Second Order Ordinary Differential Equations

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑎 2+𝑏 + 𝑐𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Homogeneous if 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and non-homogeneous if 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 0
Homogeneous 2nd Order DEs
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
𝒂 +𝒃 + 𝒄𝒚 = 𝟎 where a, b and c are constant coefficients.
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

If 𝑎 = 0, we get the first order equation,

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝑐
𝒃 + 𝒄𝒚 = 𝟎  + 𝒌𝒚 = 𝟎 where 𝑘 =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝑏

Solving this by the method of separating variables, we get

𝒅𝒚 𝟏
= −𝒌𝒚  ∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 = − ∫ 𝒌𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙

ln 𝑦 = −𝑘𝑥 + 𝑐  𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑥+𝑐 = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑥 . 𝑒 𝑐 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑘𝑥

If 𝑚 = −𝑘, then, 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑚𝑥
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
So 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑚𝑥 is a solution of the second –order equation 𝒂 𝟐
+𝒃 + 𝒄𝒚 = 𝟎 …………(1)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
Now, 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑚𝑥  = 𝐴𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑥  = 𝐴𝑚2 𝑒 𝑚𝑥
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙𝟐

Equation (1) becomes

𝑎𝐴𝑚2 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏𝐴𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐𝐴𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 0 ⇔ 𝑎𝑚2 + 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑐 = 0 This is called the
Characteristic Equation or Auxiliary Equation associated with the DE.
Which is a quadratic equation giving two values of 𝑚 ie.
−𝑏+√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏−√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑚1 = and 𝑚2 =
2𝑎 2𝑎

Case 1: Real and different roots of the auxiliary equation occur when 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0
If 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are the roots, then the general solution is of the form 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑚1𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑚2𝑥
Example
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
Solve the equation +𝟑 + 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

Solution

Yusuf Kyambadde 1
The auxiliary equation is
𝑚2 + 3𝑚 + 2 = 0  (𝑚 + 1)(𝑚 + 2) = 0  𝑚 = −1 and 𝑚 = −2
The solution is 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −2𝑥
Question
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
Solve the Des; (a) −𝟕 + 𝟏𝟐𝒚 = 𝟎 Ans: 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 4𝑥
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
(b) +𝟑 − 𝟏𝟎𝒚 = 𝟎 Ans: 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −5𝑥
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

Case 2: Real double root of the auxiliary equation occurs when 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0
If the double root is 𝑚, then the general solution is of the form 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 (𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥)
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
Example: Solve the DE +𝟔 + 𝟗𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

Solution
The auxiliary equation is
𝑚2 + 6𝑚 + 9 = 0  (𝑚 + 3)(𝑚 + 3) = 0  𝑚 = −3 (twice)
The solution is 𝑦 = 𝑒 −3𝑥 (𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥)
Question: Solve the DE
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
(a) +𝟒 + 𝟒𝒚 = 𝟎 Ans: 𝑦 = 𝑒 −2𝑥 (𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥)
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
(b) + 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐𝟓𝒚 = 𝟎 Ans: 𝑦 = 𝑒 −5𝑥 (𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥)
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

Case 3: Complex Conjugate Roots of the auxiliary equation

Suppose 𝑚1 = 𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽 and 𝑚2 = 𝛼 − 𝑖𝛽, are the complex roots, then the solution would be
of the form:
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑚1 𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑚2 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 (𝛼+𝑖𝛽)𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 (𝛼−𝑖𝛽)𝑥  𝑦 = 𝐶𝑒 𝛼𝑥 . 𝑒 𝑖𝛽𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 𝛼𝑥 . 𝑒 −𝑖𝛽𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 (𝐶𝑒 𝑖𝛽𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 −𝑖𝛽𝑥 )
From Complex numbers
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 and 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥
Therefore 𝑒 𝑖𝛽𝑥 = cos 𝛽𝑥 + 𝑖 sinβ 𝑥 and 𝑒 −𝑖𝛽𝑥 = cos 𝛽𝑥 − 𝑖 sinβ 𝑥

Yusuf Kyambadde 2
Then;
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 [𝐶(cos 𝛽𝑥 + 𝑖 sinβ 𝑥) + 𝐷(cos 𝛽𝑥 − 𝑖 sinβ 𝑥)]
= 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 [(𝐶 + 𝐷) cos 𝛽𝑥 + 𝑖(𝐶 − 𝐷)sinβx]
𝒚 = 𝒆𝜶𝒙 [𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷𝒙 + 𝒊𝑩𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛃𝒙] where 𝐴 = 𝐶 + 𝐷 and 𝐵 =𝐶−𝐷
or
if we instead let 𝑩 = 𝒊(𝑪 − 𝑫), then 𝒚 = 𝒆𝜶𝒙 [𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷𝒙 + 𝑩𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛃𝒙] ………(1)
⇒ Use equation (1) as the general solution where we have complex roots.
Please take note of this equation
Hence if 𝑚 = 𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽, the general solution is of the form
as it does not contain 𝒊.
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 [𝐴 cos 𝛽𝑥 + 𝐵sinβ𝑥] So correct your lecture notes
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
Example. Solve the DE +𝟒 + 𝟗𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

Solution
The auxiliary equation is 𝑚2 + 4𝑚 + 9 = 0
−4±√(16−36) −4±√−20 −4±𝑖2√5
⸫𝑚 = = = = −2 ± 𝑖√5
2 2 2

𝛼 = −2 and 𝛽 = √5
The solution is: 𝑦 = 𝑒 −2𝑥 [𝐴 cos √5𝑥 + 𝐵sin√5𝑥]
Question: Solve the DE
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(a) −2 + 10𝑦 = 0 Ans: 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 [𝐴 cos 3𝑥 + 𝐵sin3𝑥]
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Yusuf Kyambadde 3
In Summary
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
Equations of the form 𝒂 +𝒃 + 𝒄𝒚 = 𝟎.
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

Auxiliary equation 𝑎𝑚2 + 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑐 = 0

(i) Roots real and different 𝑚 = 𝑚1 and 𝑚 = 𝑚2 ,

the solution is 𝒚 = 𝑨𝒆𝒎𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑩𝒆𝒎𝟐𝒙

(ii) Real and equal roots 𝑚(twice),

the solution is 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒎𝒙 (𝑨 + 𝑩𝒙)

(iii) Complex roots 𝑚1 = 𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽 and 𝑚2 = 𝛼 − 𝑖𝛽

The solution is 𝑦 = 𝒆𝜶𝒙 [𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷𝒙 + 𝑩𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛃𝒙]

𝒅𝟐 𝒚
Case 4: Equation of the form ± 𝒏𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
(i) If + 𝒏𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟎, 𝒎𝟐 + 𝒏𝟐 = 𝟎  𝒎𝟐 = −𝒏𝟐  𝒎 = ±𝒊𝒏
𝒅𝒙𝟐

Then 𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑛𝑥

𝒅𝟐 𝒚
(ii) If − 𝒏𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟎, 𝒎𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 = 𝟎  𝒎𝟐 = 𝒏𝟐  𝒎 = ±𝒏
𝒅𝒙𝟐

Then 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑛𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 −𝑛𝑥
Since 𝑒 𝑛𝑥 = cosh 𝑛𝑥 + sinh 𝑛𝑥 and 𝑒 −𝑛𝑥 = cosh 𝑛𝑥 − sinh 𝑛𝑥
So 𝑦 = 𝐴 cosh 𝑛𝑥 + 𝐵 sinh 𝑛𝑥
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
Example: Solve (a) 𝟐
+ 𝟏𝟔𝒚 = 𝟎 (b) − 𝟑𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙𝟐

Solution
(a )𝑚2 = −16  𝑚 = ±4𝑖  𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 4𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 4𝑥
(b) 𝑚2 = 3  𝑚 = ±√3  𝑦 = 𝐴 cosh √3𝑥 + 𝐵 sinh √3𝑥
Question
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
Solve + 𝟓𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙𝟐

Yusuf Kyambadde 4
 Non-Homogeneous Equations
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
These are of the form, 𝑎 +𝑏 + 𝑐𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) where 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 0 (1)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
The corresponding homogeneous ODE is , 𝑎 +𝑏 + 𝑐𝑦 = 0 (2)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

The general solution equation (1) is of the form;

𝑦(𝑥) = 𝑦ℎ (𝑥) + 𝑦𝑝 (𝑥) where
The particular solution 𝑦ℎ= 𝐶1 𝑦1 + 𝐶2 𝑦1 is the solution of the homogeneous ODE (2).
The particular integral 𝑦𝑝 is found by assuming the general form of the function 𝑓(𝑥),
substituting this in the equation and its derivatives in the give ODE and equating
coefficients.
Term if 𝑓(𝑥) Choice of 𝑦𝑝 (𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐾 𝑦=𝐶
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐾𝑥 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐾𝑥 2 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸
𝑓(𝑥) =K𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑦 =C𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐾𝑥 𝑛 (𝑛 = 0,1,2, … … …) 𝑦 = 𝐾𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝐾𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 +. . . … 𝐾1 𝑥 + 𝐾0
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐾 cos 𝑤𝑥 or 𝑓(𝑥) = Ksin 𝑤𝑥 𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 𝑤𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑤𝑡

Example: Solve 𝑦 ′′ + 5𝑦 ′ + 6𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑦(0) = 1, 𝑦′(0) = 0

Solution
Characteristic equation of the homogeneous equation is;
𝑚2 + 5𝑚 + 6 = 0  (𝑚 + 2)(𝑚 + 3) = 0  𝑚1 = 2 and 𝑚2 = −3
𝑦ℎ = 𝐶1 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −3𝑥
𝑦𝑝 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵  𝑦′ = 𝐴 𝑦 ′′ = 0

So 0 + 5𝐴 + 6(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵) = 2𝑥 + 1  6𝐴𝑥 + 6𝐴 + 5𝐵 = 2𝑥 + 1
Comparing coefficients;

6𝐴 = 2  𝐴 = 1⁄3 and 6𝐴 + 5𝐵 = 1 

Also 6𝐵 = 1 − 5⁄3 = −2⁄3  𝐵 = −2⁄18 = −1⁄9

1 1 3𝑥−1
Thus 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑥 − =
3 9 9
Yusuf Kyambadde 5
 3𝑥−1
Hence 𝑦 = 𝑦ℎ + 𝑦𝑝 = 𝐶1 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −3𝑥 +
9

Using initial conditions,

1 10
𝑦(0) = 1  1 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 −  𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = … .. .. … .. … … .. … .. (1)
9 9
1
𝑦 ′ = −2𝐶1 𝑒 −2𝑥 − 3𝐶2 𝑒 −3𝑥 +
3
1 1
𝑦′(0) = 0  0 = −2𝐶1 − 3𝐶2 +  2𝐶1 + 3𝐶2 = … ….. …. ….. (2)
3 3
17
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously gives 𝐶1 = 3 and 𝐶2 = −
9
17 3𝑥−1
Therefore 𝑦 = 3𝑒 −2𝑥 − 𝑒 −3𝑥 +
9 9

Example 2 : Find the general solution of Solve 𝑦 ′′ + 2𝑦 ′ + 2𝑦 = cos 2𝑥

Solution
Characteristic equation of the homogeneous equation is;
𝑚2 + 2𝑚 + 2 = 0  (𝑚 + 1)2 − 1 + 2 = 0  (𝑚 + 1)2 = −1

𝑚 + 1 = ±𝑖  𝑚1 = −1 + 𝑖 and 𝑚2 = −1 − 𝑖
So 𝑦ℎ = 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝐶1 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶2 sin 𝑥)

The particular integral is;

𝑦𝑝 = 𝐴 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐵 sin2 𝑥  𝑦 ′ = −2𝐴 sin 𝑥 + 2𝐵 cos 𝑥

 𝑦 ′′ = −4𝐴 cos 𝑥 − 4𝐵 sin 𝑥

Substituting in the given DE gives
−4𝐴 cos 𝑥 − 4𝐵 sin 𝑥 + 2(−2𝐴 sin 𝑥 + 2𝐵 cos 𝑥) + 2(𝐴 cos 𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑥) = cos 2𝑥
−4𝐴 cos 2𝑥 − 4𝐵 sin 2𝑥 − 4𝐴 sin 2𝑥 + 4𝐵 cos 2𝑥 + 2𝐴 cos 2𝑥 + 2𝐵 sin 2𝑥 = cos 2𝑥
−2𝐴 + 4𝐵 = 1 and −4𝐴 − 2𝐵 = 0  𝐴 = −0.1 and 𝐵 = 0.2
Hence the general solution is;
𝑦 = 𝑦ℎ + 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝐶1 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶2 sin 𝑥) − 0.1 cos 2𝑥 + 0.2 sin2 𝑥

Example 3: Find the general solution of 𝑦 ′′ + 4𝑦 ′ + 5𝑦 = 25𝑥 2 + 13 sin 2𝑥

Solution
Characteristic equation of the homogeneous equation is;

Yusuf Kyambadde 6
𝑚2 + 4𝑚 + 5 = 0  (𝑚 + 2)2 − 4 + 5 = 0  (𝑚 + 2)2 = −1
𝑚 + 2 = ±𝑖  𝑚1 = −2 + 𝑖 and 𝑚2 = −2 − 𝑖
So 𝑦ℎ = 𝑒 −2𝑥 (𝐶1 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶2 sin 𝑥)
The particular integral is;
𝑦𝑝 = 𝐾1 𝑥2 + 𝐾2 𝑥 + 𝐾3 + 𝐴 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 2𝑥

𝑦 ′ = 2𝐾1 𝑥 + 𝐾2 − 2𝐴 sin 2𝑥 + 2𝐵 cos 2𝑥 

𝑦 ′′ = 2𝐾1 − 4𝐴 cos 2𝑥 − 4𝐵 sin 2𝑥
Substituting in the give DE gives
2𝐾1 − 4𝐴 cos 2𝑥 − 4𝐵 sin 2𝑥 + 4(2𝐾1 𝑥 + 𝐾2 − 2𝐴 sin 2𝑥 + 2𝐵 cos 2𝑥) +
5(𝐾1 𝑥 2 + 𝐾2 𝑥 + 𝐾3 + 𝐴 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 2𝑥 = 25𝑥 2 + 13 sin 2𝑥)
Comparing coefficients;
For 𝑥 2 ; 5𝐾1 = 25  𝐾1 = 5
For 𝑥; 8𝐾1 + 5𝐾2 = 0  𝐾2 = −8
For 𝑥 0 ; 2𝐾1 + 4𝐾2 + 5𝐾3 = 0  𝐾3 = −4.4
For cos 2𝑥; −4𝐴 + 8𝐵 + 5𝐴 = 0
𝐴 + 8𝐵 = 0
For sin 2𝑥; −4𝐵 − 8𝐴 + 5𝐵 = 13
−8𝐴 + 𝐵 = 13  𝐴 = −1.6 and 𝐵 = 0.2
Hence the solution is;
𝑦 = 𝑦ℎ + 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 −2𝑥 (𝐶1 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶2 sin 𝑥) + 51 𝑥2 − 8𝑥 − 4.4 − 1.6 cos 2𝑥 + 0.2 sin 2𝑥

Question: Solve the following IVPs

(i) 𝑦 ′′ + 4𝑦 = 16 cos 2𝑥 ; 𝑦(0) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ′′ (0) = 0
(ii)𝑦 ′′ + 2𝑦 ′ + 10𝑦 = 17 sin 𝑥 − 37 sin 3𝑥 ; 𝑦(0) = 6.6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ′ (0) = −2.2

Solve the following ODEs

(iii) 𝑦 ′′ + 9𝑦 = 2 cos 3𝑥 + sin 3𝑥
1 1 1 1
Ans: 𝑦 = 18 cos 2𝑥 + 36 sin 3𝑥 − 6 𝑥 cos 3𝑥 + 3 𝑥 sin 3𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −3𝑥
3 1 1
(iv) 𝑦 ′′ + 2𝑦 + 𝑦 = 5 + 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 Ans: 5 + 8 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑥
Yusuf Kyambadde 7
Higher order homogeneous equations

These are solved in the same way as 2nd ODEs

Example: Find the general solution of 𝑦 ′′′ − 2𝑦 ′′ − 5𝑦 + 6𝑦 = 0

Solution:

The characteristic equation is;

𝑚3 − 2𝑚2 − 5𝑚 + 6 = 0

Let 𝑚 = 1  (1)3 − 2(1)2 − 5(1) + 6 = 0  𝑚 = 1 is a root

By long division, the other roots are of the quadratic eqn 𝑚2 − 𝑚 + 6 = 0

⸫ (𝑚 − 1)(𝑚2 − 𝑚 + 6) = (𝑚 − 1)(𝑚 − 3)(𝑚 + 2) = 0

 𝑚1 = 1, 𝑚2 = 3, 𝑚3 = −2

Hence 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝐶𝑒 −2𝑥

Yusuf Kyambadde 8
Some Applications of 2nd Order ODEs
1. Electrical Circuits
𝑑𝑄
Let 𝑄(𝑡) be the charge in the capacitor at time 𝑡. Then is called the current, 𝐼. The battery produces
𝑑𝑡
a p,d resulting in current 𝐼 when the switch is closed. The resistance 𝑅 results in a voltage drop 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅.
The coil of wire (inductor) produces a magnetic field resisting change in the current. The voltage drop
𝑑𝐼 𝑄
created is 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 . The capacitor produces a voltage drop 𝑉 = ⁄𝐶 .

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law gives that the algebraic sum of the voltage drops around a circuit is zero;
𝑑𝐼 𝑄 𝑑𝑄
𝐼𝑅 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 = 𝐸(𝑡) But, 𝐼= 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑄 1
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 = 𝐸(𝑡)  𝐿𝑚2 + 𝑅𝑚 + 𝐶 = 𝐸(𝑡)

The characteristic equation of the homogeneous equation is

−𝑅±√𝑅 2 −4𝐿 ⁄𝐶 𝑅 √𝑅 2 −4𝐿 ⁄𝐶

 𝑚= =− ±
2𝐿 2𝐿 2𝐿

𝑅 √𝑅 2 −4𝐿 ⁄𝐶 𝑅 √𝑅 2 −4𝐿 ⁄𝐶
𝑚1 = − + and 𝑚2 = − −
2𝐿 2𝐿 2𝐿 2𝐿

Case1: For Underdamped circuit, 𝑅2 < 4𝐿⁄𝐶

√𝑅 2 −4𝐿 ⁄𝐶 𝑅 𝑅
Let 𝑤1 =  𝑚1 = − + 𝑖𝑤1 and 𝑚2 = − − 𝑖𝑤1
2𝐿 2𝐿 2𝐿

𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡⁄2𝐿 (𝐶1 cos 𝑤1 𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 𝑤1 𝑡)

Case 2: Overdamped Circuit 𝑅 2 > 4𝐿⁄𝐶

There are two distinct roots 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 of the characteristic equation

So 𝑄(𝑡) = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚1𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑚2𝑡
Case 3: Critically Damped circuit 𝑅2 = 4𝐿⁄𝐶

Yusuf Kyambadde 9
 𝑅
In this case 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = −
2𝐿

𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡⁄2𝐿 (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑡)

Example
Find the charge and current at time 𝑡
when the switch is closed if 𝑅 =
40 Ω, 𝐿 = 1 𝐻, 𝐶 = 1.6𝑚𝐹, 𝐸(𝑡) =
100 cos 10𝑡 and the initial charge
and current are both zero.

Solution
𝑑𝐼 1 𝑑𝑄
KVL: 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐶 𝑄 = 𝐸(𝑡) But 𝐼= 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑄 𝑑𝑄 1 𝑑2 𝑄 𝑑𝑄
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 𝑄 = 𝐸(𝑡)  + 40 𝑑𝑡 + 625𝑄 = 100 cos 10𝑡…………………..(1)
𝑑𝑡 2

Characteristic equation of the homogeneous equation is;

𝑚2 + 40𝑚 + 625 = 0  (𝑚 + 20)2 − (20)2 + 625 = 0

(𝑚 + 20)2 − 400 + 625 = 0  (𝑚 + 20)2 = −225  𝑚 + 20 = ±𝑖15

𝑚1 = −20 + 𝑖15 and 𝑚2 = −20 − 𝑖15

 𝑄ℎ (𝑡) = 𝑒 −20𝑡 (𝐶1 cos 15𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 15𝑡)

The particular integral is;

Yusuf Kyambadde 10
𝑄𝑝 (𝑡) = 𝐴 cos 10𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 10𝑡  𝑄 ′ = −10𝐴 sin 10𝑡 + 10𝐵 cos 10𝑡

𝑄 ′′ = −100𝐴 cos 10𝑡 − 100𝐵 sin 10𝑡

Substituting these in equation (1) gives

−100𝐴 cos 10𝑡 − 100𝐵 sin 10𝑡 + 40(−10𝐴 sin 10𝑡 + 10𝐵 cos 10𝑡) + 625(𝐴 cos 10𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 10𝑡) =
100 cos 10𝑡

(525𝐴 + 400𝐵) cos 10𝑡 + (−400 + 525𝐵) sin 10𝑡 = 100 cos 10𝑡
84 64
 525A+400B=100 and −400 + 525𝐵 = 0  𝐴 = 697 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 679

1
⸫ 𝑄𝑝 (𝑡) = 697 (84 cos 10𝑡 + 64 sin 10𝑡)

The general solution is

1
𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑄ℎ (𝑡) + 𝑄𝑝 (𝑡) = 𝑒−20𝑡 (𝐶1 cos 15𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 15𝑡) + (84 cos 10𝑡 + 64 sin 10𝑡)
697

84
Initially 𝑄(0) = 0  0 = 𝐶1 +
84
 𝐶1 = 697
697

84 1
 𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑒−20𝑡 ( cos 15𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 15𝑡) + (84 cos 10𝑡 + 64 sin 10𝑡)
697 697

𝑑𝑄(𝑡) 40
𝐼(𝑡) = = 𝑒 −20𝑡 ((−20𝐶1 + 15𝐶2 ) cos 15𝑡 + (−15𝐶1 + 20𝐶2 ) sin 15𝑡) + 697 (16 cos 10𝑡 −
𝑑𝑡
21 sin 10𝑡)
640 464
Initially 𝐼(0) = 0  0 = −20𝐶1 + 15𝐶2 + 697  𝐶2 = 2091

Hence

4 𝑒−20𝑡
𝑄(𝑡) = [ (−63 cos 15𝑡 − 116 sin 15𝑡) + (21 cos 10𝑡 + 16 sin 10𝑡)]
697 3

And
1
𝐼(𝑡) = 2091 [𝑒 −20𝑡 (−1920 cos 15𝑡 + 13060 sin 15𝑡) + 120(16 cos 10𝑡 − 21 sin 10𝑡)]

Yusuf Kyambadde 11