GST 101

USE OF ENGLISH I

NOTES
Course Outline

Week 1 – Orientation
Week 2 – Spoken English
Week 3 – Parts of speech
Week 4 – Parts of speech
Week 5 – Parts of speech
Week 6 – Spoken English
Week 7 – Spoken English
Week 8 – Introduction to creative writing
Week 9 – Concord, collocation and common errors for good communication and
editorial work
Week 10 – Concord, collocation and common errors for good communication and
editorial work
Week 11 – Formal letter writing for businesses and organisations: application,
business communication etc.
Week 12 – Revision
Week 13 – Examination
Literary Texts: (Prose: Short Story) “Civil Peace” by Chinua Achebe and “The
Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin; (Poems) ‘The Road not Taken’ by Robert Frost

WEEK ONE

SPOKEN ENGLISH – INTRODUCTION TO PHONETIC SOUNDS (CONSONANTS AND VOWELS)

Introduction

When people learn a language, there are basically four language skills that they need for
complete communication. This will help them to develop good level of competence and
proficiency in that language for effective communication to be achieved. Thus, when we learn
our native language, we learn it in stages, first to listen, then to speak, to read and finally to
write. This is known as “language skills.” The four language skills are grouped into two;
Listening and reading is known as “Reception skills” while speaking and writing is called
production skills.
Spoken English Development

The target and purpose teaching spoken English is to help the students to develop oral skills,
especially the standard RP pronunciation, with a view to improving the student’s academic
presentations. Therefore, this topic will introduce the students to the sound system of English
language which includes the practical skills on the correct pronunciation of consonants and
vowels sounds of English words. It will also highlight the stress pattern and intonation of English
words.

Consonant Sounds

English consonant sounds are studied according to place of articulation and manner of
articulation.

What is Place of Articulation

When we describe consonant production and place of articulation in phonetics, we think about
the place in the vocal tract where there is maximum constriction to airflow.

➢ Place of articulation means the place in the vocal tract where there is the most constriction of
airflow when a particular consonant is produced.
 ➢The place of articulation is normally named after the passive articulator involved in the
pronunciation of a particular consonant.

➢ According to place of articulation, consonants are divided thus: ✓ Bilabial ✓ Labiodental ✓

Dental ✓ Alveoar ✓ Palato-alveolar ✓ Palatal ✓ Velar ✓ Glottal

➢ It is important to remember that the place of articulation is normally named after the passive
articulator involved in the pronunciation of a particular consonant. For example, in the
production of consonant /t/, the tip of tongue touches the alveolar ridge. Thus, the alveolar ridge
is the passive articulator, thereby making the place of articulation for /t/ as ‘alveolar’.

1. According to Place of Articulation, Consonants are Classified thus:

a. Bilabial – The place of articulation of bilabial sounds is two lips. For example, sounds such as
/p/ in pie, and /b/ in bus are bilabial as the lips come together in the production of these sounds.
Position of lips in the bilabial sounds /p/ in pie, and /b/ in bus, /m/ in man, /w/ in warn

b. Labiodental – In the production of these sounds, the lower lip is raised towards the upper
front teeth. For instance, sound /f/ in fish and /v/ in van

c. Dental – These sounds are produced by the tip of the tongue touching the upper front teeth
with the tip of tongue. For example, /ө/ in think, thing, and /ð/ in this /those.

d. Alveolar – These sounds are produced by raising the tip of tongue towards the teeth ridge
behind the upper front teeth (which is called the alveolar ridge). For example, /t/ in teen, and /d/
in dog/dirt, /s/ in state/slang, /z/ in zero/zenith, /n/ in nurse/nose and /l/ in letter/learn,

e. Palato- alveolar – These sounds are produced by raising the blade of the tongue towards the
part of the roof of the mouth that lies just behind the alveolar ridge. For instance, / ꭍ/ in
shine/shoe, /ʒ/ in measure/pressure, /tꭍ/ in church/chain, /dʒ/ in judge/bridge, /r/ in rain/run etc.

f. Palatal – The palatal sound is produced by raising the front part of the tongue towards the hard
palate (which is the hard part of the roof of mouth). For instance, in palatal sound /j/ in pew,
view, etc.
g. Velar – The velar sound is produced by raising the back of the tongue toward the soft palate
(which is the soft part of the roof of the mouth that lies behind the hard palate). For instance, /k/
in cool, cut; /g/ in good, gain, /ꬼ/ in sing, tongue etc.

h. Glottal – A glottal sound is produced at the glottis. For instance, /h/ in head, hot. The Position
of vocal cords is wide open in the articulation of /h/ as in hand, hat

Manner of Articulation of consonant sounds

The manner of articulation is the way the airstream is affected as it flows from the lungs and out
the nose and mouth.

Looking at these sounds from a different perspective will help you develop your physical
awareness of them. Make sure to try these movements out loud to yourself to really feel them.

Nasal -Nasal consonants are created when you completely block air flow through your mouth
and let the air pass through your nose.

There are three nasal consonants in English.

 /m/ – “mad” and “clam” – oral passage is blocked by closing the lips (bilabial).
 /n/ – “no” and “man ‘– oral passage is blocked by pressing tongue tip against the alveolar
ridge (alveolar).
 /ŋ/ – “going” and “funk” – Oral passage is blocked by pressing the back of your tongue
against the soft palate (velar).

Stop/plosive – there are 6 plosive/stop consonants. Like nasal consonants, stop consonants
occur when the vocal tract is closed completely. But for stops the airflow is NOT redirected
through the nose. Instead, the air quickly builds up pressure behind the articulators and then
releases in a burst.

English contains the following stop/plosive consonants.

 /p/ – purse and rap – oral passage is blocked by closing the lips (bilabial).
  /b/ – “back” and “cab” – oral passage is blocked by closing the lips (bilabial).
 /t/ – “tab” and “rat” – oral passage is blocked by pressing the tongue tip against the
alveolar ridge (alveolar)
 /d/ – “dip” and “bad” – oral passage is blocked by pressing the tongue tip against the
alveolar ridge (alveolar)
 /k/ – “kite” and “back” – block airflow with the back of the tongue against the soft palate
(velar).
 /g/ – “good” and “bug” – block airflow with the back of the tongue against the soft palate
(velar).

Fricative -While nasal and stop consonants involve a complete blockage of the vocal tract,
fricative sounds involve only a partial blockage of the vocal tract so that air has to be forced
through a narrow channel. The vocal tract is so narrowed that the airstream has to pass through it
with friction and a hissing sound. There are nine (9) fricatives in English phonetic sound;

For example, you create a /t/ stop consonant when you block airflow completely with your
tongue against the alveolar ridge. But if you let up with the tongue a bit and let the air seep
through, you make an /s/ fricative consonant.

The English fricative sounds are as follows:

 /f/ – “fro” and “calf “- air is forced through the upper teeth and lower lip (labiodental)
 /v/ – “vine” and “have” – air is forced through the upper teeth and lower lip (labiodental)
 /θ/ – “thick” and “bath” – air is forced through upper teeth and tongue (dental)
 /ð/ – “the” and “rather” – air is forced through upper teeth and tongue (dental)
 /s/ – “suit” and “bus” – air is forced through tongue and alveolar ridge (alveolar)
 /z/ – “zit” and “jazz” – air is forced through tongue and alveolar ridge (alveolar)
 /ʃ/ – “shot” and “brash” – air is forced through the tongue and point just beyond alveolar
ridge (post-alveolar)
 /ʒ/ – “vision” and “measure” – air is forced through the tongue and point just beyond
alveolar ridge (post-alveolar)
  /h/ – “happy” and “hope” – actually /h/ isn’t a fricative. It’s technically not even a real
consonant sound since there’s no constriction/obstruction of airflow.

Affricate -When stop consonants mix with fricative consonants, the result is
an affricate consonant. Affricate consonants start as stop sounds with air building up behind an
articulator which then releases through a narrow channel as a fricative. English has two (2)
affricate consonants.

The English affricate sounds are:

 /tʃ/ – “chick” and “match” – air is blocked with tongue just beyond the alveolar ridge
(post-alveolar), then released as a fricative.
 /dʒ/ – “jam” and “badge” – air is blocked with tongue just beyond the alveolar ridge
(post-alveolar), then released as a fricative.

Approximant/Glides - Approximants are when two articulators come close together but not
quite close enough to create air turbulence. The resulting sound is more like a fast vowel than
anything else. For example, the /w/ approximant is like a fast /u/ sound (say /u/ + /aɪ/ really fast
and you get the word “why”. Notice how your tongue never actually comes in contact with the
top of your mouth.

There are three English approximants:

 /w/ – “wet” and “howard” – back of tongue raises to velum (but not too close!) and lips
are rounded (velar)
 /j/ – “yes” and “bayou” – tongue raises to hard palate (but not too close!) (palatal)
 /r/ – “right” and “roar” – tongue raises to hard palate (but not too close) (alveolar/post-
alveolar)

Lateral/liquid - Lateral consonants occur when the tongue blocks the middle of your mouth so
that air has to pass around the sides.

There is one lateral consonant in English

  /l/ – “luck”- place the tip of the tongue at the alveolar ridge (alveolar)

English Language consonant chart

The chart above describes the place of articulation and the manner of articulation. The place of
articulation is located on the top of the chart labelled place of articulation while the manner of
articulation of sounds is show on the left-hand side. The second chart show the consonants and
vowels.

The English Language Vowels sounds.

The discussion above centred on the consonant sounds and how they are produced mostly
through closure or obstruction in the vocal tract. The vowel sounds are produced with somehow
free flow of air. The vowels are all voiced. In the description of vowel sounds, we consider the
way in which the tongue influences the shape of the mouth through which the airflow must pass.

The place of articulation would be the space inside the mouth as having a front versus a back and
a high versus a low area. Some sounds are produced with the “high, front” vowels because the
sound is made with the front part of the tongue in a raised position.
On the other hand, some vowels are produced with the tongue in a lower position and the sound
is described as a “low, back vowel.

The vowel phonemes are classified into major areas:

Monotones or pure vowels, and Diphthongs

1. Monophthongs: A monophthong is a vowel sound with a single nucleus and it is

represented

by a symbol. They are also referred to as pure vowels. Below are phonetic symbols of

monophthongs and examples of words in which they occur:

Monophthongs Examples
/i:/ sea, sheep, peak, deceive, tree, free (long vowel)
/i/ pit, sit, merit, pocket, colony, coffee (short vowel)
/e/ bed, head, many, dress, said, tense. (short vowel)
/æ/ acid, act, bag, pack, sack, back (short vowel)
/a:/ answer, pass, march, plait, heart. (long vowel)
/ͻ/ odd, office, cot, pot, melody, hostel. (short vowel)
/ͻ:/ court, caught, wont, record. (long vowel)
/u/ put, cook, would, full, took, wood.
/u:/ food, moon, spoon, soup, woo, blue.
/٨/ under, umbrella, cup, cut, son, come
/ᴈ:/ word, world, mercy, verse, first.
/ә/ above, across, admit, better, teacher, colour.

A. LONG VOWELS:
1. /i:/: see, heed, bead, meal, wheel, key, bee, preach, reach, eerie, feature, cream
2. /u:/: boom, wound, tomb, loom, moon, youth, woo, rude, suit, zoo, who,
3. /a:/: heart, car, star, market, mar, lark,
4. /ᴐ:/: port, core, sore, raw, gore, gory, bore,
5. /з:/: girl, purpose, nerve, word, earn, learn, concern

B. SHORT VOWELS:
6. /i/: sit, bucket, pit, list, lit, bit, dig, thin
7. /e/: egg, mend, den, said, when, hen, generation
8. /æ/: hand, man, land, band, bag, thank, wad
9. /ᴐ/: pot, cot, rot, bond, song, long
10. /u/: push, put, pull, full, bush, bull
11. /Λ/: cup, enough, love, flood, money, sum
12. /ә/: ago, about, father, akin, mother, pepper, paper

THE DIPHTHONGS
2. Diphthongs:
Diphthongs are vowels with double sounds. Their productions involve glides from one vowel to
another. A diphthong is one indivisible vowel sound that consists of two parts. The first part is
the main strong component (the nucleus); the second part is short and weak (the glide). A
diphthong is always stressed on its first component: [au], [ou]. A diphthong forms one syllable.
Below are phonetic symbols of English vowels and examples of words in
which they occur:

13. /ai/: site, sight, sigh, ice, eye, lie, guy, buy, why
14. /ei/: bake, baby, lady, say, may, case, brake, day
15. /әu/: go, so, road, soap, bold, load, moan, bone
16. /uә/: poor, sure, door, roar, sour, pure
17. /ᴐi/: boy, coil, coy soy, soil, boil, oil
18. /iә/: here, where, tear (noun) bear (noun)
19. /eә/: bear (verb) fair. Fare, were, rare
20. /au/: how, bow, cow, sound, down

PARTS OF SPEECH

What is a Part of Speech/word class?

We can categorize English words into 9 basic types called "parts of speech" or "word classes".
It's quite important to recognize parts of speech. This helps you to analyze sentences and
understand them. It also helps you to construct good sentences. The word class is divided into
major and minor parts. The major part/content words/open cases include, Noun, verb, adjective,
adverb while the minor part/functional/closed cases include, pronoun, preposition, conjunction
and interjection.

Noun- This names person, place, things or ideas – John, Onitsha, Iroko tree, and Courage

Pronoun- this is used in place of a noun in a sentence – he, she, they, I, who, you, anybody etc

Verb- Performs the action in a sentence and also serves as a help to show the state of being of a
sentence- jump, cry, dance, walk, drive (action verbs) is, was, could, would, should etc (auxiliary
and modal verbs)

Adjectives- This describes and qualifies the noun and pronoun in a sentence. It tells us which
one, how much, what kind about the object of a sentence – cold, excited, courageous, ugly,
splendid etc
Adverb – this equally describes and modifies verbs, adjectives and tell us more about the
adverbs itself… it uses, when, where, how and why to explain an event – Joyously, often,
sometimes, shortly, fast, readily, promptly, last year etc.

Prepositions – It shows the relationship between a noun, pronoun and other words in a sentence
– over, under, above, by, for, close to apart from, behind etc.

Conjunction- they help us to join words, phrases, clauses and sentences. Some perform the
function of coordinating, subordinating or correlating in a sentence –and, but, yet, with, so, or etc

Interjection – these words are used to express surprises and emotions. They can stand on their
own or be in a sentence – waow, ah! Ouch! My goodness! Whoops! Etc

NOUN AND TYPES OF NOUNS

Nouns are very important in English language for the formation of sentences. Nouns give name
to persons, places, things and ideas. There are several different types of nouns;

Concrete Nouns- This noun tell us about the people, places or things we can experience using
our five sense organs of touch, sight, taste, hear and smell. They are tangible and can be assigned
singular and plural markers. Examples – James, goat, book, brother, house etc.

Concrete noun is divided into common and proper nouns.

Common nouns- These names places and thing within the environment- woman, car, building,
dog etc. one is not obliged to start the word with a capital letter.

Proper noun- This is the noun that refer to specific things, persons, organisation, corporation,
place and team. The first letter of a proper noun must be written in capital letter. Example- John,
Godfrey Okoye University, Emene, Anammco, Nipost, Minna etc

Abstract noun- This refers to fluid or abstract objects like ideas, thoughts, emotions, concepts
which cannot be seen, felt or touched. It also included qualities we cannot taste, feel, see or
smell. Example- Love, fear, sadness, sympathy, hate, freedom etc.

Collective nouns- this is a specific group of nouns that refer to groups that are made up of more
than one individual or items. They are used to name groups –examples- tribe, family, soldier,
class, team, flock, herd, forest etc
Compound nouns- This is a combination of noun and adjective, or noun and another noun or
adjective and noun to make up a phrase word. This can be done in three ways –

Open and spaced => bus stop, washing machine, soldier camp etc

Hyphenated => father-in-law, up-to-date, long-term, non-toxic etc.

Non-hyphenated => toothpaste, blackboard, airport, cupboard, paycheque etc.

Possessive noun- this is a noun that name who or what owns or possesses something. Example

Regular nouns=> Martha’s book, the lecturer’s office, the soldier’s barrack etc

Countable nouns=> these are nouns that can be numbered and counted. It can take singular and
plural forms – example- Animals, houses, cars, flowers, toys etc

Uncountable noun=> this cannot be numbered. It cannot accept plural markers- examples,
furniture, water, rain, stress, music, love, sand etc

Functions of a noun

Nouns phrases as subjects, objects, and complements

Noun phrases can be used in sentences as a subject, object, or complement. The individual
sentence will determine how the noun phrase is used. Here are some examples of noun phrases
being used as subjects, objects, and complements.

Subject
The subject of a sentence is the noun or noun phrase that is doing the action of the verb:
• “The green bowling ball rolled down the lane.”

Object
Objects are the noun or noun phrase that receives the action of the verb. They are the things that
something happens to, as opposed to the things causing the action:
• “He rolled the green bowling ball down the lane.”

Complement
Complements are words or phrases that are necessary to make the sentence’s subject or predicate
complete. Subject complements are words that follow a linking verb and describe the subject of
the sentence. Object complements are words that modify the direct or indirect object of the verb.
Here are examples of both:

Subject Complement
• “He was a man who owned green bowling balls.” (The noun phrase follows the linking verb
was and modifies the subject he.)

Object Complement
• “He painted the bowling ball a greenish color.” (The noun phrase follows and modifies the
direct object bowling ball.)
• “The club elected the man their president.” (The noun phrase follows and modifies the direct
object the man.)

Functions of Nouns
 As subject of a verb: Luke is a handsome man. The students have all resumed. Godfrey
Okoye University is at Thinkers Corner, Enugu. The underlined nouns/noun phrases are
all subjects of verbs in their respective sentences. As subject, the nouns answer the
question of ‘who/what.’
 As object of a transitive verb: Chuks married Jane. Calistus drank a bottle of beer. Do you
know his name? The nouns/noun phrases underlined are objects of their sentence. They
all answer the 'whom/what.’ A noun also functions as an indirect object of a verb; in such
case, we can have: He did his friend a great service. My Daddy bought Johnson a pair of
shoes.
 As subject and object complement: A complement is a word or a group of words which
is used to complete the meaning of a sentence. It always follows linking verbs like the
verb 'to be', seem, appear, look, and such verbs as make, appoint, elect, nominate etc.
Examples: Chisom is a dancer. We appointed Udoka the secretary. In the first case, we
have noun as a subject complement; in the second, it is the object complement. *Note
that a complement differs from object. When we talk of complement, we are referring to
 the same person/thing; hence it is said that a complement is another name for the subject
or object. But in object, we are referring to two distinct persons or things. Refer to the
examples above for clarification.
 As object of a preposition: Every noun that comes after a preposition is the object of the
preposition, in that preposition governs nouns in the objective case. Examples: He
jumped across the fence. Uche kicked the ball over the net.
 As apposition: An apposition is a nominal which describes another noun. A noun can be
in opposition to the subject or object, as can be respectively seen in the following
examples: Jide, the coordinator, just arrived; We met Hon. Ifeanyi Ugwuanyi, the
Governor of Enugu state. *Note that an opposition is usually marked off with a comma.
 As adjective: In this case, a noun is used to give more information about another noun in
the sentence; hence it is adjectival in function. For instance, His father is a night
watchman. The students will be leaving for Christmas holiday.

PRONOUN AND TYPES OF PRONOUNS

Pronouns are words that replace noun in a sentence.

 Indefinite pronoun – This is a word that gives indefinite information about the subject
of a sentence. It does not name a particular person rather uses a generalized indefinite
word. Example- one, other, none, some, anybody, everybody and no one
 Personal pronouns are used to refer to a person. Example – we, he, she, they, you, it, us,
etc
 Impersonal pronoun- this is used to talk about things example – it, who, Which etc
 Relative pronoun – this is used to connect relative clauses. It sometimes, gives and
additional information about something mentioned earlier - Examples, that, what, which,
who, and whom. In relative pronoun, who refers to persons while which is used for
animals or things. It is also used to introduce a relative or dependent clause in a sentence,
example whom, who, whoever etc
 Demonstrative pronouns – This takes the position of a noun or noun phrase in a
sentence. Examples – that, this, these, those etc
  Reflexive pronoun – this is used to refer back to the subject of a sentence. It is used
when the subject and object of a verb refers to the same person or thing- myself, yourself,
themselves etc
 Possessive pronoun –This is used to show that something belongs to an antecedent- my,
your, his, her, our, their, its and whose. The absolute possessive pronoun can be used to
substitute for the things that belong to the antecedent. They include; mine, yours, hers,
his, ours, and theirs.
 Interrogative pronouns- this is used to ask questions- who, what, which and whose
 Distributive pronoun – This is a word that refers to one thing at a time, example one,
each,
 Emphatic pronoun – It is used to give emphasise in a sentence – example she herself, he
himself, they themselves etc.
 Compound relative pronoun- it is formed by adding ‘ever’ to the relative pronoun
example – whosoever, whomsoever, whatsoever.

VERBS AND TYPES OF VERBS

A verb is word which shows an action an event or a state. It is classified into two major parts –
main verb and a helping verb. A sentence can have both or either of it depending on what the
speaker wishes to express. Other types of verbs include, linking verbs, modal verbs, helping
verbs, transitive and intransitive verbs etc

Main/action verbs – this is used to express action of a person or something that an animal or
other things does. Examples; sing, jump, drive, run, cook, wash etc.

Auxiliary/Helping verbs – they support the main verb in a sentence. An auxiliary verb (also
known as a helping verb) determines the mood or tense of another verb in a phrase. In the
sentence, "It will rain tonight," for example, the verb "will" help the verb "rain" by explaining
that the action will take place in the future. The primary auxiliaries are the various forms of be,
have, and do. The modal auxiliaries include can, could, may, must, should, will, and would etc

Transitive verbs - this expresses an action that is directed towards a person, place or thing. The
action in transitive verbs goes from the subject/performer of the action to the receiver of the
action which is the object. Example;
  Jerry bought a food flask for his father
 The teacher gave award to the girls

Intransitive verbs – These are verbs that do not need an object to complete the sentence.
Intransitive verbs tell us about the subject without the action passing to an object. Intransitive
verbs can stand its self and make a complete meaning. Example;

 Juliet cooks very well

 Anne looks very beautiful

A regular verb (also known as a weak verb) forms its past tense and past participle by adding -d
or -ed (or in some cases -t) to the base form: "We finished the project."

An irregular verb (also known as a strong verb) doesn't form the past tense by adding -d or -ed:

 Ngozi ate the food in the morning

 Moroko stole the money from the cabinet

ADVERBS AND TYPES

 An adverb is a word that adds meaning to a verb and tells us more about the adverb and
an adjective in a sentence.

 TYPES OF ADVERBS
 Adverb of Manner- this comes after a verb and tells us how an action was performed or
how the event was carried out. It answers the question HOW—example- He danced
elegantly, she smiled charmingly etc.
 Adverb of frequency – it tells us the time rate at which an event occurs or takes place. It
uses the following words to answer the question when - always, frequently, often, once,
twice, periodically, sometimes, continually etc. Example, Mr. Mark often goes to the
post office
 The tailor once made a nice dress for me
  Adverb of place; this answers the question of where an action took place or will take
place. It uses the following words - Upward, backward, everywhere, down, near, away,
here, by, down, there
 Adverb of Time: This type of adverbs is usually placed at the very beginning or at the
very end of the clause (front position or end position). For example: Eventually, he
came/he came eventually. Soon, ago, before, lately, yet, then, today- Example- James
travelled a year ago, Ndidiamaka will soon be here.
 Adverb of degree- It modifies an adjective or adverb. It is placed before an adjective or
adverb. For example, you are absolutely right.
 Interrogative Adverb: this is used to state a question – it uses how and why to pose
questions. How did you do this? Why are you sorry?

Classes of Adverbs:
 Adjuncts: These supply additional information in a sentence by answering the questions,
where, when, to what extent, how, and how often. In view of this, adjuncts have been classified
into place, time, degree, manner and frequency respectively. Examples: The boy went
upstairs/out/there (place: where?). I will see you soon/tomorrow/next year (time: when?). He
does go there often/sometimes/always (frequency: how often?). Ngozi is very/nearly/almost
snobbish (degree: to what extent?). She sings well/gently/silently/melodiously (manner: how?).

 Conjuncts: These are otherwise called conjunctive adverbs. They serve as both conjunction
and adverb at once; as conjunction, they introduce new sentences or link new ideas to what has
been said before; as adverb, they modify the sentence or the independent clause in which they
appear. Examples are accordingly, additionally, also, as a result, besides, hence, consequently,
then, therefore, on the contrary, yet, thus, however, furthermore etc.

 Disjuncts: These are adverbs that show the speaker’s attitude towards his subject; for
example, frankly, honestly, sincerely, truly, fortunately, perhaps, certainly, probably etc

ADJECTIVES AND TYPES

Adjectives are used almost exclusively to modify nouns, as well as any phrase or part of speech
functioning as a noun. Adjectives are words that modify a noun or a pronoun. In other words,
they describe a person, place, or thing in a sentence. Adjectives usually come before the noun.
Adjectives add to the richness of our descriptions of people and things. They allow the listener or
the reader to paint a mental picture of the person or object that is being described to them.
Some of the most common words are adjectives like good, bad, young, old, big, and small.
Each of these adjectives serves a purpose by describing a different aspect of the noun. Good and
bad give an opinion of the noun, old and young tell us about the noun’s age, while big and small
describe the noun’s size. Adjectives usually come before for example:
 “The small dog jumped over the white fence.” (Small is an adjective that describes the
noun dog, and white is an adjective that describes the noun fence.)
 “John wears red glasses.” (Red modifies the noun glasses.)
 “A loud group of students passed by.” (Loud modifies the noun phrase group of students.
 “Excellent writing is required for this job.” (Excellent modifies the gerund writing

Possessive Adjectives
They are the possessive pronouns used as adjectives. Thus, they are named as possessive
adjectives. “My, our, your, his, its, there” are possessive adjectives.
Examples:
 This is mine
 This is yours

Demonstrative Adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives (this, that, these those, whose) show whether the noun they refer to is
singular or plural and whether it is located near or far away from the speaker.
Examples:
 I like this dress
 She loved those days of her youth.
Indefinite Adjectives
An indefinite adjective is an adjective formed from an indefinite pronoun. The most common
indefinite pronouns are: Adjectives and its Types
“all, any, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none,
several, some, somebody, and someone”
Examples:
 There are many people in the room.
 Some books are placed on the table.
Interrogative Adjectives
Interrogative adjectives modify nouns and ask questions. They include which, what, whose.
They are used before nouns. Read the following examples.
Examples:
 What subject do you like most?
Comparative Adjectives
Comparative adjectives convey the supreme value of nouns. They are the superlative degrees of
the adjectives.
Examples:
 She is the tallest girl in the class.
 This is the most interesting novel I have ever read.
Superlative Adjectives
Superlative adjectives are used to describe an object which is at the upper or lower limit of a
quality.
Examples:
 She is the tallest girl in the class.
 This is the most interesting novel I have ever read.


Absolute Adjectives
The absolute adjectives are the adjectives that cannot be compared. Some absolute adjectives
are “supreme, dead, total, final, fatal, eternal, perfect, unique, and infinitive”.
Example:
The principal has the final decision
The bus had a fatal accident
Ngozi has a unique voice

Distributive Adjective
Ever, every, either and neither are called distributive adjectives.
Examples:
 I will give a book to every student in the class.
 Every student in the class is hard working.
 You can have either book.
 You can have neither book

Proper Adjectives: These adjectives result from using a proper name to describe another noun.
Examples, Chinese food, Nigerian shoes, English language etc

Order of adjectives
We often use multiple adjectives to modify the same noun or pronoun. Note that these are not
compound adjectives or adjective phrases, but rather individual adjectives that work
independently to modify the same word. To avoid unnatural-sounding sentences when we use
more than one adjective in this way, we put them in a specific order according to the type of
description they provide. This is known as the order of adjectives:
1. Opinion 2. Size 3. Shape 4. Condition 5. Age 6. Color 7. Pattern

1. Opinion (good, bad, strange, lovely)

2. Size (big, small, tiny, huge)
3. Shape (curved, straight, round, square)
4. Condition (wet, dry, clean, sad, happy)
5. Age (old, young, new, ancient)
6. Color (red, yellowish, transparent, blue)
7. Pattern (checked, striped, plaid, flowered)
8. Origin (American, British, eastern, western)
9. Material (wooden, plastic, steel, cloth)
10. Purpose (sleeping, shopping, work, gardening)
While we would almost never use a sentence with so many adjectives in a row, it’s very common
to use two or three. In this case, we generally must follow the order above, as in:

 “I bought an enormous rectangular Turkish rug on my vacation.”

 “It is a long, heavy table.”

Preposition
Categories of prepositions
Prepositions can be broadly divided into eight categories: time, place, direction or movement,
agency, instrument or device, reason or purpose, connection, and origin.
The following table highlights the most common categories of prepositions and how they are
used to form adjectival or adverbial prepositional phrases in a sentence:

Category Preposition Example sentences

Time At, in, on, for, during, since, by, until, “There is a film at midday we could
before, after, to past see.”
“We are meeting in an hour.”
Place At, in, on, by/near/close to, next to, The cat on the roof was hissing at us”
beside, between, behind, in front of, “Try looking behind the shed.”
above/over, below/under
Direction / To, from, over, under, along, around, “The house down the road is being
movement across, though, into, out of, sold.”
toward(s), away from, onto, off, up, “The drove across the town.”
down
Agency By, with “The book by the famous author is a big
hit.”
“Her heart is filled with emotion.”
Instrument By, with, on “The journey by boat is long and
/device arduous.”
“He hit the nail with a hammer.”
Reason or For, though, because of, on account “I have a separate computer for work.”
 purpose of, from “They left early because of the storm
Connection Of, to, with, “A well-written cover letter to employers
helps your chances of being hired.”
Origins From, of, “Tom is of German descent.”
“We started our trip from Italy”

Notice that many prepositions fall under two or more categories. To determine what type of
preposition is being used in a sentence, you must look closely at the context and what the
prepositional phrase is modifying. Remember that prepositional phrases can be used with verbs,
with nouns, and with adjectives.

Prepositions vs. Infinitives

The word to is a very common preposition, used to express time, direction, and connection. To is
also used, however, as a particle to introduce the infinitive form of verbs—e.g., to run, to play,
to think, to be, etc.
For example:
o “I often ride my bicycle to work.” (Preposition of direction)
o “I often ride my bicycle to stay healthy.” (Infinitive)
Because they share the same introductory word, it’s easy to mistake one for the other. Just
remember that infinitives always use the word to with the base or bare form of a verb, while the
preposition to is always followed by a noun, pronoun, or a grammatical element functioning as a
noun.

Interjections
An interjection also known as an exclamation, is a word, phrase, or sound used to convey an
emotion such as surprise, excitement, happiness or anger. Interjections are very common in
spoken English, but they appear in writing English as well. Capable of standing alone, they are
grammatically unrelated to any other part of a sentence.
Primary interjections are interjections that are single words derived not from any other word
class, but from sounds. Nonetheless, primary interjections do have widely recognized meaning.
Some common primary interjections are: aah, aha, argh. Brr, eww, grr, hmm, ooh, phew, yay etc

Secondary interjections are those derived from words that do belong to other word classes.
They may be adjectives, nouns, or entire clauses. Again, they have nothing to do with the
grammar of the sentences that come before or after them. Examples; bless you, congratulation,
good grief, hell, hey, hi, oh my, oh my God, shoot, what etc.

Preposition
Preposition are used to expressed the relationship of a noun and pronoun (or another grammatical
element functioning as a noun) to the rest of the sentence. The noun or pronoun that is connected
by the preposition is known as the object of the preposition. Some common prepositions are in,
on, for, to, of, with, and about, though there are many others.

Categories of preposition:
Prepositions can be broadly divided into eight categories: time, place, direction/movement,
agency, and origin. The following are examples of prepositions and how they ae used to form
adjectival or adverbial prepositional phrases in a sentence:

Category Preposition Examples

Time used to express time, at, in, on, for, =>There is a film at noon;
during, since, by, until, before, after, to (adjectival);
and past: => We are meeting him in an
hour (adverbial)

Place used to indicate the place of =>the dog is on the table look at
things/objects. At in, on, by/near/close us (adjectival)
to, next to/besides, between, behind, =>Try looking behind the shed
below/under (adverbial).
Direction To, from, over, under, along, around, =>The house down the road is
 across, through, into, out of, toward(s), being sold (adjectival)
away from, off, up, down =>They drove across the
country.
Agency By, with =>The book by the famous
author is a big hit (adjectival)
=>Her heart is filled with
emotion (adverbial)
Instrument By, with, on =>The journey by boat is long
and arduous (adjectival)
=>He hit the nail with a
hammer (adverbial).
Reason/ For, through, because of, on account of =>I have a separate computer for
purpose from work, (adjectival)
=>They left early because of the
storm (adverbial)
Connection Of, to, with =>A well-written cover letter to
employers helps your chances of
being hired (adjectival)
=>I think she decided to go with
victor (adverbial)
Origin From, of Ngozi is of German descent
(adjectival)
We started our trip from Italy
(adverbial)
Conjunctions
Definition: This may be defined as a word or a cluster of words used to join words, phrases,
clauses or sentences together.

Classification of Conjunction:
Conjunction may be classified in two ways, namely (a) according to form and (b) according to
function. In the first, we have single-word conjunction such as; and, but, for, so, because yet etc,
and compound word conjunction, namely; as much as, as long as, as though etc. In the second,
we
have coordinating and subordinating conjunctions.

Uses of Different Types of Conjunction

Co-ordinating Conjunctions: These are used to join words, phrases, or clauses of equal rank.
They include simple conjunction and, but, for, or, yet, nor, so etc, and compound conjunction as
much as, rather than etc.
Examples: James and John are twin brothers.
I love you as much as you love me.

Subordinating Conjunctions: These conjunctions join subordinate clauses to main clauses.

Subordinating conjunctions include; because, if, unless, while, although, when, as of, as far as,
in order that, such that etc. Examples:
He didn’t know when we left. She studies hard, in order that she might pass the course.

Correlative Conjunctions: They join two parts of the sentence, and can be used as coordinators
or subordinators. Examples are either …or, neither …nor, if…then, so…as, such…as, sooner…
than etc.
Examples; Neither Uche nor Jide attended the funeral (coordination). No sooner had I left than
she began to cry (subordination).

Conjunctive Adverbs: conjunctive adverbs function as both conjunction and adverb, in that
they join two clauses or paragraphs together, and modify verbs in their own clauses. They are
otherwise regarded as transitional words or links. Most conjunctive adverbs are used as half
conjunctions. Examples, where, when, nevertheless, however, moreover, why, meanwhile, etc.
CONCORD AND COMMON ERRORS
The Oxford English Dictionary defines concord as, to agree, be in harmony, harmonize". In other
words, concord is about agreement or harmony of the units of a sentence. The units of a
sentence refer to the words or group of words that make up the sentence. A sentence is like a
chain linked by various units. If a unit of the chain breaks, it ceases to be intact as one chain.
This, of course affects whatever the chain is holding. Let us look at the following sentences:

1.Nkechi is my friend. He is not here now.

2.Christiana has reached his destination.
3.We are talking about the items on the table. It is of no use.
4.This mangoes taste very good.
5.These girl snobs everybody.
6.Please turn and look at that boys.
7.The family is happy about their new house.
8.The boys is my friend.
9.Peter are a stupid boy.
10. The meat sold in our markets are very bad.

A close look at the sentences will reveal that each of them sings a discordant tune. We can put
the disharmony in the sentences in three categories:
1-3: Noun-pronoun concord
4-6: Determiner-noun concord
7-10: Subject-verb concord

Noun-Pronoun Concord
Since a pronoun is a word used in place of a noun, it must agree with its noun. If the noun is
masculine, then a masculine pronoun must be used to refer to it. This means that a feminine noun
will require a feminine pronoun. In the first sentence, for instance, 'she' should have been the
pronoun (not 'he') since Nkechi is a female name.
In the second example, 'her' (a pronoun used as an adjective) should have been used for
Christiana, a female name.
Finally, 'It', used in the second sentence of number three, is dangling. What noun does it refer to?
If it is 'items', then it is not the right pronoun. A plural noun requires a plural pronoun. So, the
correct word is 'they'. The sentence should read: They are of no use.
Note: There are cases where animals and inanimate objects take personal pronouns like 'he' or
'she'. Some animals also take names of human beings. A ship may be referred to as 'she'. The
same goes for a country. However, the use of 'she' to refer to a country, city, town or an
institution is no longer grammatically fashionable.

Determiner-noun concord
A determiner must agree with its noun in gender and in number. A singular noun requires a
singular determiner. A plural noun needs a plural determiner. Use this rule to discover the errors
in numbers 4-6. What is wrong with these determiners: this, these and that? See also errors in
these sentences: I don't have much friends. My friends are not much.

Subject-verb concord
What is subject?
"The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is doing or being something."
(grammar.ccc.commnet.edu). An easy way to find the subject is to find the verb and ask: who/
what is doing this?
For example:
The point is that Okeke has hurt the girl several times.
If we take the verb 'has hurt', for instance, we can ask: Who has hurt the girl several times? The
answer is: Okeke. So Okeke is the subject of the verb. Also ask who/what is being this or that or
simply 'who is being'? In the same sentence what 'is being' expressed by 'is'? The answer is
'Point. So, if you are able to answer who/what is doing or being this or that, you have the subject.

Let us look at the rules of subject-verb concord:

1. A singular subject takes a singular verb:

The boy is my friend.
John speaks good English.
Note: a verb in the present tense indicates its singularity by adding an (inflection) 's' to its base.
The verb 'speak' takes an 's' to become a singular verb. A verb is not a noun. If a noun adds an 's'
(in many cases), it becomes a plural noun.

1. A plural subject requires a plural verb:

The boys are my friends.
John and Mary are hardworking.
Girls speak better English than boys.

Note: a plural verb is the normal form of the verb (the base) without an 's'. If there is an auxiliary
verb and a main verb, it is the auxiliary verb that carries the singular marker of the verb. For
example: He does not speak English. In this case, the auxiliary verb 'does' takes the singular
marker 's' and the main verb 'speak' does not need to add an 's'. Both the auxiliary verb and the
main verb are treated as a unit of meaning. Also note that you and I, even though they are
singular personal pronouns, take verbs without an 's'. They take plural (or the base form of)
verbs: you are; you speak; I am; I speak; I like. This explains why you cannot say this: I does not
understand it. If we follow the rule of ' a singular subject takes a singular verb', this will be
correct. But 'you' and 'I' are exceptions. 'I' even takes a special type of verb 'am'.

2. The verb agrees with the headword in the subject phrase:

Example: The message between the lines is/ are that we have to be careful in our expenditure
this year.
If we ask what is being (subject), we see it is 'The message between the lines'. Determining the
singularity or plurality of the verb may be difficult because of two nouns in the subject phrase:
“Message and lines.” In a case like this, look for the headword. It is the message (not the lines)
that is the point here. So 'is' is the correct verb. Look at this sentence:
Another example: The total cost of the buildings is/ are outrageous. The subject phrase 'The
total cost of the buildings has two nouns 'cost' and 'buildings', which one should the verb agree
with? Ask yourself this: what is the point? What is being talked about- the buildings or the cost?
Once this is clear, choose the verb that agrees with the noun. In this case, it is the cost that is the
point. So, the correct sentence is: The cost of the buildings is outrageous.
Find out the headword in the following sentences: class exercise
1. The whole argument presented by his opponents point/ points to his carelessness with
public funds and lack of respect for rules of democracy.

2. The supply of water to all surrounding villages is/ are a big problem.
3. The sentiment in our offices is/are that the authorities do not care about the workers.

4. In 'referential' or existential words like 'what' or 'there', the verb agrees with the noun
referred to: There is a boy here. There are boys here. 'There' in the first sentence refers to 'boy',
which is singular, and this explains the use of the singular verb 'is'. In the second sentence 'there'
refers to 'boys', hence the use of a plural verb 'are'. (In informal speech the existential 'there' can
take a a singular verb when the noun is plural: There's books here.) Other examples: What are
these things? What is this thing? In the first 'what' refers to 'things' and in the second sentence it
refers to 'thing', hence the use of 'are and 'is' respectively.

5. Two subjects connected by either/ or, neither/ nor: Either John or Ngozi knows the
answer. Neither John nor Ngozi knows. Either John or his friends are responsible for the theft.
Neither John nor his friends are responsible for the theft. Either his friends or John is responsible
for the theft. Neither his friends nor John is responsible for the theft. The rule is that in the
constructions involving 'either/ or', neither/nor if both nouns are singular, the verb is singular.
But if one of the nouns or pronouns is plural, the verb agrees with the noun that is closest to it.
You can see it in the sentences containing John and his friends. However, some grammarians
argue that the verb should be plural if one of the nouns is plural (Sydney Greenbaum,
The Oxford English Grammar, 1996, p.240)

6. The pronoun 'none': 'The pronoun none is treated as either singular or plural' (Greebaum,
240). None of the locals know its true name. None of us knows his name.

7. Indefinite pronouns such as everyone, everybody, everything or each take a singular verb.
Note: There is no concord mistake when you write: Everyone has been shown their position. The
use of 'their' is preferable to 'he or she', especially when it has to be repeated. Do not make
'everyone' a masculine word by using 'he' to refer to it. Use rather a less offensive word 'their' or
its equivalent. The same goes for all indefinite pronouns referring to human beings.

8. 'All' can take either a singular or plural verb, depending on whether it refers to a singular
or plural noun. All that glitters is not gold. '(all' in the sense of everything). All of them are
here.
9. Use a singular verb if a noun is qualified by the adjective 'every', even if the noun is a
compound noun:
Every student has returned.
Every girl and boy knows the correct answer.

10. If a compound subject expresses a single concept, the verb is singular:

Rice and stew is my favourite food.
Garri and onugbu soup is delicious.
Two plus two equals four. Four times two is eight.

The vice chancellor and director of Godfrey Okoye University Group of Institutions is Professor
Anieke. (Note that the use of the determiner 'the' before 'vice chancellor' and 'director' will mean
that you are talking about two persons. For example: The vice chancellor and the director of...
Here you are talking about two persons and need a plural verb.

11. Titles of books, even if they are plural, take a singular verb: Great Expectations is a great
novel.
12. If a singular noun has a plural ending (measles, headquarters, aerobics, mathematics),
the noun must remain singular and must take a singular verb.

13. Nouns referring to units of measurement take a singular verb: Twenty dollars is a good
price for the shoes. Twenty kilometers is not a short distance. Thirty minutes is all need to
prepare for the meeting.
14. Some words like police, belongings, goods, clothes, scissors, trousers, eye-glasses and
Pyjamas use only a plural verb. For example: The police have done their work well. These
trousers are too small for you.

15. Collective nouns and concord. Collective nouns denote a group of persons or things
(Greenbaum, 240). There are hundreds of collective nouns in English and new ones come into
existence as language grows and new ideas sprout. What is important is that a collective noun
must be the name of a group of persons or things: family, team, pack, college (of cardinals),
company, public, mass, board, staff, galaxy, congregation, colony (of ants), herd (of cows), fleet
(of ship), pride (of lions), flock, organization, class, audience, etc. A collective noun can take
either a singular or plural verb. A singular verb will indicate that the group is treated as a unit
whereas a plural verb will refer to members of the group. For example, it is correct to say 'The
Nigerian team are very good' or 'The Nigerian team is very good'. But the temptation is
inconsistency in usage. For example: The Nigerian team are very good and is adored by every
Nigerian. Notice that this user has moved from the treatment of the collective noun as
plural (are) to referring to it as singular (with 'is'). This is totally unacceptable in British
English. Sometimes users may drop the word 'team' and use the country to refer to team. In this
case the word behaves like a collective noun: Nigeria (meaning the Nigerian team) are good.

16. Some non-collective nouns take singular or plural verbs: minutes (of meeting), fish,
sheep, aircraft. For example: The fish is beautiful. The fish are many and swim very fast.

17. Do not confuse 'a number' with 'the number'. 'A number' means 'many' and takes a plural
verb whereas 'the number' expresses a single unit and takes a singular verb. A number of boys
are here. The number of the boys is high.
Note: As Sidney Greenbaum points out, modal auxiliaries do not have the -s form. This means
that the agreement rule does not apply to all modal auxiliaries (can, could, will, would, may,
might, must, ought, shall and should). Also, non-finite verbs (especially participles and
infinitives) do not have the -s form and do not follow the rules of concord. A non-finite verb is
not limited in number by a noun.
Some common errors in the use of English Language
According to Oji (2018), the errors in English language can be grouped under the following
headings; syntactic, morphological, concord, semantic, phonological and spelling. Some of these
mistakes are interlock, particularly between the syntactic, morphological and semantic groups.
Examples:
Syntactic Errors:
a. My father allows her cultivate the land =>
My father allows her to cultivate the land
b. She puts on eye-glasses
She wears eye-glasses or she is putting on eye-glasses
c. The radio set is spoiled
The radio set is broken or the radio set in not in running order.
d. We shall discuss about it tomorrow.
We shall discuss it tomorrow
e. This will result to a big loss
This will result in a big loss
Morphological Errors: examples
a. He is infront of me
He is in front of me
b. They horn as they drive their cars
They sound their horns as they drive their cars.
c. He trekked to Godfrey Okoye University
He went to Godfrey Okoye university on foot/he walked to Godfrey Okoye
d. He did it in a twinkle of an eye
He did it in the twinkling of an eye
e. I will see you next tomorrow
I will see you the day after tomorrow
Semantic errors - Examples
a. I cannot come this term because I have so many academics to do here.
I cannot come this term because I have so many courses to do here
 b. He blackmails me everywhere he goes
He vilifies me everywhere he goes/he defames me everywhere he goes
c. She will deliver a baby next year
She will give birth to a baby next year/she will be delivered of her baby next year
d. Can you lend me your book, please
e. Can you lend me your book, please

Recommended Books

Peter Herring, (2016) Complete English Grammar Rules; FARLEXInternational

Bas Aarts (2011). Oxford Modern English Grammar, Oxford University Press
INTRODUCTION TO CREATIVE WRITING

Creative writing is a form of artistic expression that draws on the imagination to convey meaning
through the use of imagery, narrative and drama. Creative writing includes poetry, fiction
(novels, short stories) scripts, essays, screenplays and creative non-fiction (Writing Studio). A
creative writer expresses thoughts, feelings and emotions through words and have the ability to
inform, provoke, captivate, inspire and move the readers or audience through the artistic work.

Creative writing is also the process of crafting original and imaginative works of literature,
poetry, prose, or scripts. It transcends conventional writing, encouraging individuals to explore
language, structure, and narrative. Whether it's a heartfelt poem, an essay, a captivating short
story, or a thought-provoking novel, creative writing allows us to communicate our unique
perspectives and experiences with the world.

Different Forms of Creative Writing

Being a medium of self-expression, creative writing spans across many genres which differs
from one another. They are:

a. Essays

An essay is a kind of writing where a writer presents a view of a subject by narrating,

describing, explaining, analyzing, or arguing for or against a subject. The writer of an essay
is expected to be expressive with his imagination. This can be achieved through the writer’s
diction which demands the possession of an expansive vocabulary. An essay could be
descriptive, narrative, expository or argumentative.

b. Fiction

Fiction means something invented by the imagination. It is a composition of non-factual

texts. Types of fiction include:

i. Historical fiction
ii. Literary fiction
iii. Mystery fiction
iv. Science fiction
v. Children’s fiction

The elements of fiction include:

i. Characters: These are the people or actors who perform the action of the story.
ii. Plot: This is the series of events that make up the narrative.
iii. Setting: This is the location and time period of a story.
iv. Point of View: This is the perspective from which a writer writes. The three POVs are
first-person, second-person and third-person.
v. Theme: This is the central message or motif which an author explores to make a
larger point.
vi. Style: This has to do with the word choice of a writer and the structure of the work.
c. Scripts
Scripts for fictional television shows, plays or movies are works of fiction. However,
scripts can be non-fictional if the play or movie adapts to real life events. This now
demands the writer to use his creative writing skills to make it more interesting.
d. Speeches
A speech is a work of creative writing being that the speaker aims at passing across his
point to the listeners/audience while persuading them to agree with his view. Here,
descriptive and persuasive words are used to capture the interest of the audience
especially in formal occasions. Speeches are also given at weddings and parties.
e. Poetry and Songs
Poetry is a creative writing that deals with the imagination and aims to inspire readers to
think. According to William Wordsworth, poetry is “the spontaneous overflow of
powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquillity.” It is
arguably the most creative of all creative writing forms. Similarly, song writing is a
creative writing where the writer comes up with lyrics that have powerful meanings while
also narrating an experience. A creative songwriter uses lyrics that captivate people’s
mind.
f. Biographies
 A biography is simply the story of a real person’s life. It could be about a person who is
still alive, someone who lived centuries ago, someone who is globally famous, an unsung
hero forgotten by history, or even a unique group of people. The facts of their life, from
birth to death (or the present day of the author), are included with life-changing moments
often taking center stage. The author usually points to the subject’s childhood, coming-of-
age events, relationships, failures, and successes in order to create a well-rounded
description of her subject.

Questions that Will Help you know if a our Work is Creative Enough

 Does the imagery work? Can the reader visualize the scene, the moment?
 Is the language clean? Does it flow smoothly? Are sound effects such as rhyme,
alliteration and repetition intentional? Effective?
 Does the reader care about the characters? Are they sufficiently complex and
developed?
 Is the piece engaging? Is it alive all the way through or are there dead moments
when the reader quits paying attention?
 Is it unique?
 Can you follow the time flow, the sequence of events?

Guiding Principles for Creative Writing

1. Know your audience

Any creative writer should begin their writing by plotting out exactly who they would want to
read their work - a target persona. How old are they? What are their interests? What creative
writing techniques feature in similar works they enjoy? Why would they read your work?

Once you have this in mind, and you continually refer to your persona during the writing
process, your work will naturally begin to take direction and flow in a way that seems
appropriate to your target reader.

2. Write what you know

Quite often, the best stories are those which we can connect to and relate in one or another way
to our own lives. Or, they’re stories which seem so authentic that you could imagine it to be
about the writer’s own life. Why? Because they’re real to the writer and their authenticity shines
through. And if you really want to connect and make your reader feel your work, it needs to seem
real to them.

Now, this doesn’t mean that you quite literally have to write about your life, but drawing on
knowledge you have about different elements of our lives to give your story some authenticity
and more believability.

Even if you’re touching on topics you’re new to, immersing yourself in that world as much as
possible - either by reading, watching, listening, or even meeting the very people that are in it -
will ensure that authenticity shines through, and your writing is as authentic as it can be.

3. Creativity is key

Creativity is one of the most important elements of creative writing. Having your own ideas,
themes, messages, narratives, worlds and characters is what sets you apart from other pieces of
writing in your genre. It’s what distinguishes you as a writer. Of course, this doesn’t mean that if
you’re creating a biographical piece that you need to write a tale about a totally fantastical and
mythical world with unique creatures that live within it. After all, that would totally eliminate
your entire genre.

But simply use your creativity to think a little outside the box and put a unique twist on things;
using literary devices like metaphors, alliteration, and varied sentence structure to make your
work unique and interesting.

4. Challenge your imagination

One of the great things about creative writing is that there is no definition or rules on ‘how’ to
write. It’s an open, expressive platform. One that’s totally unique to you and relies on your own
interpretations. You should take this as an opportunity to challenge your imagination and see
where it could take you. Some of the most interesting pieces of literature are thought-provoking
or make us question the writing or world around us. Where could your next story take you?

How can one begin Creative Writing?

 1. Feed your imagination: one’s imagination can be fed by reading other creative works like
essays, stories, biographies, poems, dramas etc. The more one reads other creative works,
the more one’s mind is built to create things out the imagination.
2. Practise creative writing: make attempts at writing creative pieces, no matter how
discouraging or crude it appears. Keep practising and writing.
3. Attend workshops: there are several workshops that offer resources on creative writing.
Make efforts to attend and learn the skills required to write creative writing.
4. Identify the particular the creative writing you are good at, and hone your skills towards
it.

Creative works for consideration

Short Stories: “Civil Peace” by Chinua Achebe and “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin;
Poem: ‘The Road not Taken’ by Robert Frost

WORKS CITED

Writing Studio. “Creative Writing.” Thompson Writing Program, Duke University.

http://twp.duke.edu/writing-studio

Oxford Royale. “What is Creative Writing? The Ultimate Guide!”

https://www.oxfordroyale.com/articles/what-is-creative-writing/
FORMAL LETTER WRITING

A Formal/business letter is a letter written in a formal language, usually used when writing from
one organisation to another, or for correspondence between organisations and their customers,
clients and other external parties. A formal letter can be written to obtain information, to apply
for an academic program or a job, to write a complaint, or simply to express one’s opinion in an
effective and coherent manner. It can also be in form of cover letters for job applications, cover
letters for questionnaires or surveys which are part of one’s research. A business or formal letter
should be written in a tone that is slightly more formal than everyday language. The following
should be avoided when writing a formal letter: slang or jargon; contractions such as I'm, can't,
it's. It is imperative to be polite and respectful, even if one is complaining. There are several
styles of writing formal letter. However whichever style one chooses to use, one should follow
strictly the rules of that style. For full block style the writer should ensure to follow the rules of
no indentation of the paragraphs and writing of the complimentary close on the left. Business
Letters usually contain the following features information (in this order):

1. The writer’s /sender’s address is set out at the top right hand part (in modified block or semi-
block format) or top left part (In block format) of the page of the letter. Each line of the address
is begun at the same distance from the edge of the paper. There is the option of using commas to
mark off the elements of the address, but it should be consistent, and at the end it with a full stop,
or one can write the address without punctuation and it also has to be consistent.

2. The date indicates when the letter was composed. It is written two lines under the sender's
address. For the British, the date format is day-month-year: 1 July 2014, while for the US, the
date format is month-day-year: July 1, 2014. Note that there is no full stop after the date.

3. The Recipient’s address, also called the inside address, includes the name (optional) and
address of the recipient of your letter. It is written a line or two below the date. In all formats, it
is left justified, that is, at the left side of the page. The letter should be addressed to a specific
person, if possible. Include a courtesy title (i.e., Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms., Dr.) for the recipient;
confirm what title the person prefers before writing your letter. Only omit the title if you do not
know the person’s gender (i.e., for unisex names). If you are unsure of a woman's marital status
or title preference, use Ms: If you do not know the person's name, include the title of the
intended recipient (e.g. Hiring Manager, Resident) or the name of the company: The Registrar
Godfrey Okoye University Enugu Or The Human Resources Director Tinsel Corporation 246
Ziks Avenue 28 Enugu

4. The salutation is the letter's greeting. The most common salutation is ‘Dear’ followed by the
recipient's courtesy title and the recipient's last name. The salutation is left justified, regardless of
format. It is written one or two lines below the recipient's address. In formal and semi-formal
letters, it ends with a comma. Eg. Dear Ms Okeke, Or Dear Mrs Ani, You should strive to address
your letter to a specific person. Letters that aren't addressed to a specific person are less likely to
be read. If you do not know the name of the recipient, use Dear Sir or Madam

5. The title/heading is common in formal letters as it gives the recipient an idea to the content of
the letter. It is began from the left side of the page.

E.g. Application for the Use of Salvator Mundi Hall 002

Or

APPLICATION FOR THE USE OF SALVATOR MUNDI HALL 002

6. The body includes most of the content of your letter. In block or modified block format, each
paragraph begins at the left margin. In semi-block format, the paragraphs are still left justified,
but the first line of each paragraph is indented by one tab (five spaces). Include a line of space
between each paragraph. In the first paragraph of your letter, you should introduce yourself to the
recipient, if he or she does not know you, and state your purpose for writing. Use the paragraphs
that follow to elaborate upon your message.

i. First Paragraph: The first paragraph of your letter should include information on you,
the writer, introducing you and your designation writing. Also mention the reason you’re writing
the letter.

ii. Middle Paragraphs: The next section of your letter should elaborate on the reason you
mentioned in paragraph one, whether you are making a complaint, applying for something or
job, apologising etc.

iii. Conclusion: conclude by summarising your points and thanking the recipient in
advance for giving you audience.
5. The closing is your final sign off: it should be brief and courteous. It begins two lines below
your final body paragraph. Common closings include Best regards, Sincerely, and Yours truly,
Yours faithfully. Capitalize only the first word of the closing, and end with a comma, your
signature and your full name. E.g. Yours faithfully, Signature Okeke. Michael