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Computer Networking Terminology
In this chapter, we will discuss the major terminologies used in computer networking −

WAN
It stands for Wide Area Network and covers a wide area such as a city.

LAN
It stands for Local Area Network and covers a small area such as a small office or home. It
physically connects all the computers located in the premises.

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Internet
It is a computer network system that connects the computers of the world. It is normally
connecting through WAN and LAN.

Intranet
It is a close room computer network system, as it covers a small area and only authorized
people can access it.

Extranet
It is also a sort of Internet the access to which is granted only to a few.

World Wide Web (WWW)

It is the service that is used on Internet to view and search contents (in the form of web-
pages).

Instant messaging (IM)

It is an online facility that facilitates us to chat or talk. Such service is provided by Skype,
Google Talk, Windows Live Messenger, Yahoo Messenger, etc.

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)

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It is a Protocol, which is used especially for voice transfer over IP network. Likewise, it
facilitates users to make phone-calls by using internet.

Really Simple Syndication (RSS)

It is a technique, which is used for the dissemination of information, articles, etc. Users
normally subscribe to the RSS channel in order to receive news. After subscription, users
do not need to visit the respective website rather they receive emails regarding the same.

Web log
It is a sort of online inventory (normally on a specialized topics) that consists of a series of
entries. These entries are arranged in opposite chronological order. The person who
maintains the weblog regularly update it with a new information.

Podcast
It is a digital file that normally contains audio or video record and is available on the
Internet as well.

Social networking websites

It refers to the websites that facilitate users with a common platform where they can
share their message (in text, audio, or even video form), images, videos, etc. For
example, Facebook, Google+, Twitter, LinkedIn, MySpace, etc.

Chat Rooms

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It is a dedicated area on the Internet that facilitates users to communicate.

Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)

It is a technical expression for public telephone system.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

It is a set of communication standards that transmits voice, video, data, and other
network services simultaneously.

Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)

It is a sort of digital subscriber line (DSL) technology that facilitates faster data transmission.

Download
It is a process that saves data from Internet onto a personal computer.

Upload
It is a process that transfers the saved data from a personal computer to Internet server.

Dial-up
It is a technique in which a phone line is used in order to connect to the Internet.

Broadband
It is a wide bandwidth data transmission that transports multiple signals and traffic types
swiftly.

Domain Name System (DNS) in Application Layer

The Domain Name System (DNS) is like the internet’s phone book. It helps you find websites
by translating easy-to-remember names (like www.example.com) into the numerical IP
addresses (like 192.0.2.1) that computers use to locate each other on the internet. Without
DNS, you would have to remember long strings of numbers to visit your favorite websites.

Domain Name System (DNS) is a hostname used for IP address translation services. DNS is
a distributed database implemented in a hierarchy of name servers. It is an application layer
protocol for message exchange between clients and servers. It is required for the functioning
of the Internet.

What is the Need for DNS?

Every host is identified by the IP address but remembering numbers is very difficult for people
also the IP addresses are not static therefore a mapping is required to change the domain
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name to the IP address. So DNS is used to convert the domain name of the websites to their
numerical IP address.

DNS translates domain names to IP addresses, making it an essential part of the internet.

There are various kinds of domains:

 Generic Domains: .com(commercial), .edu(educational), .mil(military), .org(nonprofit

organization), .net(similar to commercial) all these are generic domains.

 Country Domain: .in (India) .us .uk

 Inverse Domain: if we want to know what is the domain name of the website. IP to
domain name mapping. So DNS can provide both the mapping for example to find the IP
addresses of geeksforgeeks.org then we have to type.
Internet Connection

An Internet connection refers to a direct link that allows devices to access the World Wide
Web. It is essential for browsing websites and online content, with different types of
connections available depending on the user's needs, such as dial-up or high-speed
connections.

IP Address Definition And Explanation

An Internet Protocol (IP) address is the unique identifying number assigned to every
device connected to the internet. An IP address definition is a numeric label assigned to
devices that use the internet to communicate. Computers that communicate over the internet
or via local networks share information to a specific location using IP addresses.

IP addresses have two distinct versions or standards. The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)
address is the older of the two, which has space for up to 4 billion IP addresses and is
assigned to all computers. The more recent Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) has space for
trillions of IP addresses, which accounts for the new breed of devices in addition to
computers. There are also several types of IP addresses, including public, private, static, and
dynamic IP addresses.

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Every device with an internet connection has an IP address, whether it's a computer, laptop,
IoT device, or even toys. The IP addresses allow for the efficient transfer of data between two
connected devices, allowing machines on different networks to talk to each other.

How does an IP address work?

An IP address works in helping your device, whatever you are accessing the internet on, to
find whatever data or content is located to allow for retrieval.

Common tasks for an IP address include both the identification of a host or a network, or
identifying the location of a device. An IP address is not random. The creation of an IP address
has the basis of math. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) allocates the IP
address and its creation. The full range of IP addresses can go from 0.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.255.

With the mathematical assignment of an IP address, the unique identification to make a

connection to a destination can be made.

Public IP address

A public IP address, or external-facing IP address, applies to the main device people use to
connect their business or home internet network to their internet service provider (ISP). In
most cases, this will be the router. All devices that connect to a router communicate with
other IP addresses using the router’s IP address.

Knowing an external-facing IP address is crucial for people to open ports used for online
gaming, email and web servers, media streaming, and creating remote connections.

Private IP address

A private IP address, or internal-facing IP address, is assigned by an office or home intranet

(or local area network) to devices, or by the internet service provider (ISP). The home/office
router manages the private IP addresses to the devices that connect to it from within that
local network. Network devices are thus mapped from their private IP addresses to public IP
addresses by the router.

Private IP addresses are reused across multiple networks, thus preserving valuable IPv4
address space and extending addressability beyond the simple limit of IPv4 addressing
(4,294,967,296 or 2^32).

In the IPv6 addressing scheme, every possible device has its own unique identifier assigned
by the ISP or primary network organization, which has a unique prefix. Private addressing is
possible in IPv6, and when it's used it's called Unique Local Addressing (ULA).

Static IP address

All public and private addresses are defined as static or dynamic. An IP address that a person
manually configures and fixes to their device’s network is referred to as a static IP address. A
static IP address cannot be changed automatically. An internet service provider may assign a
static IP address to a user account. The same IP address will be assigned to that user for
every session.
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Dynamic IP address

A dynamic IP address is automatically assigned to a network when a router is set up.

The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) assigns the distribution of this
dynamic set of IP addresses. The DHCP can be the router that provides IP addresses to
networks across a home or an organization.

Each time a user logs into the network, a fresh IP address is assigned from the pool of
available (currently unassigned) IP addresses. A user may randomly cycle through several IP
addresses across multiple sessions.

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What Is IPv4?

IPv4 is the fourth version of the IP. It is one of the core protocols of the standards-based
methods used to interconnect the internet and other networks. The protocol was first
deployed on the Atlantic Packet Satellite Network (SATNET), which was a satellite network
that formed a segment of the initial stages of the internet, in 1982. It is still used to route
most internet traffic despite the existence of IPv6.

IPv4 is currently assigned to all computers. An IPv4 address uses 32-bit binary numbers to
form a unique IP address. It takes the format of four sets of numbers, each of which ranges
from 0 to 255 and represents an eight-digit binary number, separated by a period point.

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IP Address Classes

Some IP addresses are reserved by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). These
are typically reserved for networks that carry a specific purpose on the Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), which is used to interconnect devices. Four
of these IP address classes include:

1. 0.0.0.0: This IP address in IPv4 is also known as the default network. It is the non-
routeable meta address that designates an invalid, non-applicable, or unknown network
target.

2. 127.0.0.1: This IP address is known as the loopback address, which a computer uses to
identify itself regardless of whether it has been assigned an IP address.

3. 169.254.0.1 to 169.254.254.254: A range of addresses that are automatically

assigned if a computer is unsuccessful in an attempt to receive an address from the
DHCP.

4. 255.255.255.255: An address dedicated to messages that need to be sent to every

computer on a network or broadcasted across a network.

Further reserved IP addresses are for what is known as subnet classes. Subnetworks are small
computer networks that connect to a bigger network via a router. The subnet can be assigned
its own IP address system, so that all devices connecting to it can communicate with each
other without having to send data via the wider network.

The router on a TCP/IP network can be configured to ensure it recognizes subnets, then route
the traffic onto the appropriate network. IP addresses are reserved for the following subnets:

1. Class A: IP addresses between 10.0.0.0 and 10.255.255.255

2. Class B: IP addresses between 172.16.0.0 and 172.31.255.255

3. Class C: IP addresses between 192.186.0.0 and 192.168.255.255

4. Class D or multicast: IP addresses between 224.0.0.0 and 239.255.255.255

5. Class E, which are reserved for experimental usage: IP addresses between

240.0.0.0 and 254.255.255.254

IP addresses listed under Class A, Class B, and Class C are most commonly used in the
creation of subnets. Addresses within the multicast or Class D have specific usage rules
outlined in the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) guidelines, while the release of Class E
addresses for public use was the cause of plenty of debate before the IPv6 standard was
introduced.

Internet Addresses and Subnets

The IANA reserves specific IP address blocks for commercial organizations, government
departments, and ISPs. When a user connects to the internet, their ISP assigns them an
address from within one of the blocks assigned to it. If they only go online from one
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computer, then they can use the address assigned to it by their ISP.

However, most homes now use routers that share a network connection with multiple
devices. So if a router is used to share the connection, then the ISP assigns the IP address to
the router, and then a subnet is created for all computers that connect to it.

IP addresses that fall within a subnet have a network and a node. The subnet is identified by
the network. The node, also known as the host, connects to the network and needs its own
address. Computers separate the network and node via a subnet mask, which filters the
appropriate IP address designation. When a large network is set up, the subnet mask that
best fits the number of nodes or subnets required is determined.

When it comes to IP addresses within a subnet, the first address is reserved for the subnet,
and the final one indicates the broadcast address for the subnet’s systems.

IPv4 vs IPv6

IPv4 has not been able to cope with the massive explosion in the quantity and range of
devices beyond simply mobile phones, desktop computers, and laptops. The original IP
address format was not able to handle the number of IP addresses being created.

To address this problem, IPv6 was introduced. This new standard operates a hexadecimal
format that means billions of unique IP addresses can now be created. As a result, the IPv4
system that could support up to around 4.3 billion unique numbers has been replaced by an
alternative that, theoretically, offers unlimited IP addresses.

That is because an IPv6 IP address consists of eight groups that contain four hexadecimal
digits, which use 16 distinct symbols of 0 to 9 followed by A to F to represent values of 10 to
15.

How Do I Locate My IP Address?

Windows computer users can look up their IP address by typing "cmd" into the search tab and
hitting Enter, then typing "ipconfig" into the pop-up box. Mac computer users can find their IP
address by heading into System Preferences and selecting Network.

To look up an IP address on a mobile phone, users need to head into Settings, then open the
Wi-Fi menu and their network menu. The IP address should be listed under the Advanced
section, depending on the phone they use.

IP address vs MAC address

When you analyze an IP address vs. a MAC address, you can start with the similarities. For
both of these IP address types, you are dealing with a unique identifier with an attachment to
that device. The manufacturer of a network card or router is the provider of the MAC address,
while the internet service provider (ISP) is the provider of the IP address.

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The main difference between the two is that the MAC address is the physical address of a
device. If you have five laptops on your home Wi-Fi network, you can identify each of those
five laptops on your network via their MAC address.

The IP address works differently as it is the identifier of the connection of the network with
that device. Other differences include:

 A MAC address is a 6-byte hexadecimal address while an IP address is a 4 or 16-byte

address.

 A MAC address is in a data link layer, while an IP address is in a network layer.

 A third party will have a difficult time finding a MAC address, while it can easily find an
IP address.

 MAC addresses are static, while IP addresses can change dynamically

 MAC addresses and IP addresses are necessary to get a network packet to a destination.
However, no one can see your MAC address unless they are on your LAN

What are security threats related to IP addresses?

A variety of security threats are related to IP addresses. Cybercriminals can deceive devices
to either reveal your IP address and pretend they are you or stalk it to track activity and take
advantage. Online stalking and social engineering are the two leading security threats
existing for IP addresses.

Some of the other security threats to an IP address include:

1. Allowing a cybercriminal to use your IP address to track your location

2. Using your IP address to target your network and launch a DDoS attack

3. Using your IP address to download illegal content

5 ways to protect your IP address

There are multiple ways to protect your IP address from cybercriminals. Some of these
options include:

1. Use a VPN

2. Make use of a proxy server

3. Have your ISP make use of dynamic IP addresses

4. Employ a NAT firewall to hide your private IP address

5. Resetting your modem may change your IP address

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https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/Common_questions/Web_mechanics/
What_is_a_URL

What is a URL?

This article discusses Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), explaining what they are and how
they're structured.

A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the address of a unique resource on the internet. It is one
of the key mechanisms used by browsers to retrieve published resources, such as HTML
pages, CSS documents, images, and so on.

In theory, each valid URL points to a unique resource. In practice, there are some exceptions,
the most common being a URL pointing to a resource that no longer exists or that has moved.
As the resource represented by the URL and the URL itself are handled by the Web server, it is
up to the owner of the web server to carefully manage that resource and its associated URL.

Basics: anatomy of a URL

Here are some examples of URLs:

https://developer.mozilla.org

https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/

https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/search?q=URL

Any of those URLs can be typed into your browser's address bar to tell it to load the associated
resource, which in all three cases is a Web page.

A URL is composed of different parts, some mandatory and others optional. The most
important parts are highlighted on the URL below (details are provided in the following
sections):

Note: You might think of a URL like a regular postal mail address: the scheme represents the
postal service you want to use, the domain name is the city or town, and the port is like the zip
code; the path represents the building where your mail should be delivered;
the parameters represent extra information such as the number of the apartment in the
building; and, finally, the anchor represents the actual person to whom you've addressed your
mail.

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Note: There are some extra parts and some extra rules regarding URLs, but they are not
relevant for regular users or Web developers. Don't worry about this, you don't need to know
them to build and use fully functional URLs.

Scheme

The first part of the URL is the scheme, which indicates the protocol that the browser must use
to request the resource (a protocol is a set method for exchanging or transferring data around
a computer network). Usually for websites the protocol is HTTPS or HTTP (its unsecured
version). Addressing web pages requires one of these two, but browsers also know how to
handle other schemes such as mailto: (to open a mail client), so don't be surprised if you see
other protocols.

Authority

Next follows the authority, which is separated from the scheme by the character pattern ://. If
present the authority includes both the domain (e.g. www.example.com) and the port (80),
separated by a colon:

 The domain indicates which Web server is being requested. Usually this is a domain
name, but an IP address may also be used (but this is rare as it is much less
convenient).

 The port indicates the technical "gate" used to access the resources on the web server.
It is usually omitted if the web server uses the standard ports of the HTTP protocol (80
for HTTP and 443 for HTTPS) to grant access to its resources. Otherwise it is mandatory.

Note: The separator between the scheme and authority is ://. The colon separates the scheme
from the next part of the URL, while // indicates that the next part of the URL is the authority.

One example of a URL that doesn't use an authority is the mail client (mailto:foobar). It
contains a scheme but doesn't use an authority component. Therefore, the colon is not
followed by two slashes and only acts as a delimiter between the scheme and mail address.

Path to resource

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/path/to/myfile.html is the path to the resource on the Web server. In the early days of the
Web, a path like this represented a physical file location on the Web server. Nowadays, it is
mostly an abstraction handled by Web servers without any physical reality.

Parameters

?key1=value1&key2=value2 are extra parameters provided to the Web server. Those

parameters are a list of key/value pairs separated with the & symbol. The Web server can use
those parameters to do extra stuff before returning the resource. Each Web server has its own
rules regarding parameters, and the only reliable way to know if a specific Web server is
handling parameters is by asking the Web server owner.

Anchor

#SomewhereInTheDocument is an anchor to another part of the resource itself. An anchor

represents a sort of "bookmark" inside the resource, giving the browser the directions to show
the content located at that "bookmarked" spot. On an HTML document, for example, the
browser will scroll to the point where the anchor is defined; on a video or audio document, the
browser will try to go to the time the anchor represents. It is worth noting that the part after
the #, also known as the fragment identifier, is never sent to the server with the request.

What is World Wide Web (WWW, W3)?

The World Wide Web -- also known as the web, WWW or W3 -- refers to all the public websites
or pages that users can access on their local computers and other devices through
the internet. These pages and documents are interconnected by means of hyperlinks that
users click on for information. This information can be in different formats, including text,
images, audio and video.

The term World Wide Web isn't synonymous with the internet. Rather, the World Wide Web is
part of the internet.
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How does the World Wide Web work?

Paving the way for an internet revolution that has transformed the world in only three
decades, the World Wide Web consists of multiple components that enable users to access
various resources, documents and web pages on the internet. Thus, the WWW is like a vast
electronic book whose pages are stored or hosted on different servers worldwide.

These pages are the primary component or building blocks of the WWW and are linked through
hyperlinks, which provide access from one specific spot in a hypertext or hypermedia
document to another spot within that document or a different one. Hyperlinks are another
defining concept of the WWW and provide its identity as a collection of interconnected
documents.

Hypertext is a method for instant information cross-referencing that supports communications

on the web. Hypertext makes it easy to link content on one web page to content on another
web page or site. Hypertext and HTTP enable people to access the millions of websites active
on the WWW.

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is another key component of the WWW. It enables
users to access web pages by standardizing communications and data transfer between the
internet's servers and clients.

Most web documents and pages are created using Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), a text-
based way of describing how content within an HTML file is structured. HTML describes the
structure of web pages using elements or tags and displays the content of these pages
through a web browser.

To access one of these pages, a user and their client machine supply a universal identifier to
the web server via a browser. This identifier may be a uniform resource locator (URL) or
uniform resource identifier (URI) and is unique to each web page.

A collection of web pages belonging to a URL is called a website. For

example, www.techtarget.com is a website,
while https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/World-Wide-Web is a web page.

History of the World Wide Web

British physicist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web. Along with colleagues at
Geneva-based CERN -- the European Organization for Nuclear Research -- Berners-Lee had
been working on the concept since 1989. Their goal was to combine available technologies
and data networks to create a user-friendly system for global communication and information
sharing. At the time, they began work on the first WWW server, which they called httpd. They
also dubbed the first client WWW.

Originally, WWW was a what you see is what you get (WYSIWYG) hypertext browser/editor that
ran in the NextStep environment. In 1990, Berners-Lee demonstrated the first web server and
browser at CERN to explain his idea of a World Wide Web. The web then entered the public eye
in 1991 when Berners-Lee, who also developed hypertext, announced his creation on the
alt.hypertext newsgroup; at the same time, he created the world's first web page with the
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address http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html.

This page, which remains operational as of 2022, includes information and links about the
WWW project and web servers. In 1993, CERN made the W3 technology publicly available on a
royalty-free basis.

Client-Server Model

Last Updated : 04 Oct, 2024

The Client-server model is a distributed application structure that partitions tasks or workloads
between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service requesters called
clients. In the client-server architecture, when the client computer sends a request for data to
the server through the internet, the server accepts the requested process and delivers the
data packets requested back to the client. Clients do not share any of their resources.
Examples of the Client-Server Model are Email, World Wide Web, etc.

How Does the Client-Server Model Work?

In this article, we are going to take a dive into the Client-Server model and have a look at
how the Internet works via, web browsers. This article will help us have a solid WEB
foundation and help us easily work with WEB technologies.

 Client: When we say the word Client, it means to talk of a person or an organization
using a particular service. Similarly in the digital world, a Client is a computer (Host)
i.e. capable of receiving information or using a particular service from the service
providers (Servers).

 Servers: Similarly, when we talk about the word Servers, It means a person or
medium that serves something. Similarly in this digital world, a Server is a remote
computer that provides information (data) or access to particular services.

So, it is the Client requesting something and the Server serving it as long as it is in the
database.

For those new to networking concepts, the System Design Course provides a comprehensive
overview of the client-server model and its applications in modern computing.

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Client Server Model

How the Browser Interacts With the Servers?

There are a few steps to follow to interacts with the servers of a client.

 User enters the URL(Uniform Resource Locator) of the website or file. The Browser then
requests the DNS(DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM) Server.

 DNS Server lookup for the address of the WEB Server.

 The DNS Server responds with the IP address of the WEB Server.

 The Browser sends over an HTTP/HTTPS request to the WEB Server’s IP (provided by
the DNS server).

 The Server sends over the necessary files for the website.

 The Browser then renders the files and the website is displayed. This rendering is done
with the help of DOM (Document Object Model) interpreter, CSS interpreter, and JS
Engine collectively known as the JIT or (Just in Time) Compilers.

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What are Search Engines?

Search engines are the software program that provides information according to the user
query. It finds various websites or web pages that are available on the internet and gives
related results according to the search. To rank well on a Search Engine, it’s important to know
What are Search engines and how they work.

What are Search engines?

Search engines are programs that allow users to search and retrieve information
from the vast amount of content available on the internet. They use algorithms to
index and rank web pages based on relevance to a user’s query, providing a list of results for
users to explore. Popular search engines include Google, Bing, and Yahoo.

Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP)

IP-Enabled Services

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a technology that allows you to make voice calls using a
broadband Internet connection instead of a regular (or analog) phone line. Some VoIP services
may only allow you to call other people using the same service, but others may allow you to
call anyone who has a telephone number - including local, long distance, mobile, and
international numbers. Also, while some VoIP services only work over your computer or a
special VoIP phone, other services allow you to use a traditional phone connected to a VoIP
adapter.

Frequently Asked Questions

How VoIP / Internet Voice Works

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VoIP services convert your voice into a digital signal that travels over the Internet. If you are
calling a regular phone number, the signal is converted to a regular telephone signal before it
reaches the destination. VoIP can allow you to make a call directly from a computer, a special
VoIP phone, or a traditional phone connected to a special adapter. In addition, wireless "hot
spots" in locations such as airports, parks, and cafes allow you to connect to the Internet and
may enable you to use VoIP service wirelessly.

What Kind of Equipment Do I Need?

A broadband (high speed Internet) connection is required. This can be through a cable
modem, or high speed services such as DSL or a local area network. A computer, adaptor,
or specialized phone is required. Some VoIP services only work over your computer or a
special VoIP phone, while other services allow you to use a traditional phone connected to a
VoIP adapter. If you use your computer, you will need some software and an inexpensive
microphone. Special VoIP phones plug directly into your broadband connection and operate
largely like a traditional telephone. If you use a telephone with a VoIP adapter, you'll be able to
dial just as you always have, and the service provider may also provide a dial tone.

What is a Repeater?

A repeater is a networking device that helps to amplify and regenerate signals to increase the
reach of a network. Also operating at the physical layer of the OSI model, repeaters help
overcome distance-related limitations by strengthening the strength and quality of the signal.
They are instrumental in LANs and WANs as they minimize errors, reduce data loss, and
ensure reliable delivery to specific locations. One of the primary benefits of repeaters is the

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error free transfer of data over longer distances. This will ensure efficient and safe
communication.

Repeater

Features of Repeaters

 Repeater can regenerate the signal without modifying it.

 Repeaters can be used in analog signals and digital signals.

 Repeaters can extend the range of networks.

 Dynamic networking is supported by repeater.

 Use of Repeaters reduces error and loss of data.

 Power is required for working of repeaters.

 Using repeater can add complexity in the network.

Working of Repeaters

 Initially the source system transmits the signals. This source systems can be a mobile
phone, laptop or radio.

 This transmitted signal from the source system travels in air if it’s wireless network or
through the cable if it is wired network. As the signal goes away from the source it’s
strength gets weak.

 The signal received to the repeater is not the actual signal sent by source system but a
weak signal. Therefore repeater amplifies this weak signal to get it strengthen.

 The strengthen signal is now being sent from the repeater to its destination. This signal
is more stronger and can travel at longer distance. In short, it extends the network
without losing the quality of signal.

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 Repeaters are therefore used in various wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi and wired
technologies such as ethernet.

Bridge in Computer Network

The bridge is a networking device in a computer network that is used to connect multiple LANs
to a larger LAN. In computer networks, we have multiple networking devices such as bridges,
hubs, routers, switches, etc, each device has its own specification and is used for a particular
purpose. The bridge is a networking device that connects the larger LAN networks with the
group of smaller LAN networks.

In this article, we are going to discuss everything about the bridge including what exactly a
bridge is, and the type of bridges we have in computer networks including transparent bridges,
source routing bridges, and translational bridges, which will be followed by advantages and
disadvantages of the bridge in networking. then how the bridge is different from the gateway
and last we will look into the applications and functions of the bridge in the network.

Bridge in Computer Network

A bridge in a computer network is a device used to connect multiple LANs together with a
larger Local Area Network (LAN). The mechanism of network aggregation is known as bridging.
The bridge is a physical or hardware device but operates at the OSI model’s data link layer and
is also known as a layer of two switches.

The primary responsibility of a switch is to examine the incoming traffic and determine
whether to filter or forward it. Basically, a bridge in computer networks is used to divide
network connections into sections, now each section has a separate bandwidth and a separate
collision domain. Here bridge is used to improve network performance.

Types of Bridges

There are three types of bridges in computer networks, which are as follows:

 Transparent Bridge: Transparent bridges are invisible to other devices on the

network. This bridge doesn’t reconfigure the network on the addition or deletion of any
station. The prime function of the transparent bridge is to block or forward the data
according to the MAC address.

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 Source Routing Bridge: Source routing bridges were developed and designed by IBM
specifically for token ring networks. The frame’s entire route is embedded with the data
frames by the source station to perform the routing operation so that once the frame is
forwarded it must follow a specific defined path/route.

 Translational Bridge: Translational bridges convert the received data from one
networking system to another. Or it is used to communicate or transmit data between
two different types of networking systems. Like if we are sending data from a token ring
to an Ethernet cable, the translational cable will be used to connect both the networking
system and transmit data.

Working of Bridges
Let’s see the step-by-step working of the bridge in computer networks:
Receiving Data: The bridge gets data packets (or frames) from both network segments A and
B.
Building a Table: It creates a table of MAC addresses by looking at where the data is coming
from to know which device is on which segment.
Filtering Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device also on network A, the bridge
stops it from going further.
Forwarding Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device on network B, the bridge
sends it to the correct place on network B.
Repeating for Both Sides: The bridge does the same thing for data coming from network B.

Working of Bridge

What is a Network Switch and How Does it Work?

The Switch is a network device that is used to segment the networks into different
subnetworks called subnets or LAN segments. It is responsible for filtering and forwarding the
packets between LAN segments based on MAC address.

Switches have many ports, and when data arrives at any port, the destination address is
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examined first and some checks are also done and then it is processed to the devices.
Different types of communication are supported here like unicast, multicast, and broadcast
communication.

Features of Network Switches

 It operates in the Data Link Layer in the OSI Model.

 It performs error checking before forwarding data.

 It transfers the data only to the device that has been addressed.

 It operates in full duplex mode.

 It allocates each LAN segment to a limited bandwidth.

 It uses Unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many), and broadcast (one-to-all)

transmission modes.

 Packet-switching techniques are used to transfer data packets from source to

destination.

 Switches have a more significant number of ports.

Why Are Network Switches Valuable?

Switches are one of the most important things for transferring information between different
endpoints. Some of the benefits are mentioned below.

 Switches are having full-duplex communication which helps in making effective use of
bandwidth.

 Switches help to provide a wired connection to printers, IoT devices, wireless points, and
many more devices.

 IoT Devices send data through Network Switches that help in making smarter
surroundings with the help of Artificial Intelligence.

 Network Devices are made with the help of Switches that carry a large number of traffic
in telecommunication.

What is a router?

A router is a device that connects two or more packet-switched networks or subnetworks. It

serves two primary functions: managing traffic between these networks by forwarding data
packets to their intended IP addresses, and allowing multiple devices to use the same Internet
connection.

There are several types of routers, but most routers pass data between LANs (local area
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networks) and WANs (wide area networks). A LAN is a group of connected devices restricted to
a specific geographic area. A LAN usually requires a single router.

A WAN, by contrast, is a large network spread out over a vast geographic area. Large
organizations and companies that operate in multiple locations across the country, for
instance, will need separate LANs for each location, which then connect to the other LANs to
form a WAN. Because a WAN is distributed over a large area, it often necessitates multiple
routers and switches*.

*A network switch forwards data packets between groups of devices in the same network,
whereas a router forwards data between different networks.

How does a router work?

Think of a router as an air traffic controller and data packets as aircraft headed to different
airports (or networks). Just as each plane has a unique destination and follows a unique route,
each packet needs to be guided to its destination as efficiently as possible. In the same way
that an air traffic controller ensures that planes reach their destinations without getting lost or
suffering a major disruption along the way, a router helps direct data packets to their
destination IP address.

In order to direct packets effectively, a router uses an internal routing table — a list of paths to
various network destinations. The router reads a packet's header to determine where it is
going, then consults the routing table to figure out the most efficient path to that destination.
It then forwards the packet to the next network in the path.

What is the difference between a router and a modem?

Although some Internet service providers (ISPs) may combine a router and a modem within a
single device, they are not the same. Each plays a different but equally important role in
connecting networks to each other and to the Internet.

A router forms networks and manages the flow of data within and between those networks,
while a modem connects those networks to the Internet. Modems forge a connection to the
Internet by converting signals from an ISP into a digital signal that can be interpreted by any
connected device. A single device may plug into a modem in order to connect to the Internet;
alternately, a router can help distribute this signal to multiple devices within an established
network, allowing all of them to connect to the Internet simultaneously.

Think of it like this: If Bob has a router, but no modem, he will be able to create a LAN and
send data between the devices on that network. However, he will not be able to connect that
network to the Internet. Alice, on the other hand, has a modem, but no router. She will be able
to connect a single device to the Internet (for example, her work laptop), but cannot distribute
that Internet connection to multiple devices (say, her laptop and her smartphone). Carol,
meanwhile, has a router and a modem. Using both devices, she can form a LAN with her
desktop computer, tablet, and smartphone and connect them all to the Internet at the same
time.

A gateway is a computer on a network that provides the interface between two applications or
networks that use different protocols. They are also used to provide a connection to the
Internet. A gateway in a network converts information from one protocol to another and
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then transfers it over the web. For example, if a computer on the Internet sends an email to
another, the gateway converts the message from one protocol to another and sends it back.

How Does a Gateway Work?

A computer gateway is a server with software installed to connect networks and route data.
The gateway node can be linked to different routers or have a router that connects it with
other networks or the Internet. The connection can be wired or wireless.

A computer server may serve as a gateway node in any development team of any commercial
organization, and it may also act as a proxy server or a firewall at times. A computer gateway
in a network examines the data packet and then passes it to the other network. It checks
compatibility between the two networks and then converts the data packet to ensure that it
can be transmitted between them.

The gateway node may also be linked to servers for specific purposes such as email, web
hosting, and database storage. It can also be part of a more extensive network like the
Internet. In this case, the gateway node will have its IP address, thus making it possible to
route incoming traffic from different networks to its primary interface and out onto the
Internet. However, this is one of many possible configurations for a gateway node; other
configurations are also possible.

Introduction of Firewall in Computer Network

Last Updated : 28 Jun, 2024

In the world of computer networks, a firewall acts like a security guard. Its job is to watch over
the flow of information between your computer or network and the internet. It’s designed to
block unauthorized access while allowing safe data to pass through.

Essentially, a firewall helps keep your digital world safe from unwanted visitors and potential
threats, making it an essential part of today’s connected environment. It monitors both
incoming and outgoing traffic using a predefined set of security to detect and prevent threats.

What is Firewall?

A firewall is a network security device, either hardware or software-based, which monitors all
incoming and outgoing traffic and based on a defined set of security rules accepts, rejects, or
drops that specific traffic.

 Accept: allow the traffic

 Reject: block the traffic but reply with an “unreachable error”

 Drop: block the traffic with no reply

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A firewall is a type of network security device that filters incoming and outgoing network traffic
with security policies that have previously been set up inside an organization. A firewall is
essentially the wall that separates a private internal network from the open Internet at its very
basic level.

Functions of Firewall

 Every piece of data that enters or leaves a computer network must go via the firewall.

 If the data packets are safely routed via the firewall, all of the important data remains
intact.

 A firewall logs each data packet that passes through it, enabling the user to keep track
of all network activities.

 Since the data is stored safely inside the data packets, it cannot be altered.

 Every attempt for access to our operating system is examined by our firewall, which
also blocks traffic from unidentified or undesired sources.

Basis of
Gateway Firewall
Comparison

A gateway is a network hardware A firewall is a type of network

device or hardware node that is security device that filters
used to connect two distinct traffic originating from
Definition networks together. Gateways can potentially harmful or insecure
also be used to connect a single sources while also monitoring
network to multiple other traffic flowing into and out of a
networks. network.

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Basis of
Gateway Firewall
Comparison

Gateways primary roles are to

The firewall will review and
link various devices to one
monitor all incoming and
another and to both public and
Links outgoing packets, and it will
private networks. In addition,
block any packets that do not fit
gateways connect devices to the
the stated criteria for security.
networks itself.

Through the use of gateways, The firewall is essentially

two separate network systems designed to filter suspicious
Network
are able to connect with one traffic such as that caused by
another. viruses and hackers.

Bluetooth is used for short-range wireless voice and data communication. It is a Wireless
Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for data communications over smaller
distances. This generation changed into being invented via Ericson in 1994. It operates within
the unlicensed, business, scientific, and clinical (ISM) bands from 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz.

Bluetooth stages up to 10 meters. Depending upon the version, it presents information up to

at least 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps. The spreading method that it uses is FHSS (Frequency-hopping
unfold spectrum). A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a group of interconnected
piconets is called a scatter net.

Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a wireless technology that lets devices like phones, tablets, and headphones
connect to each other and share information without needing cables. Bluetooth simply follows
the principle of transmitting and receiving data using radio waves. It can be paired with the
other device which has also Bluetooth but it should be within the estimated communication
range to connect. When two devices start to share data, they form a network called piconet
which can further accommodate more than five devices.

Key Features of Bluetooth

 The transmission capacity of Bluetooth is 720 kbps.

 Bluetooth is a wireless technology.

 Bluetooth is a Low-cost and short-distance radio communications standard.

 Bluetooth is robust and flexible.

 The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.

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Top 25 Emerging Technologies

We will discuss top 25 emerging technologies, including:

1. Generative AI

2. Quantum Computing

3. 5G Expansion

4. Virtual Reality (VR) 2.0

5. Augmented Reality (AR)

6. Internet of Things

7. Biotechnology in Agriculture

8. Autonomous Vehicles

9. Blockchain

10.Edge Computing

11.Personalized Medicine

12.Neuromorphic Computing

13.Green Energy Technologies

14.Wearable Health Monitors

15.Extended Reality (XR) for Training

16.Voice-Activated Technology

17.Space Tourism

18.Synthetic Media

19.Advanced Robotics

20.AI in Cybersecurity

21.Digital Twins

22.Sustainable Technology

23.Telemedicine

24.Nano-Technology
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25.AI TRiSM

Introduction to Cloud Computing

Cloud Computing is the delivery of computing services such as servers, storage, databases,
networking, software, analytics, intelligence, and more, over the Cloud (Internet).

Cloud Computing provides an alternative to the on-premises datacentre. With an on-premises

datacentre, we have to manage everything, such as purchasing and installing hardware,
virtualization, installing the operating system, and any other required applications, setting up
the network, configuring the firewall, and setting up storage for data. After doing all the set-
up, we become responsible for maintaining it through its entire lifecycle.

But if we choose Cloud Computing, a cloud vendor is responsible for the hardware purchase
and maintenance. They also provide a wide variety of software and platform as a service. We
can take any required services on rent. The cloud computing services will be charged based on
usage.

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The cloud environment provides an easily accessible online portal that makes handy for the
user to manage the compute, storage, network, and application resources. Some cloud service
providers are in the following figure.

Advantages of cloud computing

o Cost: It reduces the huge capital costs of buying hardware and software.

o Speed: Resources can be accessed in minutes, typically within a few clicks.

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o Scalability: We can increase or decrease the requirement of resources according to the
business requirements.

o Productivity: While using cloud computing, we put less operational effort. We do not
need to apply patching, as well as no need to maintain hardware and software. So, in
this way, the IT team can be more productive and focus on achieving business goals.

o Reliability: Backup and recovery of data are less expensive and very fast for business
continuity.

o Security: Many cloud vendors offer a broad set of policies, technologies, and controls
that strengthen our data security.

Types of Cloud Computing

o Public Cloud: The cloud resources that are owned and operated by a third-party cloud
service provider are termed as public clouds. It delivers computing resources such as
servers, software, and storage over the internet

o Private Cloud: The cloud computing resources that are exclusively used inside a single
business or organization are termed as a private cloud. A private cloud may physically
be located on the company’s on-site datacentre or hosted by a third-party service
provider.

o Hybrid Cloud: It is the combination of public and private clouds, which is bounded
together by technology that allows data applications to be shared between them. Hybrid
cloud provides flexibility and more deployment options to the business.

Types of Cloud Services

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1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): In IaaS, we can rent IT infrastructures like servers

and virtual machines (VMs), storage, networks, operating systems from a cloud service
vendor. We can create VM running Windows or Linux and install anything we want on it.
Using IaaS, we don’t need to care about the hardware or virtualization software, but
other than that, we do have to manage everything else. Using IaaS, we get maximum
flexibility, but still, we need to put more effort into maintenance.

2. Platform as a Service (PaaS): This service provides an on-demand environment for

developing, testing, delivering, and managing software applications. The developer is
responsible for the application, and the PaaS vendor provides the ability to deploy and
run it. Using PaaS, the flexibility gets reduce, but the management of the environment is
taken care of by the cloud vendors.

3. Software as a Service (SaaS): It provides a centrally hosted and managed software

services to the end-users. It delivers software over the internet, on-demand, and
typically on a subscription basis. E.g., Microsoft One Drive, Dropbox, WordPress, Office
365, and Amazon Kindle. SaaS is used to minimize the operational cost to the maximum
extent.

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What is the Internet of Things (IoT)?

The term IoT, or Internet of Things, refers to the collective network of connected devices and
the technology that facilitates communication between devices and the cloud, as well as
between the devices themselves. Thanks to the advent of inexpensive computer chips and
high bandwidth telecommunication, we now have billions of devices connected to the
internet. This means everyday devices like toothbrushes, vacuums, cars, and machines can
use sensors to collect data and respond intelligently to users.

The Internet of Things integrates everyday “things” with the internet. Computer Engineers
have been adding sensors and processors to everyday objects since the 90s. However,
progress was initially slow because the chips were big and bulky. Low power computer chips
called RFID tags were first used to track expensive equipment. As computing devices shrank in
size, these chips also became smaller, faster, and smarter over time.

The cost of integrating computing power into small objects has now dropped considerably. For
example, you can add connectivity with Alexa voice services capabilities to MCUs with less
than 1MB embedded RAM, such as for light switches. A whole industry has sprung up with a
focus on filling our homes, businesses, and offices with IoT devices. These smart objects can
automatically transmit data to and from the Internet. All these “invisible computing devices”
and the technology associated with them are collectively referred to as the Internet of Things.

How does IoT work?

A typical IoT system works through the real-time collection and exchange of data. An IoT

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system has three components:

Smart devices

This is a device, like a television, security camera, or exercise equipment that has been given
computing capabilities. It collects data from its environment, user inputs, or usage patterns
and communicates data over the internet to and from its IoT application.

IoT application

An IoT application is a collection of services and software that integrates data received from
various IoT devices. It uses machine learning or artificial intelligence (AI) technology to analyze
this data and make informed decisions. These decisions are communicated back to the IoT
device and the IoT device then responds intelligently to inputs.

A graphical user interface

The IoT device or fleet of devices can be managed through a graphical user interface. Common
examples include a mobile application or website that can be used to register and control
smart devices.

What are examples of IoT devices?

Let’s look at some examples of IoT systems in use today:

Connected cars

There are many ways vehicles, such as cars, can be connected to the internet. It can be
through smart dashcams, infotainment systems, or even the vehicle's connected gateway.
They collect data from the accelerator, brakes, speedometer, odometer, wheels, and fuel tanks
to monitor both driver performance and vehicle health. Connected cars have a range of uses:

 Monitoring rental car fleets to increase fuel efficiency and reduce costs.

 Helping parents track the driving behavior of their children.

 Notifying friends and family automatically in case of a car crash.

 Predicting and preventing vehicle maintenance needs.

Connected homes

Smart home devices are mainly focused on improving the efficiency and safety of the house,
as well as improving home networking. Devices like smart outlets monitor electricity usage
and smart thermostats provide better temperature control. Hydroponic systems can use IoT
sensors to manage the garden while IoT smoke detectors can detect tobacco smoke. Home
security systems like door locks, security cameras, and water leak detectors can detect and
prevent threats, and send alerts to homeowners.

Connected devices for the home can be used for:

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 Automatically turning off devices not being used.

 Rental property management and maintenance.

 Finding misplaced items like keys or wallets.

 Automating daily tasks like vacuuming, making coffee, etc.

Smart cities

IoT applications have made urban planning and infrastructure maintenance more efficient.
Governments are using IoT applications to tackle problems in infrastructure, health, and the
environment. IoT applications can be used for:

 Measuring air quality and radiation levels.

 Reducing energy bills with smart lighting systems.

 Detecting maintenance needs for critical infrastructures such as streets, bridges, and
pipelines.

 Increasing profits through efficient parking management.

Smart buildings

Buildings such as college campuses and commercial buildings use IoT applications to drive
greater operational efficiencies. IoT devices can be use in smart buildings for:

 Reducing energy consumption.

 Lowering maintenance costs.

 Utilizing work spaces more efficiently.

What is Industrial IoT?

Industrial IoT (IIoT) refers to smart devices used in manufacturing, retail, health, and other
enterprises to create business efficiencies. Industrial devices, from sensors to equipment, give
business owners detailed, real-time data that can be used to improve business processes.
They provide insights on supply chain management, logistics, human resource, and production
– decreasing costs and increasing revenue streams.

Let’s look at existing smart industrial systems in different verticals:

Manufacturing

Enterprise IoT in manufacturing uses predictive maintenance to reduce unplanned downtime

and wearable technology to improve worker safety. IoT applications can predict machine
failure before it happens, reducing production downtime. Wearables in helmets and
wristbands, as well as computer vision cameras, are used to warn workers about potential
hazards.
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Automobile

Sensor-driven analytics and robotics increase efficiency in automobile manufacturing and

maintenance. For example, industrial sensors are used to provide 3D real-time images of
internal vehicle components. Diagnostics and troubleshooting can be done much faster while
the IoT system orders replacement parts automatically.

Logistics and transport

Commercial and Industrial IoT devices can help with supply chain management, including
inventory management, vendor relationships, fleet management, and scheduled maintenance.
Shipping companies use Industrial IoT applications to keep track of assets and optimize fuel
consumption on shipping routes. The technology is especially useful for tight temperature
control in refrigerated containers. Supply chain managers make informed predictions through
smart routing and rerouting algorithms.

Retail

Amazon is driving innovation in automation and human-machine collaboration in retail.

Amazon facilities make use of internet-connected robots for tracking, locating, sorting, and
moving products.

Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)

Generally, sensors are used in the architecture of IOT devices.

Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc.

A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement.

The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for processing
(e.g. electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device or material to detect the
presence of a particular physical quantity.
The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form like changes
in characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance, etc.

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IOT HARDWARE

Transducer :

 A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.

 It converts one type of energy into another type.

 It might be used as actuator in various systems.

1. What is data analytics?

Most companies are collecting loads of data all the time—but, in its raw form, this data
doesn’t really mean anything. This is where data analytics comes in. Data analytics
is the process of analyzing raw data in order to draw out meaningful, actionable
insights, which are then used to inform and drive smart business decisions.

A data analyst will extract raw data, organize it, and then analyze it, transforming it from
incomprehensible numbers into coherent, intelligible information. Having interpreted the
data, the data analyst will then pass on their findings in the form of suggestions or
recommendations about what the company’s next steps should be.

You can think of data analytics as a form of business intelligence, used to solve specific
problems and challenges within an organization. It’s all about finding patterns in a
dataset which can tell you something useful and relevant about a particular area of the
business—how certain customer groups behave, for example, or how employees
engage with a particular tool.

Data analytics helps you to make sense of the past and to predict future trends and
behaviors; rather than basing your decisions and strategies on guesswork, you’re
making informed choices based on what the data is telling you.

How businesses use data analytics

Armed with the insights drawn from the data, businesses and organizations are able to
develop a much deeper understanding of their audience, their industry, and their
company as a whole—and, as a result, are much better equipped to make decisions
and plan ahead.

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Understand better by watching? Learn more about the basics of data analytics from Will
in the following video:

2. What’s the difference

between data analytics and
data science?
You’ll find that the terms “data science” and “data analytics” tend to be used
interchangeably. However, they are two different fields and denote two distinct career
paths. What’s more, they each have a very different impact on the business or
organization.

Despite their differences, it’s important to recognize that data science and data analytics
work together, and both make extremely valuable contributions to business.

You can learn more about the differences between a data scientist and a data
analyst in our guide, but for now let’s cover two key differences.

Key difference 1: What they do

with the data
One key difference between data scientists and data analysts lies in what they do with
the data and the outcomes they achieve.

A data analyst will seek to answer specific questions or address particular challenges
that have already been identified and are known to the business. To do this, they
examine large datasets with the goal of identifying trends and patterns. They then
“visualize” their findings in the form of charts, graphs, and dashboards. These
visualizations are shared with key stakeholders and used to make informed, data-driven
strategic decisions.

A data scientist, on the other hand, considers what questions the business should or
could be asking. They design new processes for data modeling, write algorithms,
devise predictive models, and run custom analyses. For example: They might build a
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machine to leverage a dataset and automate certain actions based on that data—and,
with continuous monitoring and testing, and as new patterns and trends emerge,
improve and optimize that machine wherever possible.

In short: data analysts tackle and solve discrete questions about data, often on request,
revealing insights that can be acted upon by other stakeholders, while data scientists
build systems to automate and optimize the overall functioning of the business.

Key difference 2: Tools and skills

Another main difference lies in the tools and skills required for each role.

Data analysts are typically expected to be proficient in software like Excel and, in some
cases, querying and programming languages like SQL, R, SAS, and Python. Analysts
need to be comfortable using such tools and languages to carry out data mining,
statistical analysis, database management and reporting.

Data scientists, on the other hand, might be expected to be proficient in Hadoop, Java,
Python, machine learning, and object-oriented programming, together with software
development, data mining, and data analysis.

3. What are the different

types of data analysis?
Now we have a working definition of data analytics, let’s explore the four main types of
data analysis: descriptive, diagnostic, predictive, and prescriptive.

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Descriptive analytics
Descriptive analytics is a simple, surface-level type of analysis that looks at what has
happened in the past. The two main techniques used in descriptive analytics are data
aggregation and data mining—so, the data analyst first gathers the data and presents it
in a summarized format (that’s the aggregation part) and then “mines” the data to
discover patterns.

The data is then presented in a way that can be easily understood by a wide audience
(not just data experts). It’s important to note that descriptive analytics doesn’t try to
explain the historical data or establish cause-and-effect relationships; at this stage, it’s
simply a case of determining and describing the “what”. Descriptive analytics draws
on the concept of descriptive statistics.

Diagnostic analytics
While descriptive analytics looks at the “what”, diagnostic analytics explores the
“why”. When running diagnostic analytics, data analysts will first seek to identify
anomalies within the data—that is, anything that cannot be explained by the data in front
of them. For example: If the data shows that there was a sudden drop in sales for the
month of March, the data analyst will need to investigate the cause.

To do this, they’ll embark on what’s known as the discovery phase, identifying any
additional data sources that might tell them more about why such anomalies arose.
Finally, the data analyst will try to uncover causal relationships—for example, looking at
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any events that may correlate or correspond with the decrease in sales. At this stage,
data analysts may use probability theory, regression analysis, filtering, and time-series
data analytics.

Learn more in our guide to diagnostic analytics.

Predictive analytics
Just as the name suggests, predictive analytics tries to predict what is likely to happen
in the future. This is where data analysts start to come up with actionable, data-driven
insights that the company can use to inform their next steps.

Predictive analytics estimates the likelihood of a future outcome based on historical data
and probability theory, and while it can never be completely accurate, it does eliminate
much of the guesswork from key business decisions.

Predictive analytics can be used to forecast all sorts of outcomes—from what products
will be most popular at a certain time, to how much the company revenue is likely to
increase or decrease in a given period. Ultimately, predictive analytics is used to
increase the business’s chances of “hitting the mark” and taking the most appropriate
action.

Learn more about this in our full guide to predictive analytics.

Prescriptive analytics
Building on predictive analytics, prescriptive analytics advises on the actions and
decisions that should be taken.

In other words, prescriptive analytics shows you how you can take advantage of the
outcomes that have been predicted. When conducting prescriptive analysis, data
analysts will consider a range of possible scenarios and assess the different actions the
company might take.

Prescriptive analytics is one of the more complex types of analysis, and may involve
working with algorithms, machine learning, and computational modeling procedures.

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However, the effective use of prescriptive analytics can have a huge impact on the
company’s decision-making process and, ultimately, on the bottom line.

The type of analysis you carry out will also depend on the kind of data you’re working
with. If you’re not already familiar, it’s worth learning about the four levels of data
measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

Artificial intelligence (AI) vs. machine learning (ML)

You might hear people use artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML)
interchangeably, especially when discussing big data, predictive analytics, and other
digital transformation topics. The confusion is understandable as artificial intelligence
and machine learning are closely related. However, these trending technologies differ in
several ways, including scope, applications, and more.

Increasingly AI and ML products have proliferated as businesses use them to process

and analyze immense volumes of data, drive better decision-making, generate
recommendations and insights in real time, and create accurate forecasts and
predictions.

So, what exactly is the difference when it comes to ML vs. AI, how are ML and AI
connected, and what do these terms mean in practice for organizations today?

We’ll break down AI vs. ML and explore how these two innovative concepts are related
and what makes them different from each other.

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Introduction to generative AI

What is artificial intelligence?

Artificial intelligence is a broad field, which refers to the use of technologies to build
machines and computers that have the ability to mimic cognitive functions associated
with human intelligence, such as being able to see, understand, and respond to spoken
or written language, analyze data, make recommendations, and more.

Although artificial intelligence is often thought of as a system in itself, it is a set of

technologies implemented in a system to enable it to reason, learn, and act to solve a
complex problem.

What is machine learning?

Machine learning is a subset of artificial intelligence that automatically enables a

machine or system to learn and improve from experience. Instead of explicit
programming, machine learning uses algorithms to analyze large amounts of data, learn
from the insights, and then make informed decisions.

Machine learning algorithms improve performance over time as they are trained—
exposed to more data. Machine learning models are the output, or what the program
learns from running an algorithm on training data. The more data used, the better the
model will get.
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How are AI and ML connected?

While AI and ML are not quite the same thing, they are closely connected. The simplest
way to understand how AI and ML relate to each other is:

 AI is the broader concept of enabling a machine or system to sense, reason, act,

or adapt like a human
 ML is an application of AI that allows machines to extract knowledge from data
and learn from it autonomously

One helpful way to remember the difference between machine learning and artificial
intelligence is to imagine them as umbrella categories. Artificial intelligence is the
overarching term that covers a wide variety of specific approaches and algorithms.
Machine learning sits under that umbrella, but so do other major subfields, such as deep
learning, robotics, expert systems, and natural language processing.

Differences between AI and ML

Now that you understand how they are connected, what is the main difference between
AI and ML?

While artificial intelligence encompasses the idea of a machine that can mimic human
intelligence, machine learning does not. Machine learning aims to teach a machine how
to perform a specific task and provide accurate results by identifying patterns.

Let’s say you ask your Google Nest device, “How long is my commute today?” In this
case, you ask a machine a question and receive an answer about the estimated time it
will take you to drive to your office. Here, the overall goal is for the device to perform a
task successfully—a task that you would generally have to do yourself in a real-world
environment (for example, research your commute time).

In the context of this example, the goal of using ML in the overall system is not to enable
it to perform a task. For instance, you might train algorithms to analyze live transit and
traffic data to forecast the volume and density of traffic flow. However, the scope is
limited to identifying patterns, how accurate the prediction was, and learning from the
data to maximize performance for that specific task.

Artificial intelligence
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 AI allows a machine to simulate human intelligence to solve problems

 The goal is to develop an intelligent system that can perform complex tasks
 We build systems that can solve complex tasks like a human
 AI has a wide scope of applications
 AI uses technologies in a system so that it mimics human decision-making
 AI works with all types of data: structured, semi-structured, and unstructured
 AI systems use logic and decision trees to learn, reason, and self-correct

Machine learning

 ML allows a machine to learn autonomously from past data

 The goal is to build machines that can learn from data to increase the accuracy of
the output
 We train machines with data to perform specific tasks and deliver accurate results
 Machine learning has a limited scope of applications
 ML uses self-learning algorithms to produce predictive models
 ML can only use structured and semi-structured data
 ML systems rely on statistical models to learn and can self-correct when provided
with new data

Benefits of using AI and ML together

AI and ML bring powerful benefits to organizations of all shapes and sizes, with new
possibilities constantly emerging. In particular, as the amount of data grows in size and
complexity, automated and intelligent systems are becoming vital to helping companies
automate tasks, unlock value, and generate actionable insights to achieve better
outcomes.

Here are some of the business benefits of using artificial intelligence and machine
learning:

Wider data ranges

Analyzing and activating a wider range of unstructured and structured data sources.

Faster decision-making

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Improving data integrity, accelerating data processing, and reducing human error for
more informed, faster decision-making.

Efficiency

Increasing operational efficiency and reducing costs.

Analytic integration

Empowering employees by integrating predictive analytics and insights into business

reporting and applications.

Applications of AI and ML

Artificial intelligence and machine learning can be applied in many ways, allowing
organizations to automate repetitive or manual processes that help drive informed
decision-making.

Companies across industries are using AI and ML in various ways to transform how
they work and do business. Incorporating AI and ML capabilities into their strategies and
systems helps organizations rethink how they use their data and available resources,
drive productivity and efficiency, enhance data-driven decision-making through
predictive analytics, and improve customer and employee experiences.

Here are some of the most common applications of AI and ML:

Healthcare and life sciences

Patient health record analysis and insights, outcome forecasting and modeling,
accelerated drug development, augmented diagnostics, patient monitoring, and
information extraction from clinical notes.

Manufacturing

Production machine monitoring, predictive maintenance, IoT analytics, and operational

efficiency.

Ecommerce and retail

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Inventory and supply chain optimization, demand forecasting, visual search,

personalized offers and experiences, and recommendation engines.

Financial services

Risk assessment and analysis, fraud detection, automated trading, and service
processing optimization.

Telecommunications

Intelligent networks and network optimization, predictive maintenance, business process

automation, upgrade planning, and capacity forecasting.

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