TOPIC 9

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

9.1 Introduction

Who are you? What makes you different from others even your siblings or parents? This will
be the main concern of this topic; how we develop our uniqueness and how we are
differentiated from all other people. At what age do we become differentiated from other
people? This topic will look at what psychologists say about age and personality development.
Objectives
By the end of this topic you should be able to:

• Define personality.
• Describe the structure of personality.
• Describe the developmental path of personality.
• Explain factors influencing development of personality. Explain
some theories of personality

Personality can be defined as the various enduring and distinctive patterns of beahviour
(including thoughts and emotions) that are characteristic of a particular person. Personality
includes the behavior patterns a person shows across situations or the psychological
characteristics that lead to those behavior patterns. Personality can also be defined as the
characteristics ways in which an individual behaves and thinks in wide range of circumstances
(Armord, 2011).

It encompasses all psychological and behavioural characteristics by which each person can be
compared and contrasted with other people. Those behaviours that make each of us unique is
also personality, that leads us to act in a consistent and predictable manner both in different
situations and over extended periods of time.

9.2 Factors influencing personality development

Personality results from the interaction between heredity and environmental factors.

Genetic factors

Genetic factors determine personality characteristics. Children inherit temperaments which are
genetic predispositions to respond in particular ways to one’s physical and social environment.
Children seem to have distinct temperaments almost from birth. Researchers have identified
many temperamental styles that emerge early in life and are relatively enduring including
general activity level, adaptability, persistence, and distractibility. These temperaments are
have genetic origin.

Environmental influences

Genetic differences are only predispositions to behave in certain ways, and environmental
conditions influence children in different ways to determine the personality characteristics
which the child will manifest. Environmental factors that influence personality include:

• Parents’ behavior (e.g., parenting styles, early childhood attachment),

• Cultural expectations and Socialization. Socialization is the process of molding a
child’s behavior and beliefs to be appropriate for his or her cultural group.
• Birth order/position,
• Gender,
• Peers etc.

9.3 Theories of Personality

9.3.1 Trait Theories

Gordon Allport suggested that there are 3 basic categories of traits.

 Cardinal traits
 Central traits
 Secondary traits

A cardinal trait is a single personality trait that directs most of a person’s activities e.g. greed,
lust and kindness. They are so dominant that nearly all of the individual’s actions can be
traced back to them. Most people do not develop cardinal traits. Instead, they possess a
handful of central traits that make up the core of their personality which he called cardinal
traits.

Central traits such as honesty and sociability are the major characteristics of an individual.
They usually number from 5 to 10 in any person. Cardinal traits are those that may be
mentioned in a careful letter of recommendation or checked off on a rating scale where the
rater is asked to select outstanding characteristics of an individual.
Secondary traits are characteristics that affect behaviour in fewer situations and are less
influential than central or cardinal. For instance, a preference for ice-cream or a dislike of
modern art would be considered a secondary trait. These are temporary characteristics.
Common traits are characteristics that are found in a group of people sharing similar cultural
experiences/background.

9.3.2 Type Theories

A type is simply a class of individuals said to share a common collection of characteristics.

Eysenck, used factor analysis to identify patterns of traits and he came to a conclusion about
the nature of personality. He found that personality could be described in terms of first two
major dimensions:

i. Introversion and extraversion

ii. Neuroticism and
stability

At one extreme of the introversion, are the introverts, people who are quiet, passive and
careful, shy, withdrawn and at the other are extroverts who are outgoing, sociable, friendly,
and active. Independently of these dimensions people can be rated as neurotic or stable. Later
research on traits suggested that five broad factors lie at the core of personality. These factors
are called the big five and they include surgency, neurotism, intellect, agreeableness, and
consciousness.
Passive means careful, thoughtful, peaceful, reliable, even- tempered, and
calm.

However, people do not naturally fall into distinct personality types. An individual’s
personality can be rated anywhere within the two dimensions.

9.3.3 Type A and B Theory of Personality Behavior

People with type A behavior are intensively ambitious and competitive; they are preoccupied
with occupational deadlines and have a sense of urgency about time. They are hard driving
and achievement oriented. They work at maximum effort and try to ignore fatigue, particularly
if it will interfere with accomplishment. They are also tense, alert, short to the point etc.

Type B people are; relaxed, calm, gentle, quiet, slow, soft spoken, does not mind delay, etc.

9.3.4. Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Approach to Personality

According to Sigmund Freud, our behaviour is triggered largely by powerful unconscious

forces within our personality of which we are not aware. These hidden forces are shaped by
childhood experiences, and play an important role in energizing and directing our every day
behaviour. The unconscious mind contains instinctual drives, disguised effects of unfulfilled
wishes, sexual drives and desires, aggressive demands and needs that are hidden from
conscious awareness because of the conflicts and pain they would cause us if they were part of
our everyday lives.

Many of our life’s experiences are painful and the unconscious provides a safe store for our
recollections of such events. Uncomfortable memories can remain in our conscious without
continually disturbing us.

The Structure of Personality

To describe the source of personality, Freud discovered a comprehensive theory that held that
personality consisted of three separate but interacting components; Id, Ego and Superego.
They are not physical structures found in certain parts of the brain, instead they represent
abstract conceptions of a general model of personality that describes the interaction of various
processes and forces within one’s personality that motivate behaviour. The Id is the raw,
unorganized, inherited, and irrational part of personality present from the time of birth. The id
operates on the principle of pleasure. The sole purpose of the Id is to reduce tension created by
drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. This drives are fuelled by
psychic energy or libido as called by Freud. The aim of the Id is immediate gratification of
needs by following the pleasure principle.

The Ego (self) evolves from the Id to create ways to get what one wants in a world full of
rules, because the Ego makes compromises between the reasoning demands of the Id and the
real world. It is said to operate on the reality principle. The more experiences that people have
with the ethics and norms of society, the more they tend to adapt to them. As a result, children
learn that certain behaviours are wrong and will even scold themselves for doing bad things.
Introjection is the term used by Freud for this process of internalizing parental and societal
values into personality.

Interojected values, our ‘shoulds’ and ‘should nots’, forms the third component of personality,
the Superego. The Superego is the moral judge of personality, the conscience or the Ego
Ideal. The things people know are wrong make up the part of the Superego as the conscience.
Pressure to conform to the ‘shoulds’, the ideal behaviour that people know are right comes
from a second part of Superego known as the Ego Ideal. The Superego operates on the
morality principle since violating either category of its rules results in guilt. Unfortunately,
basic needs [Id], reason [Ego], morality [Superego] and the demands of the environment are
often at odds. This creates inner turmoil known as intrapsychic conflict or psychodynamic
conflict, which the Ego must try to resolve. Freud believed that the number, nature, and
outcome of a psychic conflict shapes each individual’s personality and determines many
aspects of life and behaviour.
Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development

Freud believed and provided us with a view of how personality is formed through a series of
stages during childhood. These are called psychosexual stages of personality development.
Each one relates to the part of the body that is the main area of pleasure at that stage, called
the erogenous zone. The failure to resolve problems and conflicts at a given stage can leave a
person fixated i.e. overly attached to or unconsciously preoccupied with the pleasure
associated with that stage.

Oral Stage (0-1 year)

A child’s first year or so is called the oral stage because the mouth is the centre of pleasure
and sexual gratification. The child’s main activity is sucking and manipulation of the lips and
mouth. Personality problems occur mainly when oral needs are either not met or are
overindulged. In the adult personality, fixation at the oral stage might result in oral
characteristics such as talking too much, over eating, smoking, alcoholism, or using biting
sarcasm. Excessive dependence on others like an infant on his mother is another possible sign
of oral fixation.

Anal Stage (1-3 years)

Usually occurs during the 2nd year, when the demand for toilet training conflicts with the
child’s instinctual pleasure in having bowel movements at will, because the centre of focus
and conflict shifts from the mouth to the anus during this period. If toilet training is too harsh
and demanding or is begun too early or too late, conflicts may arise. Followers of
psychoanalytic theory argue that unresolved conflicts from the anal stage can create an anal
personality. The adult fixated at the anal stage might symbolically withhold faeces by being
controlling, being stingy, highly organized, stubborn and perhaps excessively concerned with
cleanliness, orderliness or detailed. At the other extreme are those who expel faeces by being
sloppy and disorganized.

Phallic Stage (3 – 6 years)

At about age 3 the phallic stage begins and there is another major shift in the primary source
of pleasure for the child. This time interest focuses on the genitals and pleasure derived from
fondling them. This is the stage of one of the most important periods of personality
development according to Freud’s theory, the Oedipal Complex. As children focus their
attention on their genitals, the differences between male and female anatomy become more
salient. At this time, Freud believed that the male begins to develop sexual interests in his
mother, starts to see his father as a rival and wishes to kill his father as Oedipus did in the
ancient Greek Mythology, but because he views his father as too powerful, he develops fear of
retaliation called castration anxiety. The fear that becomes too strong that the Ego represses
the incest desires, then the boy seeks to become like or identifies with his father and in the
process begins to learn male sexual behaviours which will later help him form a sexual
relationship with a woman other than his mother.

Resolution of these conflicts is more complicated for the female child, a condition known as
the Electra complex. She begins with a strong attachment to the mother, but as she realizes
that boys have penises, and girls don’t, she begins to hate her mother perhaps blaming her for
the lack of it and considering her inferior. She experiences penis envy and transfers her love to
her father who has the sex organ she wants. But the girl mostly avoids her mother’s
disapproval. She does so by identifying with her mother by adopting female sexual behaviours
and subsequently choosing a male mate other than her father. At this point, the Oedipal and
Electra complexes are said to be resolved and psychoanalytic theory assumes that both males
and females move on to the next stage of development. If difficulties arise during this period
however, all sorts of problems are thought to occur, which include improper sexual behaviour
and the failure to develop a conscience. Following the resolution of the Oedipal and Electra
complexes, at around age 5-6, children move into the latency period which lasts until puberty.
Freud considered personality development to be completed by the time the child leaves this
stage.
Learning activities: i Why did Freud call the preschool years the
phallic stage?

ii The _________ is defined as the boy’s hate for and fear of his father and his

desire for his mother Answers:

i Because at this time the child’s interest is centered on the genital region ii
Oedipus complex

Latency Period (6-12 years)

During this stage (age 6-12) little of interest is occurring [dormancy]. Sexual concerns are
more or less put to rest in the unconscious. There is no central focus for sexual pleasure or
sensation, since libido is temporarily repressed. At this time the individual is more concerned
with the development of other aspects such as education and socialization. Sexual energy is
directed towards schoolwork, hobbies, interests, and same-sex friendships.

Genital Stage (12 years on wards)

Focus during this stage is on mature adult sexuality which Freud defined as sexual intercourse.
During adolescence, sexual feelings re-emerge marking the start of the final period i.e. the
genital stage which extends until death. This period is concerned more with the expression of
one’s sexuality with peers as well as forming and maintaining intimate sexual relationships.
The genitals are once again the focus of pleasure, this time through heterosexual mating.
Sexual interests are rewarded and there is growing capacity for mature and responsible social-
sexual behaviour.
Learning activities:

i Freud believed that children enter a _______________ period around the age of six.
ii The ____________ replaces parental authority and fear of punishment as a behaviour
control during middle childhood.

Answers:

i Sexual

latency. ii

Superego.

Defense Mechanisms

Freud used the term to refer to the process by which the ego unconsciously defends itself
against undesirable thought, feelings, impulses etc, by translating them into acceptable
material. It involves distortion of reality to shield the ego from being overwhelmed by the
anxiety arising from activities of the unconscious mind. Defense mechanisms helps in
resolving conflicting issues like anger, insecurity, depression, fear, anxiety etc. They help the
individual to get rid of unpleasant feelings. Failure to adjust properly during the various
psychosexual stages results to unpleasant emotional state for example, feeling of insecurity,
threat, anxiety, fear, etc which the individual tries to get rid of through defense mechanisms
namely:
Regression: Riverting to childhood or immature behaviour when faced with anxiety provoking
situations e.g., bed wetting at age 12, crying etc.

Repression: Anxiety provoking thought and fantasies are excluded from consciousness e.g.
trying to forget that one has lost a lover. It is unconscious burying of feelings in the
unconscious. Displacement: Feelings towards one object are shifted to another, less
threatening one e.g., when angered by husband, the wife beats the child.

Compensation: Attempting to succeed in an activity to make up for one’s failure in other

areas such as failure in games may be compensated by excessive study and vice versa.

Denial: Refusal to accept/belief in the existence of painful experience and memories e.g.,
when one is jilted or bereaved.

Projection: Attributing your painful impulses and experiences to others – blaming it on others.

Isolation: The memory of a previous experience is isolated from the emotional content
associated with that experience. Thinking about a particular experience or issue and avoiding
its emotional connection. For example, thinking about drinking or smoking while avoiding
thinking about its consequences.

Reaction Formation: Replacing unacceptable experience behaviour by adhering to its

opposite e.g., excessive cleanliness may be a reaction formation against the need to be dirty or
heterosexuality may be a reaction formation against the desire for homosexual contact.

Sublimation: Substituting undesirable behaviour to something desirable. For example,

substituting hatred for children with love and care of animals.

9.3.5. Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Personality Development (1963)

Erik Erikson mainly emphasizes social and cultural effects on the personality of an individual.
The theory holds that individuals are shaped by the interaction of physical characteristics,
personal history, and social forces. Culture plays a large part in each person’s ability to deal
with most significant tasks or crises of psychological development. In psychosocial
development, the person goes through various stages in which he/she faces specific
psychological dilemma or crisis at each particular stage of life. Resolving these crises creates
a new balance between the person and the social world. Favourable outcome results into
healthy personality. Unfavourable outcome throws one off-balance and makes it hard to deal
with later crises. A string of successes produces a healthy development and a satisfactory life.

Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development

Trust Versus Mistrust (Birth to age 1)

The infant learns either to trust or mistrust that others will care for his/her basic needs such as
nourishment, sucking, warmth, cleanliness and physical contact. A sense of trust develops
from the good care provided by others and results to an optimistic outlook to life.

Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt (age1 - 3)

Children learn to be self sufficient in many activities such as toileting, feeding, dressing,
walking, and talking or doubt their own abilities. They learn self–control during this stage. A
favourable amount of autonomy may result to self–direction and self–esteem and
independence. When children have a basic trust in their environment, they are more likely to
explore and to “move away” during the second stage of development. However, a sense of
shame and doubt may result to a person who is afraid of undertaking things.

Initiative Vs Guilt (age 3 – 6)

During this stage, children want to undertake many adult like activities, sometimes
overstepping the limits set by parents and feeling guilty. Initiative implies doing things on
their own, which teaches them to learn to be confident and purposeful in whatever they do.
The child can plan and undertake an activity. They feel guilt when they do things contrary to
expectations or when they cannot succeed.

Industry Vs Inferiority (age 7 - 11)

Children learn to be competent and productive or to feel inferior and unable to do anything
well. Children who feel inferior will fear all tasks and will withdraw their energies from the
task. Adequate handling of the stage results in a compulsion to work hard at approved tasks.
Failure to be productive leads to feeling of inferiority.
Identity Vs Role Confusion (age 11 – 18)

Adolescents are faced with the task of discovering who they are and developing an identity.
The adolescent is not sure who he/she is and what roles to play. They establish sexual, ethnic,
social, and career identities, or they are confused about what future roles to play. They
develop identity by identifying with parents, teachers, peers, etc. The ability to find/discover
an identity leads to a sense of consistency.

Some adolescents may develop what is known as a deviant identity – a life style that is at
odds with, or at least not supported by, the values and expectations of society. Research
suggests that adolescents who commit themselves to an identity early, without taking time to
explore various options and choices, may question their commitment later in life. Most
theorists believe that young people should delay making commitments to an occupation, belief
system, intimate relationship, or lifestyle until they have had an opportunity to explore
different perspectives and options. However, some adolescents are never given an
opportunity to experiment with adult roles because of family expectations or economic
necessity (Mecee, 2002). Unfortunately, some parents force adolescents to settle in careers
that they think are best for them.

Unsuccessful (or incomplete) identity formation can result in one or more of the following:

Foreclosure: a premature identity is formed where adolescent entirely accepts parental values
and never explores alternatives. It involves stopping the search before identity is developed. It
is also referred to as a premature identity. The adolescent accepts parental roles without
actually establishing his or her own (Berger & Thompson, 1991). He/she commits himself to
certain choices without exploring different possibilities.

While many adolescents master this stage by taking their parents’ values, it is important to
work through the stage and choose the roles best suited for them.

This category tends to be associated with conformity, conventionality, and obedience to

authority (Meeus et al., 1999). Youths with a foreclosed identity have a strong attachment
with their parents and they adopt their values and guidance without going through a period of
exploration. Identity foreclosure tends to be associated with high levels of psychological well-
being (Meeus et al., 1999).

Negative identity: accepts identity opposite of what they were expected to adopt. The
adolescent discovers expected parental and societal roles are impossible to attain. This results
in developing an identity opposite of parental and societal expectations (Berger & Thompson,
1991). This is similar to deviant identity discussed earlier.

Moratorium: a time of experiment with alternative identities without having to choose one
specific identity. The adolescent tries different identities. Moratoriums can benefit
adolescents living in complex societies as it allows them sufficient time to establish their own
identity.

Adolescents in moratorium are actively exploring different occupational plans, ideological

stances, and personal relationships, but they are not ready to make any choices or
commitments. They tend to score lower on measures of psychological wellbeing and higher on
measures of anxiety and conflict with parents, but they tend to be less rigid and authoritarian.
Although necessary, moratorium is close to identity crisis.

Identity diffusion: Occurs when an adolescent establishes too few goals and values for
himself or herself. These adolescents are often apathetic about trying to find an identity.

Identity achievement: describes young people who have engaged in exploration and have
definite personal, vocational, or ideological choices. These individuals tend to be high on
selfesteem, self-control, and self-direction (Marcia, 1980). They also tend to score high on
measures of academic motivation and career maturity. They score high on measures of
psychological wellbeing.
Intimacy Vs Isolation (age 18 - 35)

The major task in this stage is to establish a lasting and loving relationship with others. The
young adult must form intimate relationships with others. They seek companionship and love
with another person or become isolated from others. The individual must develop a sense of
intimacy, otherwise he/she will be doomed to a feeling of isolation even though he may marry
and become a parent. It is the time that one has to have an intimate relationship with a person
of the opposite sex, start a family, and enter a career.

Generativity Vs Stagnation (age 35 – 50)

Middle – aged adults either become productive through performing meaningful work and
raising a family or become stagnant and inactive. They work to satisfy the needs to help
others and learn to care for others by developing altruism. During this stage there occurs
midlife crisis as individuals try to evaluate their past lives and achievements. Women face an
additional crisis by entering menopause which marks the end of reproductive life, with a lot of
emotional and psychological changes.

Integrity Vs Despair (50 Years onwards)

This is a stage of reflection in which old adults try to make sense out of their lives and
achievements. They either see life as meaningful and whole, or despair at goals not reached
and questions never answered. A feeling of integrity and satisfaction results to an ability to
face death calmly and with acceptance.

Learning activities:

i According to Erikson, what kind of care is

necessary to develop a foundation for basic
trust?
ii What are the three parts of an adult
personality as proposed by Freud?

Answers:

i Consistently loving care ii The id, the

ego and the superego

Weaknesses of Erikson’s Theory

i) Concepts are difficult to define ii) Concepts are difficult to test scientifically.

iii) Stages are culturally biased toward western Europe and North America iv)

Theory is said to be gender biased because his studies were carried out on men

v) Not all cultures encourage the development of autonomy and individualism in their
young people

Strengths of Erikson’s Theory

i) Its understandability and its generality ii) His insight/ideas about identity conflicts during
adolescence have been especially helpful.

iii) Emphasis on the importance of stable and caring relationships in the early years of
development, the need for self-sufficiency and competency in middle childhood, and
search for identity of in adolescence

Summary

• Personality is the sum total of all characteristics that make one unique from all others.
• Personality mainly develops within the first six years of life according to Freud.
Freud looks at human personality development as producing a psychosexual
individual.
• Erikson looks at human personality development as producing a psychosocial
individual. Self Assessment and Revision Questions

1. What is personality?
2. How does personality become differentiated at infancy and childhood? 3. Explain the
challenges to personality development during adolescence.

4. Compare and contrast the personality theories of Freud and Erikson.

5. Describe the structure of personality according to Freud.
6. What is the role of sexuality in personality development?