HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

the functions of the cells in the human body need to be continuously regulated

however the nerve fibers of the neural system do not innervate all the body's

cells therefore the function of regulating the

body's cells is performed by the hormones secreted by the endocrine system

the endocrine system in association with the neural system functions in a coordinated way to
maintain the

physiological functions of the body both the endocrine and the nervous

systems collectively formed the neuro endocrine system of the body and the combined study of
these two systems is

called neural endocrinology did you know that endocrinology is a

branch of medicine dealing with the study of the endocrine glands and the actions of their hormones

Edison scientist is popularly known as the

father of endocrinology the human endocrine system consists of

various endocrine glands present in different parts of the body

the four brain houses the hypothalamus which is the basal part of the

diencephalon just below the hypothalamus is a small

pinkish we shaped gland called the pituitary gland

also known as the master gland of the endocrine system another gland located on the dorsal side

of the forebrain is the pineal gland which is a small

reddish gray gland shaped like a pinecone

the neck has the largest endocrine gland in the body the thyroid gland

it lies on the ventral and lateral sides of the upper part of the trachea

the thyroid gland has four p8 glands embedded wholly or partially in its

dorsal surface these glands are called the parathyroid

glands [Music] just above the heart

a soft pinkish by lobed massive lymphoid tissue is present called the thymus

gland in the loop of the duodenum is located

an elongated yellow colored gland called the pancreas the second-largest endocrine gland in

our body on the upper border of both the kidneys

like the adrenal glands which are yellowish and triangular in shape

the gonads are also end my lens in males the scrotal sac bears the
gonads which is a pair of testes in females the abdomen bears the gonads

which is a pair of ovaries

the endocrine glands pour their secretions directly into the venous blood for passage to different
body

organs to control and coordinate their functions

due to the absence of ducts the endocrine glands are also known as ductless glands and the
secretions of

these glands are called hormones hormones are non nutrient chemical

messengers secreted in trace amounts by glands or neurons

they are soluble in water and blood phones come into contact with

essentially all the cells as they circulate in the blood however each hormone usually affects

only a limited number of cells called target cells

where it regulates a definite physiological effect

they'll response to a hormone because it bears receptors for that hormone a hormone receptor is a
receptor protein

that binds to a specific hormone

these hormone receptors are found either on the surface of a cell

or within its cytoplasm vending on the type of hormone

selves that do not have receptors cannot be directly influenced by that hormone

moreover hormone secretions are induced by a stimulus and have an activating

influence on the neighboring or distant tissues the hormones are degraded by tissues and

are excreted by the liver into bile and by the kidneys into urine

also secreted by the exocrine glands such as the saliva glands

wetlands and sebaceous glands these glands

contrast two endocrine glands release their secretions through ducts and are

hence called duct glands

there are also a few glands in the human body such as the pancreas and gonads that have both
exocrine and endocrine

properties these glands are known as hetero crime glands

in these glands the exocrine part releases its secretions through ducts while the

endocrine part releases its hormones directly into the blood

in addition to these glands and organs treated by the gastrointestinal tract

liver kidneys and heart

thus the human endocrine system along with the eggs of crime and hetero crime

glands helps in the control and coordination of the body

the human endocrine system is composed of several endocrine glands in different

parts of the body the three endocrine glands in the brain are the hypothalamus pituitary and

HYPOTHALAMUS, PITUITARY AND PINEAL GLANDS

pineal glands

the hypothalamus is a part of the forebrain and appears as the floor of

the diencephalon is formed of gray matter that contains

neurosecretory cells called nuclei which produce hormones called neuro hormones

neurohormones regulate the synthesis and secretion of pituitary hormones

they are of two types releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones

the releasing hormones of the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete its
hormones

for example gonadotrophins releasing hormone stimulates the release of follicle stimulating
hormone or FSH and

luteinizing hormone or LH from the pituitary

on the other hand the inhibiting hormones of the hypothalamus stopped the anterior pituitary from
secreting

hormones for example somatostatin inhibits the release of the growth

hormone from the pituitary these hypothalamic hormones passed

through the axons and are released from their nerve endings into the pituitary and into the portal
circulatory system

this hypothalamic pituitary system is direct proof of coordination between the

hormonal and nervous systems it maintains homeostasis inside the body

and regulates most of its physiological activities

the pituitary gland which is also known as the hypothesis lies in the sella

turcica of the sphenoid bone it is attached to the hypothalamus by a stork

with usury is the smallest endocrine gland yet it is called the master of

endocrine glands because it produces hormones that control the thyroid gland the adrenal cortex
and the gonads

anatomically the pituitary is divided into the Adonal hypothesis or the

anterior pituitary and the neuro hypothesis or the posterior pituitary

the adeno hypothesis develops as an outgrowth of the ectoderm called rut

gaze pouch in the roof of the buccal cavity of the developing embryo it

includes an intermediate lobe or pars intermedia and anterior lobe or pass

dist Alice the pars intermedia atrophies during

human fetal development did you know that in humans the paws

intermedia is almost merged with the paws dis Telus

while the pasta stylist produces several important hormones such as the growth hormone or gh
prolactin or PRL thyroid

stimulating hormone or TSH adrenocorticotropic hormone or ACTH

luteinizing hormone or LH and follicle stimulating hormone or FSH

the pars intermedia secretes only one hormone called melanocytes stimulating

hormone or MSH let's learn about the various hormones

secreted by the past dis Dallas of the anterior pituitary the growth hormone or somatic traffic

hormone acts on the liver skeletal muscle cartilage bone and causes cells

to grow and multiply hypo secretion of this hormone during

the growth years or puberty causes dwarfism in which both bone and organs

failed to grow moreover body proportions become childlike

conversely hypersecretion of the growth hormone during childhood causes

gigantism which leads to an abnormal increase in the length of the bones

persons affected by gigantism have extraordinarily long limbs

such people grow very tall but their body proportions are about normal

hypersecretion of the growth hormone causes acromegaly in adults

condition is characterized by the abnormal growth of the hands feet and face especially of the lower
jaw

prolactin is known as the maternity hormone because it stimulates the development of the
mammary glands during

pregnancy and lactation after childbirth TSH stimulates the synthesis and

secretion of hormones such as thyroxine and triiodothyronine by the thyroid

gland ACTH acts on the adrenal cortex

it controls the production and secretion of steroid hormones like glucocorticoids

and the six corticoids in females LH stimulates ovulation of

the graafian follicle x' the formation of the corpus luteum and the secretion
of progesterone by the corpus luteum hypo secretion of this hormone leads to

sterility in females in males LH is known as the interstitial

cell stimulating hormone it stimulates the Leydig cells in the

testes to secrete androgens

FSH stimulates the development of several ovarian follicles in the ovaries

in males FSH and androgens stimulate spermatogenesis in the seminiferous

tubules of the testes together FSH and LH are called

gonadotrophins because their target organs are the gonads

MSH or inter Medan is the only hormone secreted by the pars intermedia and is

also known as inter Medan MSH regulates skin pigmentation by

stimulating the melanocytes neuro hypothesis develops from the

terminal region of an extra dermal outgrowth of the hypothalamus

it is also known as Paz nervosa or the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland it

is under the direct neural control of the hypothalamus it stores and releases two hormones

called oxytocin and vasopressin these hormones are actually synthesized

by the hypothalamus and are transported to the neuro hypothesis through axons

in females oxytocin enhances contraction of smooth muscle cells in the wall of

the uterus at the time of childbirth and milk ejection from the mammary glands

therefore oxytocin is known as the birth hormone and milk ejection hormone

vasopressin stimuli the kidneys to reabsorb water and electrolytes into the blood by the

distal tubules it thereby reduces the loss of water through urine

hence it is also called the antidiuretic hormone

hypersecretion of the antidiuretic hormone leads to diabetes insipidus

it is characterized by the excretion of dalia children several times a day resulting in excessive thirst
and

dehydration another endocrine gland in the brain is

the pineal gland it is a small rounded land located on

the dorsal side of the forebrain it secretes a hormone called melatonin which regulates the 24-hour
rhythm of

the body it maintains the normal rhythms of the

sleep/wake cycle body temperature etc

and also influences metabolism pigmentation the menstrual cycle and our
defense capability the endocrine glands of the brain are

very crucial in regulating mood growth and development metabolism sexual

functions and reproductive processes in the human body

sigh roid and parathyroid glands play a crucial role in various metabolic reactions taking place in the
human body

THYROID AND PARATHYROID GLANDS

in humans the thyroid gland is a median endocrine

gland located in the neck between the trachea and larynx

it has two lobes interconnected by a transverse non glandular connective tissue called the Isthmus
which is

h-shaped the thyroid gland is the largest

endocrine gland and it weighs 25 grams

the size of the thyroid gland varies with differences in diet age and sexual

development the thyroid gland is made up of

follicles and stromal tissues further each steroid follicle is composed of

cuboidal follicular cells that enclose a cavity

the thyroid follicular cells produce two hormones namely

triiodothyronine or t3 tetra iota Phi Ronan both I Roxon 44

the para follicular cells scattered between the follicles and the stroma produce Thyra calcitonin or
TCT

the synthesis and secretion of t3 and t4 hormones is regulated by the thyroid

stimulating hormone or TSH produced by the anterior pituitary gland

sigh roid hormones helped regulate tissue growth and development

they support the formation of red blood cells

and control the metabolism of proteins carbohydrates and fats

sigh right hormones also maintain the water and electrolyte balance and regulate the basal
metabolic rate

to ensure a normal rate of synthesis of these thyroid hormones the presence of iodine in one's diet is

a must deficiency of iodine in our diet can

lead to hypothyroidism which causes simple or colloid Gotha

it is characterized by the enlargement of the thyroid gland

vojta is a non genetic disease commonly found in people in hilly regions

to prevent goiter table salt is iodized to these days

in pregnant women hyperthyroidism can lead to defective development of the

growing fetus this results in stunted growth in children and leads to a disease called

ism presen ISM is characterized by mental

retardation [Music] at normal skin deafness

mutism a low intelligence quotient [Music]

reagent chest and refueling tongue

Britain ISM can be congenital that is the absence of a thyroid gland due to a

genetic defect it can also be endemic or caused due to the absence of iodine in the diet in a

particular geographical area in adult women hypothyroidism may cause

the menstrual cycle to become irregular

sometimes there is hypersecretion of thyroid hormones due to cancer or development of

nodules in the thyroid glands

this hypersecretion of thyroid hormones leads to a medical condition called hyperthyroidism

hyperthyroidism causes Graves disease or exothermic goiter in adults

it is characterized by an enlarged thyroid gland protrusion of the eyeballs

increased BMR physical and mental restlessness and insomnia

creation of Thoreau calcitonin causes osteoporosis

it is characterized by increasing calcium deposition in the bones

this results in decreased reabsorption of calcium from the urine thereby

increasing the excretion of calcium thus it prevents hypercalcemia

let's study about parathyroid glands now in humans there are two pairs of

parathyroid glands which are partially embedded in the thyroid lobes dorsally

they are small pea-sized glands two of them present on each side of the thyroid

lobes endocrine cells of these glands are known as chief cells

they secrete a peptide hormone called parathyroid hormone or PTH

it is also known as marathon moon or collapse hormone

the circulating levels of calcium ions regulate the secretion of parathyroid hormone

parathyroid hormone increases the activity of osteoclasts

this results in elevated bone resorption which releases ionic calcium and

phosphates into the blood parathyroid hormone also slows the loss
of calcium and magnesium and increases the loss of phosphates in urine

it's retards bone dissolution and stimulates the excretion of calcium in the urine

moreover it stimulates the reabsorption of calcium by the renal tubules and

increases calcium absorption from digested food

pens parathyroid hormone is known as a

hypocalcemic hormone as it increases the level of calcium in the blood

along with TCT it plays a significant role in balancing

calcium in the body hypo secretion of the parathyroid

hormone causes a medical condition called nano thyroid tetany

it is characterized by muscle spasms twitching contraction of the muscles of

the face hands feet etc

on the other hand hypersecretion of the parathyroid hormone causes a skeletal disorder

called Asti titus fibrosis cystic a'

this disorder replaces normal bones with cysts and fibrous tissues

and it causes the destruction of bones also known as osteoporosis

increased levels of calcium are deposited in various parts of the body

which brings about classification of soft tissues

hypersecretion of parathyroid hormone also produces stones in the kidneys and

Doritos causing renal inefficiency

therefore the proper secretion of hormones from the thyroid and parathyroid glands is essential for
the

smooth functioning of the human body the thymus gland is a lobular lymphoid

HORMONE SECRETING GLANDS AND TISSUES

organ situated on the dorsal side of the heart and the aorta

the gland plays a vital role in the development of the immune system it is

active in young individuals but degenerates gradually resulting in weak immune responses in old
individuals

the thymus gland secretes a peptide hormone called dye motion

that plays a vital role in the differentiation of T lymphocytes which provides cell mediated immunity

my motions also help in the production of antibodies that provide humoral immunity

another important hormone secreting gland is the adrenal gland these

yellowish triangular-shaped glands are also called suprarenal glands because

they are situated on the top of the anterior part of the kidneys

each adrenal gland is formed of two types of tissues the outer adrenal

cortex and the inner or central adrenal medulla

the adrenal cortex is formed of three layers of cells called zona glomerulosa

which is the outer layer zona fasciculata

the middle layer and zona reticularis the inner layer

the adrenal cortex secretes many hormones called corticoids

based on their functions these corticoids are differentiated as

mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids

the primary function of mineralocorticoids is to regulate the balance of water and electrolytes in our

body the primary mineralocorticoid is

aldosterone which is a steroid hormone

aldosterone acts on the renal tubules of the kidneys and stimulates the reabsorption of sodium and
water and the

removal of potassium and phosphate ions aldosterone also helps to maintain the

body's fluid volume electrolytes osmotic pressure and blood pressure

the glucocorticoids secreted by the adrenal cortex are involved in carbohydrate metabolism

function of glucocorticoids is to stimulate gluconeogenesis lipolysis and

proteolysis

it also inhibits the utilization of amino acids and cellular uptake

glucocorticoids include cortisol Corazon and corticosteroid hormones

of these cortisol is the main glucocorticoid

Corozal provides anti-inflammatory reactions and also helps to maintain the

cardiovascular system and the functions of the kidneys

moreover cortisol stimulates RBC production and suppresses the immune

response [Music] apart from mineralocorticoids and

glucocorticoids the adrenal cortex also secretes small amounts of the androgenic

hormone testosterone which is a male hormone

testosterone stimulates the development of secondary sexual character such as

eggs eel hair pubic hair facial hair and deepening of the voice

like the adrenal cortex the adrenal medulla which forms the central part of
the gland also secretes hormones

adrenaline or epinephrine and noradrenaline or norepinephrine are the

two main hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla these hormones are the mean hormones and

are derivatives of catechol and are collectively called catecholamines

these hormones increase the strength of heart contractions heartbeat and the

rate of respiration they also increase alertness sweating

and papillary dilation

moreover catecholamines cause below erection

ethically means also stimulate the breakdown of glycogen proteins and

lipids

in short and Acala means are rapidly secreted in response to stress and

emergency situations and are thus also called emergency hormones or hormones of

fight or flight in fact the adrenal glands are also

known as 3f glands where the three FS stand for fright

fight and flight these glands are also called

glands where the four SS stand for sugar metabolism salt metabolism sex hormones

and source of energy

apart from the adrenal and thyroid glands there are certain tissues in our

body that secrete hormones

these tissues are present in the heart kidneys and gastrointestinal tract and

they are not categorized as endocrine glands

in the heart the atrial wall secretes a peptide hormone called atrial

natriuretic factor or ANF which helps to decrease blood pressure

when that pressure increases enf is secreted

this dilates the blood vessels we're by reducing blood pressure

the juxtaglomerular cells present in the kidneys produce a hormone called erythropoietin

that stimulates the formation of erythrocytes or red blood corpuscles this formation of erythrocytes
is known

as erythropoiesis the gastrointestinal tract secretes four

major peptide hormones namely gastrin secreting

cholecystokinin or CCK and gastric inhibitory peptide or GIP

gastrin is secreted by the gastrin cells of the stomach the gastric glands of the stomach wall

and stimulates the secretion of pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid

secretin is secreted by the duodenal wall it stimulates the eggs of crying

region of the pancreas to secrete water and bicarbonate ions into the duodenum through the
pancreatic duct

cholecystokinin is secreted by the small intestine and stimulates the pancreas and gallbladder to
secrete pancreatic

enzymes and bio juice respectively which helps in the digestion of food

gastric inhibitory peptide or GIP is also secreted by the small intestine

and inhibits gastric secretion and motility

there are also several other non tissues that secrete hormones called growth factors

such as angiogenic and vascular endothelial growth factors or VEGF

responsible for the repair or regeneration of tissues and their normal growth

the thymus and adrenal glands along with other tissues secrete several hormones

which traveled through the bloodstream and coordinate and control the activity

of target organs the human body has both endocrine and

HETEROCRINE GLANDS

exocrine glands however it also has a few glands that are both

endocrine and exocrine such glands are called hetero crying or

composite glands for example the pancreas des teas and ovaries

the pancreas is an elongated yellow colored gland located in the loop of the duodenum the
endocrine part of the

pancreas is formed of about one or two million epithelial cell groups called the islets

of Langerhans as the name suggests

it was discovered by lye hands in 1869

the islet of Langerhans comprises different types of cells

let's secrete hormones four cells or Aqsa fills beta cells

cells and F cells alpha cells secrete the hormone glucagon

while the beta-cells see insulin hormone

Delta cells secrete the hormone somatostatin

whereas f cells secrete the pancreatic polypeptide hormone

beuker gun secreted by the alpha cells is a peptide hormone as well as a

hypoglycemic or diabetic Anik hormone its target organs are the hepatocytes

liver cells and adipose tissue the secretion of glucagon by the alpha

cells is stimulated by low blood glucose levels the glucose level in the blood is

increased by glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

as well as by inhibiting the conversion of glucose into lactic acid

the breakdown of glycogen into glucose in the liver is known as glycogenolysis

whereas the male and female primary sex organs

teas and ovaries are other examples of hetero crime glens

we are also known as the gonads the exocrine part of these gonads

produces gametes while the endocrine part secretes hormones

a pair of testes is present in the scrotal sac of males

it is formed of interstitial cells or Ladak cells that lie between sperm

producing seminiferous tubules the interstitial cells stimulating

hormone or ICS H of the anterior pituitary stimulates the testes to

secrete androgens the male sex hormones

there are four main types of antigens

testosterone and roster on

Eppie Andrew stone and dehydroepiandrosterone [Music]

oh these desta stirone is the main androgen and is a steroid hormone

controls the growth and development of the male secondary sex organs such as the epididymis

less difference prostate gland

seminal vesicles urethra and penis

apart from the development of statistics such as a beard

moustaches deepening of the voice

broadening of the shoulders increased height and aggressiveness

desta stirone also stimulates Genisys

that is the formation of spermatozoa

moreover it acts on the central nervous system to influence male sexual behavior

or libido produces anabolic effects on protein and

carbohydrate metabolism like males

females also have a pair of gonads called ovaries that service both primary
sex organs and endocrine glands the ovaries are located in the abdomen

each ovary is composed of ovarian follicles and stromal tissues

each ovary secretes two types of steroid hormones estrogen and progesterone

estrogen is produced and secreted by growing ovarian follicles

several important functions for example

it stimulates the growth and functioning of the female secondary sex organs such as the fallopian
tubes

uterus vagina etc

each ovary also produces one ovum during each menstrual cycle

after ovulation the ruptured follicle converts into a yellow colored structure called the

corpus luteum which secretes the hormone progesterone

progesterone secretion is stimulated by the luteinizing hormone of the anterior

pituitary gland progesterone is also known as the pregnancy hormone

it stimulates the proliferation of the endometrium of the uterus and prepares it for implantation
moreover

it helps in placenta formation and the development of the fetus in the uterus

Jeron also acts on the mammary glands and stimulates the formation of alveoli

which store milk pens

all three hetero crime glands Chris

des T's and [Music] secrete hormones

sniff account for the human body every hormone has certain effects on the

MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION

target tissues attacks on based on their chemical nature hormones

are divided into groups such as protein hormones steroids iota thyrion-- ins and

amino acid derivatives while insulin glucagon pituitary

hormones without make hormones etc are examples of protein hormones

cortisol testosterone dial and progesterone belong to a group

called steroids tyroid hormones are iota thyrion-- ins

whereas epinephrine is an example of an amino acid derivative

hormones act on target organs by binding to specific proteins called hormone

receptors the receptors are located in target cells and each receptor is specific to

one hormone only to enter the target cells hormones need

to bind to the by lipid layer of the plasma membrane

on the basis of their solubility hormones can either bind to plasma membrane receptors called
extracellular

receptors or receptors present within the cell called intracellular receptors

non-steroid hormones such as protein and amino acid derivative hormones

they are unable to enter that it sells through the bilipid layer of the plasma membrane

therefore such hormones bind to extracellular receptors forming a

hormone receptor complex this complex in turn generates second

messengers such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate inositol triphosphate

gasps ooh Mayans etc these messengers bring about certain

biochemical changes in the target tissue and regulate the cellular metabolism

in contrast to non steroid hormones steroid and thyroid hormones are lipid

soluble they can therefore enter the target

cells through the bilipid layer of the plasma membrane by binding to intracellular receptors in

the cytoplasm or nucleus to form a hormone receptor complex

this hormone receptor complex in turn binds to a specific part of the DNA

to regulate the synthesis of proteins called gene expression

these biochemical actions result in an overall physiological and developmental

change in the target cell therefore hormones act on their target

cells by binding to two types of hormone receptors