached.
Rate of Rise
In addition to the present trigger temperature, the rate-of-rise detectors also evaluate the
speed of temperature increase. If the temperature rises faster than the pre-set amount
within a specific period, a rate-of-rise detector will trigger an alarm even if the set point
trigger temperature has not actually been reached.
Rate Compensated
It responds when the temperature of the air surrounding the device reaches a
predetermined level, regardless of the rate of temperature rise.

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 3. Flame Detectors
 Flame detectors are typically used in open areas outdoors, but can also be used indoors
 Used to protect high risk areas such as oil rigs, fuel stores, petro-chemical plants,
hangers etc.
 They work by analyzing the energy emissions from a fire (UV or IR) not the combustion
products such as smoke and heat
 Hot objects (engines / exhausts / heaters) are potential false alarm sources, including
the Sun
 Need to distinguish between emissions from a real fire and a false alarm source
 High value detectors covering large areas
The different types of Flame detectors are:
 Ultra Violet detectors
 Single Channel IR detectors
 Combined UV and Single channel IR
 Dual Channel IR flame detectors
 Triple Channel IR flame detectors
 CCTV flame detection

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 Dust Monitors
Used to measure mass concentrations of dust, smoke, mists, and fumes in real-time,
Thermo Electron dust monitors are widely recognized for their reliability, sensitivity, and
long-term stability.
Working principle
They are light scattering photometers (i.e., nephelometers) incorporating a pulse, high
output, near-infrared light-emitting diode source, a silicon detector/hybrid preamplifier,
and collimating optics, and a source reference feedback PIN silicon detector. The intensity
of the light scattered over the forward angle of 50° to 90° by airborne particles passing
through the sensing chamber is linearly proportional to their concentration. This optical
configuration produces an optimal response to particles in the size range of 0.1 to 10.0
µm, achieving a high correlation with standard gravimetric measurements of the
respirable and thoracic fractions.

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The objective of Fire & Gas Detection system is to

1. Minimize the risk and consequences of an accidental event.

2. Minimize the potential for hazardous occurrences

3. Ensure a safe working environment for personnel

4. Ensure adequate means of escape are provided

5 Provide sufficient safety devices and redundancy to detect, isolate and minimize
uncontrolled releases of flammable and toxic liquids and gases.

6. Provide appropriate fire protection systems to rapidly bring under control and
extinguish any reasonably foreseeable fire which could develop during normal operations.

7. Minimize the potential for pollution of the environment from accidental spills, venting
or flaring of hazardous materials.

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 ⑩

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