DOYEN PUBLISHERS

JUNIOR SCHOOL GUIDE

NOTES

INTEGRATED SCIENCE
GRADE 9

0780802443

[email protected]
 First published 2025

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Table of Contents
NATIONAL GOALS OF EDUCATION IN KENYA........................................................................................7
LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR JUNIOR SCHOOL ......................................................................................9
ESSENCE STATEMENT................................................................................................................................. 10
SUBJECT GENERAL LEARNING OUTCOMES ........................................................................................ 11
1. MIXTURES, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS ........................................................................................... 12
1.1. STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM................................................................................................................. 12
1.2. Atomic number and mass number of elements ........................................................................................ 12
1.3. Table showing atomic number and mass number of the First 20 elements........................................... 13
1.4. Electron arrangements in atoms ............................................................................................................... 14
1.5. Electron arrangement of the first 20 elements of the periodic table ...................................................... 14
1.6. Classification of elements as metals or non-metals .................................................................................. 17
1.7. Grouping the first 20 elements into metals and non-metals ................................................................... 18
1.8. Modeling the atomic structure of selected elements ................................................................................ 19
1.9. METALS AND ALLOYS........................................................................................................................... 21
1.10. Metals and non-metals ............................................................................................................................. 21
1.11. Physical properties of metals ................................................................................................................... 21
1.12. Experiment to find out the color of metals ............................................................................................. 21
1.13. Experiment to demonstrate the malleability of metals ......................................................................... 22
1.14. Experiment to demonstrate thermal conductivity in metals ................................................................ 23
1.15. Experiment to demonstrate electrical conductivity in metals .............................................................. 24
1.16. Composition of alloys ............................................................................................................................... 25
1.17. Uses of common metals and alloys .......................................................................................................... 25
1.18. Rusting of iron .......................................................................................................................................... 28
1.19. Experiment to investigating the causes of rusting of iron ..................................................................... 28
1.20. Effects of rusting ....................................................................................................................................... 29
1.21. Ways of preventing rusting ...................................................................................................................... 30
1.22. Importance of common alloys ................................................................................................................. 30
1.23. WATER HARDNESS............................................................................................................................... 30
1.24. Physical properties of water .................................................................................................................... 31
1.25. Experiment to study the colour, odour, and taste of water from different sources............................. 31
1.26. Experiment to determine the boiling point of different samples of water ........................................... 32
1.27. Hard and soft water .................................................................................................................................. 33

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 1.28. Differences between soft and hard water ............................................................................................... 34
1.29. Methods of softening hard water in day-to-day life .............................................................................. 34
1.30. Practical experiment to soften temporary hard water by boiling ........................................................ 35
1.31. Practical experiment to soften hard water by distillation ..................................................................... 37
1.32. Practical experiment softening temporary hard water using sodium carbonate (washing soda) ..... 38
1.33. Advantages of hard water ........................................................................................................................ 40
1.34. Disadvantages of hard water ................................................................................................................... 40
1.35. Advantages of soft water .......................................................................................................................... 40
1.36. Disadvantages of soft water ..................................................................................................................... 41
1.37. Applications of soft water ........................................................................................................................ 41
1.38. Applications of hard water ...................................................................................................................... 41
2. LIVING THINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT ........................................................................................... 42
2.1. NUTRITION IN PLANTS ......................................................................................................................... 42
2.2. External parts of a leaf ............................................................................................................................... 42
2.3. Internal structure of a leaf ......................................................................................................................... 43
2.4. Adaptations of the leaf to photosynthesis ................................................................................................. 44
2.5. Structure of the chloroplast ....................................................................................................................... 45
2.6. Process of photosynthesis ........................................................................................................................... 45
2.7. Practical experiment to test for the presence of starch in a leaf ............................................................. 47
2.8. Conditions necessary for photosynthesis .................................................................................................. 49
2.9. Experiment to investigate if light is necessary for photosynthesis ......................................................... 49
2.10. Experiment to investigate if Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis .................................... 50
2.11. Experiment to investigate if chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis............................................ 51
2.12. Experiment to investigate whether oxygen is produced during photosynthesis ................................. 53
2.13. NUTRITION IN ANIMALS .................................................................................................................... 54
2.14. Modes of nutrition in animals ................................................................................................................. 54
2.15. Structure and functions of different types of teeth ................................................................................ 55
2.16. Classifying animals based on their dentition.......................................................................................... 56
2.17. Classification of animals based on the food they eat ............................................................................. 56
2.18. Adaptations of herbivores to their feeding habits.................................................................................. 58
2.19. Adaptations of carnivores to their feeding habits .................................................................................. 58
2.20. Adaptations of omnivores to their mode of feeding............................................................................... 58
2.21. Process of digestion in human beings ..................................................................................................... 58
2.22. Parts of the digestive system .................................................................................................................... 59
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2.23. Digestion of food in the mouth................................................................................................................. 59
2.24. Digestion of food in the stomach ............................................................................................................. 60
2.25. Digestion of food in the duodenum ......................................................................................................... 61
2.26. Digestion in the Ileum .............................................................................................................................. 61
2.27. Large Intestines (Colon) ........................................................................................................................... 62
2.28. REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS ............................................................................................................. 62
2.29. Parts of a flower ........................................................................................................................................ 62
2.30. Functions of parts of a flower .................................................................................................................. 63
2.31. Pollination in plants .................................................................................................................................. 63
2.32. Types of pollination .................................................................................................................................. 64
2.33. Agents of pollination ................................................................................................................................. 65
2.34. Characteristics of wind-pollinated flowers ............................................................................................. 66
2.35. Characteristics of insect-pollinated flowers ........................................................................................... 66
2.36. Differences between insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers .................................................... 66
2.37. Effects of agrochemicals on pollinating agents and their effects on reproduction in plants.............. 67
2.38. Fertilisation and fruit formation in flowering plants ............................................................................ 67
2.39. Categorizing fruits and seeds based on their mode of dispersal ........................................................... 68
2.40. Importance of seed and fruit dispersal ................................................................................................... 69
2.41. Roles of flowers in our environment ....................................................................................................... 69
2.42. THE INTERDEPENDENCE OF LIFE .................................................................................................. 69
2.43. Interrelationship between living components in the environment ....................................................... 70
2.44. Interrelationship between biotic factors of the environment ................................................................ 70
2.45. Interrelationship between predators and preys ..................................................................................... 71
2.46. Interrelationship between parasites and hosts ....................................................................................... 71
2.47. Symbiotic and saprophytic interrelationships ....................................................................................... 72
2.48. Roles of decomposers in an ecosystem .................................................................................................... 72
2.49. Effects of abiotic factors of the environment on living organisms ....................................................... 72
2.50. Effects of water on living organisms ....................................................................................................... 72
2.51. Effects of wind on living organisms ........................................................................................................ 73
2.52. Effects of light on living organisms ......................................................................................................... 73
2.53. Effects of salinity on living organisms .................................................................................................... 73
2.54. Effects of temperature, atmospheric pressure and pH on living organisms ....................................... 74
2.55. Food chain ................................................................................................................................................. 74
2.56. Constructing simple foodchains .............................................................................................................. 75
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 2.57. Food webs .................................................................................................................................................. 75
2.58. Effects of human activities on the environment ..................................................................................... 77
3. FORCE AND ENERGY .................................................................................................................................... 78
3.1. CURVED MIRRORS ................................................................................................................................ 78
3.2. Types of mirrors .......................................................................................................................................... 78
3.3. Terms used in curved mirrors ................................................................................................................... 79
3.4. Determining the focal length of a concave mirror ................................................................................... 80
3.5. Drawing ray diagrams to locate images formed by concave and convex mirrors ................................ 81
3.6. Locating images of objects in front of a concave mirror ......................................................................... 86
3.7. Locating images of objects in front of a convex mirror .......................................................................... 94
3.8. Illustrating images formed by curved mirrors using ray diagrams ....................................................... 96
3.9. Characteristics of images formed by a concave mirror when object is at various positions............... 97
3.10. Characteristics of images formed by a convex mirror when object is at various positions............... 97
3.11. Applications of curved mirrors in our day-to-day life........................................................................... 97
3.12. WAVES...................................................................................................................................................... 98
3.13. Generation of waves ................................................................................................................................. 98
3.14. Demonstrating the generation of waves using a slinky spring ............................................................. 98
3.15. Demonstrating the generation of waves using a rope .......................................................................... 100
3.16. Demonstrating the generation of waves using water ........................................................................... 101
3.17. Demonstrating the generation of waves using sound .......................................................................... 101
3.18. Demonstrating phase in waves .............................................................................................................. 103
3.19. Classification of waves as longitudnal and traverse ............................................................................ 103
3.20. Characteristics of waves ......................................................................................................................... 105
3.21. Parts of a traverse wave ......................................................................................................................... 106
3.22. Remote sensing in relation to waves ..................................................................................................... 106
3.23. Application of waves in our day-to-day life .......................................................................................... 108
3.24. Applications of remote sensing .............................................................................................................. 108

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NATIONAL GOALS OF EDUCATION IN KENYA
Education in Kenya should:
1. Foster nationalism and patriotism and promote national unity.
Kenya’s people belong to different communities, races and religions, but these differences need not divide
them. They must be able to live and interact as Kenyans. It is a paramount duty of education to help young
people acquire this sense of nationhood by removing conflicts and promoting positive attitudes of mutual
respect which enable them to live together in harmony and foster patriotism in order to make a positive
contribution to the life of the nation.

2. Promote the social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national development.
Education should prepare the youth of the country to play an effective and productive role in the life of
the nation.
a) Social Needs
Education in Kenya must prepare children for changes in attitudes and relationships which are necessary
for the smooth progress of a rapidly developing modern economy. There is bound to be a silent social
revolution following in the wake of rapid modernization. Education should assist our youth to adapt to
this change.
b) Economic Needs
Education in Kenya should produce citizens with the skills, knowledge, expertise and personal qualities
that are required to support a growing economy. Kenya is building up a modern and independent economy
which is in need of an adequate and relevant domestic workforce.
c) Technological and Industrial Needs
Education in Kenya should provide learners with the necessary skills and attitudes for industrial
development. Kenya recognizes the rapid industrial and technological changes taking place, especially in
the developed world. We can only be part of this development if our education system is deliberately
focused on the knowledge, skills and attitudes that will prepare our young people for these changing global
trends.

3. Promote individual development and self-fulfillment

Education should provide opportunities for the fullest development of individual talents and personality.
It should help children to develop their potential interests and abilities. A vital aspect of individual
development is the building of character.

4. Promote sound moral and religious values.

Education should provide for the development of knowledge, skills and attitudes that will enhance the
acquisition of sound moral values and help children to grow up into self-disciplined, self-reliant and
integrated citizens.

5. Promote social equality and responsibility.

Education should promote social equality and foster a sense of social responsibility within an education
system which provides equal educational opportunities for all. It should give all children varied and
challenging opportunities for collective activities and corporate social service irrespective of gender,
ability or geographical environment.

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6. Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures.
Education should instill in the youth of Kenya an understanding of past and present cultures and their
valid place in contemporary society. Children should be able to blend the best of traditional values with
the changing requirements that must follow rapid development in order to build a stable and modern
society.

7. Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other nations.
Kenya is part of the international community. It is part of the complicated and interdependent network of
peoples and nations. Education should therefore lead the youth of the country to accept membership of
this international community with all the obligations and responsibilities, rights and benefits that this
membership entails.

8. Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection.

Education should inculcate in young people the value of good health in order for them to avoid indulging
in activities that will lead to physical or mental ill health. It should foster positive attitudes towards
environmental development and conservation. It should lead the youth of Kenya to appreciate the need
for a healthy environment.

«Extracted from the KICD Curriculum

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LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR JUNIOR SCHOOL
By end of Junior School, the learner should be able to:
1. Apply literacy, numeracy and logical thinking skills for appropriate self-expression. Students
should be able to read and write with confidence. This includes understanding different genres,
composing coherent texts and interpreting information from various sources. Students should
understand basic mathematical concepts like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and
be able to apply these in real-life scenarios. Encouraging problem-solving and critical thinking
through puzzles, simple coding activities and science experiments.
2. Communicate effectively, verbally and non-verbally, in diverse contexts. Participating in group
discussions, presenting ideas clearly and listening actively. Using body language, facial expressions
and gestures to enhance understanding and express emotions.
3. Demonstrate social skills, spiritual and moral values for peaceful co-existence. Practicing
teamwork, empathy and conflict resolution. Learning about honesty, respect, and responsibility
through stories, role-playing and classroom discussions.
4. Explore, manipulate, manage and conserve the environment effectively for learning and
sustainable development. Engaging in hands-on activities like planting trees, recycling projects
and nature walks. Understanding the importance of reducing waste and protecting natural resources
through classroom projects and field trips.
5. Practice relevant hygiene, sanitation and nutrition skills to promote health. Teaching proper
handwashing techniques, personal cleanliness and the importance of dental care. Understanding
waste disposal, keeping personal and communal spaces clean. Learning about balanced diets,
recognizing healthy food choices and understanding the impact of nutrition on overall health.
6. Demonstrate ethical behaviour and exhibit good citizenship as a civic responsibility.
Discussing concepts of fairness, respect and integrity through stories and classroom activities.
Participating in community service, understanding civic duties and respecting diverse perspectives.
7. Appreciate the country's rich and diverse cultural heritage for harmonious co-existence.
Learning about various cultural practices, traditions and celebrations through activities, guest
speakers and cultural events. Encouraging respect for diversity and inclusion through collaborative
projects and discussions.
8. Manage pertinent and contemporary issues in society effectively. Discussing current affairs,
events and social issues in age-appropriate ways. Encouraging students to think critically about
solutions and their roles in addressing societal challenges.
9. Apply digital literacy skills for communication and learning. Using educational software,
engaging with online resources responsibly and understanding the basics of internet safety.
Leveraging digital tools to create presentations, research topics and collaborate with peers.

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ESSENCE STATEMENT
Integrated Science is an innovative and comprehensive subject area that enables learners to develop the
ability to think logically, reason critically and apply systematic methods to understand a wide range of
natural phenomena. These phenomena span the biological, physical and technological worlds, offering a
holistic view of the environment. The subject is designed to encourage students to develop a deeper
understanding of the interconnectedness of these scientific fields and to appreciate how they shape and
influence the world around them.

At the Junior School level, the primary focus of science education is to cultivate and enhance learners’
scientific thinking and curiosity. This is achieved through a range of interactive and hands-on learning
activities that promote the development of key scientific process skills such as observation,
experimentation, data analysis and problem-solving.

The overarching goal of Integrated Science is to foster a scientific mindset that empowers students to think
critically and systematically. By integrating scientific literacy into everyday learning, the subject prepares
learners to make well-informed choices in their personal lives and equips them with the tools to tackle
real-world challenges in a logical and methodical manner. This approach helps learners build confidence
in their ability to think like scientists, allowing them to approach issues from multiple perspectives and
make decisions grounded in evidence and rational thought.

Additionally, Integrated Science provides learners with a solid foundation in the essential skills,
knowledge, values and attitudes necessary for advancing into specialized studies in Science, Technology,
Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) at the Senior School level. It encourages learners to appreciate the
relevance of scientific knowledge in solving everyday problems while simultaneously preparing them for
the complex, technology-driven world of the future. The importance of this subject is highlighted by its
alignment with the strategic goals of Kenya Vision 2030, as well as the priorities set out in Sessional
Papers No. 14 of 2012 and No. 1 of 2019, all of which emphasize the vital role of Science, Technology
and Innovation (STI) in the nation’s educational framework. These documents highlight the critical need
to equip learners with the necessary skills to thrive in a rapidly changing, technology-centric world.

Integrated Science is designed to be taught using inquiry-based learning methods, which prioritize active
exploration, questioning and problem-solving. This approach encourages students to engage with
scientific concepts in a hands-on and experiential manner. The 5Es model; engagement, exploration,
explanation, elaboration and evaluation; guides the learning process, ensuring that students are not only
actively involved in discovering new knowledge but also develop the skills to apply this knowledge
effectively in diverse contexts. Through these strategies, Integrated Science aims to nurture a generation
of scientifically literate individuals who are capable of contributing to the advancement of science and
technology in both local and global contexts.

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SUBJECT GENERAL LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of Junior School, the learner should be able to:
1. Acquire scientific knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to make informed choices on career
pathways at Senior School. Learners should gain scientific understanding that will help them make
informed decisions about their future careers, particularly in science-related fields. This includes not
only knowledge but also the attitudes and values needed to explore various professions in senior
school.
2. Select, improvise and safely use basic scientific tools, apparatus, materials and chemicals
effectively in everyday life. Learners should be able to safely and effectively use basic scientific
tools and materials in practical situations. This skill is essential for real-life applications of science,
whether in the laboratory or everyday activities.
3. Explore, manipulate, manage and conserve the environment for learning and sustainable
development. The aim is to help learners develop a sense of responsibility for the environment by
learning to manage and conserve natural resources. This outcome also ties into the idea of
sustainability and making eco-friendly decisions.
4. Practice relevant hygiene, sanitation and nutrition skills to promote good health. Learners
should learn and apply practical skills for maintaining hygiene, sanitation and good nutrition. This
supports personal health and well-being, as well as contributing to overall community health.
5. Apply the understanding of body systems with a view to promote and maintain good health.
Knowledge of body systems should lead to an understanding of how they function and how to
maintain health. This encourages learners to apply this knowledge to their own lifestyle choices and
health practices.
6. Develop capacity for scientific inquiry and problem solving in different situations. Developing
critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills is essential. Learners should be able to apply scientific
methods to solve real-world problems and questions, fostering analytical thinking.
7. Appreciate the use of scientific knowledge, skills, principles and practices in everyday life. This
outcome encourages learners to recognize the relevance of science in their daily activities. They
should understand how scientific principles can improve their lives, from technology to health
practices.
8. Apply acquired scientific knowledge, skills, principles and practices in everyday life. Learners
should be able to apply the knowledge, skills and principles they’ve learned in practical, everyday
situations. This ensures that their scientific education is grounded in real-life contexts and is useful
in their daily interactions with the world.

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1. MIXTURES, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
1.1. STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
- Matter is made of tiny particles. These particles can be divided further by chemical means.
- When they can no longer be divided without changing the properties of the element, the particles at
this stage are called atoms. All forms of matter are made of atoms. Therefore, atoms are the basic
building blocks of matter.
- An atom is the smallest particle into which an element can be divided without losing the properties
of the element.
- An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains all the chemical properties of the element.
An atom cannot be broken down chemically.

- An atom has two main regions: the nucleus and the energy levels.
- An atom has three subatomic particles: electrons, protons and neutrons. These are smaller particles
within the atom.
- Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus, while electrons move around the nucleus in regions known
as energy levels. An atom can have more than one energy level, depending on the number of
electrons it has.
- The subatomic particles differ in terms of their charges, masses, and locations within the atom.
- The atom of one element is different from the atom of a different element. An iron atom is different
from a copper atom, a copper atom is different from a zinc atom, and so forth.
- Therefore, there are as many atoms as there are elements. There are about 118 different types of
elements that have been discovered, so we know of 118 different types of atoms.
- Most atoms do not exist independently because they are usually unstable on their own and must
bond with other atoms.

1.2. Atomic number and mass number of elements

- The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. The atomic number is used
to differentiate one element from another.
- The mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom of an element.
- Both the mass number and atomic number can be written alongside the symbol of an element. The
mass number is written as a superscript, while the atomic number is written as a subscript.
- For example, lithium, with an atomic number of 3 and a mass number of 7, can be represented as 73Li
- All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons and electrons.
- Atoms of different elements have different numbers of protons. For example, all helium atoms have
two protons, and no other element has atoms with two protons.
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- All carbon atoms have six protons, while all sodium atoms have eleven protons.

1.3. Table showing atomic number and mass number of the First 20
elements
Element Symbol Atomic Number Mass Number Illustration
1
Hydrogen H 1 1 1Li

4
Helium He 2 4 2He

7
Lithium Li 3 7 3Li

9
Beryllium Be 4 9 4Be

11
Boron B 5 11 5B

12
Carbon C 6 12 6C

14
Nitrogen N 7 14 7N

16
Oxygen O 8 16 8O

19
Fluorine F 9 19 9F

20
Neon Ne 10 20 10 Ne

23
Sodium Na 11 23 11 Na

24
Magnesium Mg 12 24 12 Mg

27
Aluminum Al 13 27 13 Al

28
Silicon Si 14 28 14 Si

Phosphorus P 15 31 31
15 P

32
Sulfur S 16 32 16 S

Chlorine Cl 17 35 35
17 Cl

40
Argon Ar 18 40 18 Ar

39
Potassium K 19 39 19K

40
Calcium Ca 20 40 20 Ca

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1.4. Electron arrangements in atoms
- Electron arrangement is the distribution of electrons in the energy levels of an atom.
- To determine the electron arrangement of a specific element, one must know the number of electrons
that the element has.
- Electrons occupy regions around the nucleus known as energy levels. The energy levels are
numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on, starting with the one closest to the nucleus.
- Each energy level can only accommodate a given maximum number of electrons. The first energy
level holds a maximum of two electrons.
- The second energy level holds a maximum of eight electrons, and the third energy level
accommodates a maximum of eight electrons.
- When an energy level is full, additional electrons occupy the next energy level until it is completely
filled, as shown below.

- Certain atoms are stable, while others are unstable. An atom is most stable when its outermost
energy level contains the maximum number of electrons. For example, helium (2), neon (2.8), and
argon (2.8.8).
- Atoms whose outermost energy level does not contain its maximum number of electrons are
unstable.
- Atoms with an unstable electron arrangement gain stability by either gaining electrons, losing
electrons, or sharing electrons. Examples of unstable atoms include oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and
carbon, among others.

1.5. Electron arrangement of the first 20 elements of the periodic table

Element Atomic Number of Electron Diagram showing Electron
Number Electrons Arrangement arrangement
Hydrogen 1 1 1

Helium 2 2 2

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Lithium 3 3 2.1

Beryllium 4 4 2.2

Boron 5 5 2.3

Carbon 6 6 2.4

Nitrogen 7 7 2.5

Oxygen 8 8 2.6

Fluorine 9 9 2.7

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Neon 10 10 2.8

Sodium 11 11 2.8.1

Magnesium 12 12 2.8.2

Aluminium 13 13 2.8.3

Silicon 14 14 2.8.4

Phosphorus 15 15 2.8.5

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 Sulphur 16 16 2.8.6

Chlorine 17 17 2.8.7

Argon 18 18 2.8.8

Potassium 19 19 2.8.8.1

Calcium 20 20 2.8.8.2

1.6. Classification of elements as metals or non-metals

- Electron arrangement can be used to classify elements as either metals or non-metals.
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- Metals have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outermost energy level, with the exception of helium and
hydrogen, which are non-metals.
- Examples of metals are:
➢ Lithium
➢ Beryllium
➢ Sodium
➢ Aluminum
- Lithium is a metal because it has one electron in its outermost energy level. Boron is neither a metal
nor a non-metal.
- Non-metals have 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 electrons in their outermost energy level.
- Examples of elements that are non-metals are:
➢ Carbon
➢ Nitrogen
➢ Oxygen
➢ Fluorine
➢ Helium
➢ Hydrogen
➢ Neon
- Oxygen has six electrons in its outermost energy level, while nitrogen has five electrons in its
outermost energy level. Silicon is neither a metal nor a non-metal.

1.7. Grouping the first 20 elements into metals and non-metals

Element Atomic Number of Electron Metal or Non-
Number Electrons Arrangement metal
Hydrogen 1 1 1 Non-metal
Helium 2 2 2 Non-metal
Lithium 3 3 2, 1 Metal
Beryllium 4 4 2, 2 Metal
Boron 5 5 2, 3 Non-metal
Carbon 6 6 2, 4 Non-metal
Nitrogen 7 7 2, 5 Non-metal
Oxygen 8 8 2, 6 Non-metal
Fluorine 9 9 2, 7 Non-metal
Neon 10 10 2, 8 Non-metal
Sodium 11 11 2, 8, 1 Metal
Magnesium 12 12 2, 8, 2 Metal
Aluminium 13 13 2, 8, 3 Metal
Silicon 14 14 2, 8, 4 Non-metal
Phosphorus 15 15 2, 8, 5 Non-metal
Sulfur 16 16 2, 8, 6 Non-metal
Chlorine 17 17 2, 8, 7 Non-metal
Argon 18 18 2, 8, 8 Non-metal

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 Potassium 19 19 2, 8, 8, 1 Metal
Calcium 20 20 2, 8, 8, 2 Metal

1.8. Modeling the atomic structure of selected elements

1. Choose the element whose atomic structure you want to model. Start by selecting an element
from the periodic table. This could be an element you're studying in class or one that interests you.
Consider choosing an element that has a manageable atomic number for the purpose of building a
visual model. For example, elements with atomic numbers between 1 and 20 are ideal for beginners.
2. Write its atomic number. Once you know the atomic number, determine the number of
protons, neutrons and electrons that the atom has. The atomic number of an element tells you the
number of protons in the nucleus of the atom, as well as the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus
in a neutral atom. For instance, the atomic number of Carbon is 6, which means it has 6 protons and
6 electrons. To find the number of neutrons, subtract the atomic number from the atomic mass
(which is usually a whole number for simplicity). For example, Carbon’s atomic mass is
approximately 12, so it has 6 neutrons (12 - 6 = 6).
3. Glue the beads together to represent the nucleus (protons and neutrons). Now that you know the
number of protons and neutrons, gather the corresponding number of beads. Use different colors for
protons and neutrons to differentiate between them. For example, you could use red beads for
protons and blue beads for neutrons. Arrange the beads in the shape of a small cluster to represent
the nucleus, and try to alternate between protons and neutrons, as shown in Figure 1.5. This step
helps you visualize the dense, central core of the atom.

4. Use a pair of scissors to cut out small, medium, and large cardboard rings. You will need to
create three different sizes of cardboard rings. These will represent the energy levels or electron
shells of the atom. Cut out a small, medium, and large ring, ensuring that each is large enough to
hold the appropriate number of electrons, as detailed in the next step. For example, in the case of
Carbon (atomic number 6), you will need a small ring to represent the first energy level and a
medium ring for the second energy level.
Note: The number of rings will depend on the number of electron shells the atom has. For elements
with higher atomic numbers, you may need more rings to represent additional electron shells.

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5. Using a string, tie all the beads in concentric circles at the center of the cardboard rings. Place
the nucleus at the center of the cardboard rings. Using a piece of string, tie the beads (nucleus)
securely to the center of the cardboard. Ensure that the beads are placed so that they do not move
around. This step visually anchors the nucleus to the center of the atom model, with the rings
surrounding it. Make sure the strings are tight enough to hold the beads in place but loose enough to
allow the cardboard rings to move freely.

6. Glue the appropriate number of electrons to each cardboard ring. According to the atomic
number, place the correct number of electrons on the cardboard rings. Start with the smallest ring,
which represents the first electron shell. This shell can hold up to two electrons. Then move to the
next ring, which represents the second electron shell (which can hold up to eight electrons). For
Carbon, place two small beads on the first ring and four medium beads on the second ring. Continue
placing electrons in this way, adhering to the rule that the first shell can hold 2 electrons, the second
shell can hold 8, the third can hold 8, and so on. Make sure to space the beads out evenly along the
rings to mimic the orbiting of electrons.

7. Attach a piece of string to the outer circle to help you hang the model. Once your model is
complete, you can add a piece of string to the outermost ring so you can hang the model. Use a
strong piece of string and tie it securely to the edge of the outer ring. This string will serve as a way
to display your model on a wall, noticeboard, or wherever you choose. Make sure the string is long
enough to allow the model to hang freely without being too tight.

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8. Display your model on the classroom noticeboard. After assembling and hanging your atomic
structure model, place it on a noticeboard or wall in your classroom for others to see. This will allow
your peers to learn more about the atomic structure of the element you've chosen and see the model
you've created. You can even include a label with the element’s name and atomic number, and if you
want, a brief explanation of its properties or how the electrons are arranged in the atom.

1.9. METALS AND ALLOYS

- Metals and alloys are fundamental materials that play a crucial role in various aspects of modern life.
- Metals such as iron, copper and aluminum are known for their strength, conductivity and
malleability, making them essential in industries ranging from construction to electronics.
- Alloys, which are mixtures of metals with other elements, are designed to enhance the properties of
pure metals, offering improved strength, corrosion resistance and durability.

1.10. Metals and non-metals

- Metals and non-metals are among the elements that we encounter in our day-to-day life.
- Examples of metals include
❖ Aluminium ❖ Magnesium
❖ Copper ❖ Platinum
❖ Copper ❖ Silver
❖ Gold ❖ Tin
❖ Iron ❖ Zinc
❖ Lead
- Metals like sodium, potassium and lithium are not found in their free state, as they readily react with
air to form their metal oxides.
- Non-metals like nitrogen, oxygen, helium, neon and argon are found in the atmosphere.
- Carbon is a non-metal that is found freely as charcoal, soot, graphite and diamond.
- Elements that are important for plant growth include potassium, nitrogen and phosphorus.

1.11. Physical properties of metals

1.12. Experiment to find out the color of metals
Requirements
❖ Protective clothing; a pair of gloves and a laboratory coat

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 ❖ Sandpaper
❖ Metals like iron, magnesium, zinc, aluminium, copper, sodium, potassium and lithium
❖ A knife
❖ A white tile.

Procedure
1. Place the following metals on a work table: iron, magnesium, zinc, aluminium and copper.
2. Observe, state, and write the colour of each metal in your exercise book.
3. Use sandpaper to clean the metals listed in step 1. Observe the colour of each metal and record
your observations in your exercise book.
4. Place a piece of sodium metal on a dry white tile. Cut it with a knife and immediately observe its
colour. Record your observations in your exercise book.
Caution: Be careful while handling potassium, sodium and lithium metals because they are very
reactive with air and water and can explode.
5. Repeat step 4 with potassium and lithium in place of sodium.
6. Discuss your observations with your classmates.

Observations
- You noticed that metals cleaned with sandpaper have a shiny surface. Most metals are grey in colour,
except copper, which is reddish-brown and gold, which is bright yellow.
- The property of metals that makes them reflect light on their surfaces is called lustre.
- Metals are generally solids, except mercury, which is a liquid at room temperature.

1.13. Experiment to demonstrate the malleability of metals

Requirements
❖ A block of iron
❖ A small iron nail
❖ A piece of aluminium wire
❖ A hammer
❖ A piece of copper wire

Procedure
1. Copy the following table into your exercise book.
Observations made when metals are hit
Metal Iron nail Copper wire Aluminium wire
Observation The shape of the iron The copper wire bends The aluminium wire
nail changes. It may and flattens, but it may bends and flattens easily,
flatten, bend or deform crack or break after but it may break after a
but does not break repeated strikes. few strikes.
easily.
2. Place the nail on the block of iron.

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 3. Use the hammer to strike the nail hard three to four times. Observe and record your findings in
the table you drew.
Caution: Be careful while using the hammer to avoid injury to yourself and others.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3, replacing the iron nail with a piece of aluminium wire and a copper wire.
5. Discuss your observations with your classmates.

Observations
- You will observe that the shape of the iron nail, copper wire and aluminium wire changes when they
are hit with the hammer.
- The experiment demonstrates that metals like iron, copper and aluminium are malleable.
Malleability is the property of metals associated with their ability to be hammered into thin sheets
without breaking.
- Metals are also ductile. Ductility is the property of metals associated with their ability to be
stretched into wires without breaking.
- The malleability and ductility of metals are applied in the production of the following items:
a) Aluminium foil
b) Copper wire
c) Magnesium ribbon

1.14. Experiment to demonstrate thermal conductivity in metals

Requirements
❖ A pin
❖ Wax
❖ A copper rod
❖ A source of heat
❖ An aluminium rod
❖ A lead rod
❖ An iron rod
❖ A retort stand
❖ A clamp

Procedure
1. Copy the table below into your exercise book. Use it to record your observations.
Observations made when heating metals
Metal Copper Aluminium Lead Iron

2. Support the copper rod with a clamp as shown in the figure below.

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3. Fix a pin to the free end of the rod using wax.
4. Heat the rod at the end near the clamp. What do you observe about the wax and the pin after some
time?
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 using the aluminium rod, lead rod, and iron rod in place of the copper rod.
Record your observations in the table.
6. Discuss your observations with your classmates.

Observations
- You will notice that after some time, the wax melts and the pin drops when the copper rod,
aluminium rod, lead rod and iron rod are heated.
- This shows that metals are good conductors of heat.

1.15. Experiment to demonstrate electrical conductivity in metals

Requirements:
❖ Two cells
❖ Connecting copper wires
❖ A bulb holder
❖ A bulb
❖ An aluminium rod
❖ Crocodile clips
❖ A zinc rod
❖ A magnesium ribbon
❖ A copper rod
❖ An iron rod

Procedure:
1. Set up an open electric circuit as shown below.

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 2. Clip the copper rod between the gap (the parts marked A and B) to complete the circuit. Observe
whether the bulb lights up or not.
3. Record your observations in your exercise book.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 using an aluminium rod, a zinc rod, a magnesium rod, and an iron rod in
place of the copper rod.
5. Discuss your observations with your classmates.

Observations:
- You will notice that the light was produced when the circuit was completed using either an
aluminium rod, a zinc rod, a magnesium rod, a copper rod or an iron rod.
- This activity shows that metals are good conductors of electricity.

1.16. Composition of alloys

- An alloy is a uniform mixture of two or more metals, and sometimes a non-metal.
- They are formed by mixing molten metals together and allowing them to cool.
- Alloys are stronger, more resistant to corrosion, more ductile, and more durable than pure metals.
These properties make alloys more useful in day-to-day life.
- The table below shows the composition of alloys:
Name of alloy Composition
Brass Copper and zinc
Mild steel Iron and carbon
Stainless steel Iron, chromium and nickel
Tungsten steel Iron and tungsten.
Bronze Copper and tin
Duralumin Aluminium, magnesium and copper
Cast iron Iron and carbon
Pewter Tin, lead and antimony
Inconel Nickel, chromium and iron
Superalloy Nickel, chromium and cobalt

1.17. Uses of common metals and alloys

Sodium
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 - Sodium vapour is used in street lamps because it produces bright yellow light.
- It is used in making an alloy of sodium and potassium, which is used as a coolant in nuclear
reactors.
- It is used in making sodium cyanide, which is used in the extraction of gold.
- Sodium is used in the manufacture of soap and detergents.

Magnesium
- Magnesium is used in making an alloy called duralumin ( aluminium and magnesium). It is used
to make aircraft bodies due to its light weight.
- It is used in making lightweight materials for the automotive and aerospace industries.
- Magnesium is also used in the production of fireworks for its bright white light.

Copper
- Copper is used in making electrical wires because it is a good conductor of electricity.
- Copper is used in plumbing systems and pipes due to its resistance to corrosion.
- Copper is used in the production of roofing materials and coins.
- It is used in making alloys such as brass and bronze.

Zinc
- It is used as the outer casing of dry cells, where it acts as the negative terminal, since it is a good
conductor of electricity.
- It is used in making brass, an alloy of copper and zinc.
- Zinc is used for galvanizing iron to prevent rusting.
- Zinc is used in the production of batteries, particularly in alkaline and zinc-carbon batteries.

Aluminium
- Aluminium is used in making window frames, kitchen foil and food and beverage cans.
- Aluminium is used in the manufacturing of aircraft and automotive parts due to its lightweight
and corrosion-resistant properties.
- It is used in making overhead cables because it is light and a good conductor of electricity.
- It is used in the construction of solar panels.

Iron
- Cast iron (pig iron) is very brittle and hard. Therefore, it is used to make furnaces, gates,
drainage pipes and charcoal iron boxes.
- Iron is used in the construction of buildings, bridges and railways due to its strength.
- It is used in making steel alloys.
- Wrought iron is malleable; therefore, it is used to make iron sheets, nails, farm tools, springs and
anchors.

Gold
- Gold is malleable and ductile. Therefore, it is used in making gold medals and jewellery such as
necklaces, rings and bangles.

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 - It is used in electronics for connectors and circuit boards because it is a good conductor and
resistant to corrosion.
- Gold is also used in dentistry to make dental crowns and fillings.

Silver
- Silver is lustrous, resistant to corrosion and very ductile and malleable. Hence, it is used in
making jewelry such as necklaces, rings and bangles.
- It is also used to make silver medals.
- Silver is used in photography for making film emulsions.
- It is used in solar panels due to its excellent conductivity.

Mild steel
- Mild steel is ductile, stronger and harder than pure iron. Therefore, it is used to make car frames.
- It is used in the construction of buildings and bridges due to its strength and flexibility.
- Mild steel is used in the production of nails, bolts and other fasteners.

Stainless steel
- Stainless steel is harder than pure iron and does not rust. It is used to make cutlery, surgical
instruments and kitchen sinks.
- It is used in the construction of food processing equipment and chemical reactors because it is
resistant to corrosion.
- Stainless steel is used in the production of automotive parts and appliances due to its durability.

Tungsten steel
- Tungsten steel is tough and hard. It is used to make edges for high-speed cutting tools.
- It is used in the production of light bulb filaments.
- Tungsten is used in aerospace applications due to its high melting point and density.

Manganese steel
- It is used in the production of railroad tracks and high-stress components in machinery.
- Manganese steel is tough and springy. It is used to make building equipment such as cement
mixers.
- Manganese steel is used to make crusher jaws and hammer mills due to its wear resistance.

Bronze
- Bronze is harder than pure copper and highly ductile. It is also resistant to corrosion. It is used to
make medals, coins, springs and ship propellers.
- Bronze is used in the manufacture of bearings and gears.
- It is used for making statues and sculptures due to its aesthetic appeal.

Brass
- Brass is harder than copper and has a golden colour. It is used to make decorative items such as
door handles, door hinges, door locks, door knobs and musical instruments.

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 - Brass is used in the manufacture of plumbing fittings and instruments.
- It is used in the production of electrical connectors and terminals due to its good conductivity.

1.18. Rusting of iron

- When a metal is exposed to air, water, moisture or acids, it may wear out. This process of wearing
out is called corrosion.
- If the metal that undergoes corrosion is made up of Iron, the process is referred to as rusting.
- Examples of materials that rust:
❖ Iron nails
❖ Iron sheets
❖ Keys
❖ Metal doors
❖ Metal gates
❖ Metal windows
❖ Nail cutter
❖ Screws
❖ Steel wool
❖ Vehicle parts
❖ Water pipes
❖ Wires

1.19. Experiment to investigating the causes of rusting of iron

Requirements
❖ protective clothing
❖ clean iron nails
❖ cold water
❖ boiled water
❖ oil
❖ anhydrous calcium chloride
❖ sodium chloride (salt solution)
❖ cotton wool
❖ dry test tubes
❖ labels
❖ a test tube rack
❖ rubber corks.

Procedure
1. Label five dry and clean test tubes as A, B, C, D and E. Place them on a test tube rack.
2. Place a clean nail in each of the test tubes. Leave test tube A undisturbed.
3. Add clean tap water to cover the nail in test tube B.

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 4. Place a piece of cotton wool above the nail in test tube C, add two spatula full of anhydrous
calcium chloride, then place another piece of cotton wool to cover the calcium chloride. Cork the
test tube as shown.
5. Add hot boiled water to cover the nail in test tube D. Add a layer of oil on top and cork the test
tube.
6. Add sodium chloride (salt solution) to test tube E
7. Leave the setup undisturbed for one week, then make and record your observations.

8. Discuss your results with your classmates.

Observations
- In the experiment above, water in test tube D was boiled to expel dissolved air, and a layer of oil was
added to prevent any air from dissolving in the water as it cooled. Anhydrous calcium chloride
absorbed moisture from the air in test tube C.
- You observed that the nails remained clean in test tubes C and D, while in test tubes A, B, and E, the
nails were covered with a brown substance. The brown substance is called rust (hydrated iron (III)
oxide). Iron combines with oxygen to form iron (III) oxide. Iron (III) oxide reacts with water to form
rust:
Iron + Oxygen → Iron (III) oxide
Iron (III) oxide + Water → Hydrated iron (III) oxide
- Rusting occurred in test tube B because both water and oxygen were present. Some rusting occurred
in test tube A because there was some moisture in the air. More rusting took place in test tube E,
which contained sodium chloride solution. The presence of salty conditions, acidic conditions, or
high temperatures accelerates the process of rusting.
- Rust only forms on iron that is exposed to both water and oxygen.

1.20. Effects of rusting

1. It weakens iron structures, such as buildings and bridges.
2. It causes metal parts that are supposed to slide over one another to get stuck.
3. It makes holes in iron roofs, leading to leakages when it rains.
4. Rusted iron surfaces look unsightly.
5. It can cause the deterioration of machinery and equipment, leading to costly repairs or replacements.

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6. Rust can lead to structural failure in vehicles such as cars and ships, as the metal becomes brittle and
fragile.
7. It can reduce the strength and integrity of tools, making them unsafe to use.
8. Rusting can contaminate food or water if rusted containers or pipes are involved.
9. Rust on electrical connections can increase resistance hence reducing the efficiency of electrical
circuits.
10. Rusting can affect the performance of pipes and boilers, leading to decreased heat efficiency in
systems such as water heaters and industrial boilers.

1.21. Ways of preventing rusting

1. Electroplating – This is a process in which iron objects are coated with a thin layer of chromium or
tin using electricity.
2. Galvanizing – This is a process in which iron or steel is coated with a thin layer of zinc. It is done
by dipping the object in molten zinc or by spraying it with molten zinc. Zinc corrodes in preference
to iron, forming a zinc oxide coating that does not rust.
3. Making an alloy – Iron is mixed with one or more metals to produce substances such as stainless
steel (an alloy of iron, chromium and nickel) that does not rust.
4. Oiling or greasing – This is done on moving parts of machinery to form a protective film.
5. Painting – Painting objects creates a barrier between the metal and air or water. This is one of the
best ways to preserve iron. Examples of objects that are painted include ships, bridges and gates.
Repainting is necessary to ensure that the metal is not exposed.
6. Sacrificial protection – Blocks of more reactive metals such as magnesium and zinc, are attached to
iron surfaces. The more reactive metal is corroded in preference to iron. This method is used on ship
hulls, underground water pipes, gas pipes and bridges.
7. Plastic coating – This method forms a protective layer on items such as garden chairs, refrigerators
and hand tools.

1.22. Importance of common alloys

a) Aircraft bodies are made of duralumin because it is strong and lightweight.
b) Brass is used to make doorknobs and musical instruments because it is lustrous and hence good
for decorative purposes.
c) Bronze is used to make medals and statues because it is highly malleable and hence cannot easily
break when transporting statues. Bronze is also resistant to corrosion.
d) Cutleries do not rust because they are made of stainless steel.

1.23. WATER HARDNESS

- Today, we have use water for bathing, cooking or drinking. Water is precious and the most valuable
natural resource.
- On a hot day, we enjoy drinking a glass of water, which is refreshing. We also enjoy swimming in a
swimming pool or in the ocean. These and many more are uses of water.

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- Water has many unique properties that make it different from other liquids. This is why it has so
many uses.

1.24. Physical properties of water

1. It is colorless
2. It is tasteless
3. It is odourless
4. Its boiling point is 100°C
5. Its freezing point is 0°C

1.25. Experiment to study the colour, odour, and taste of water from
different sources
Requirements:
❖ Beakers
❖ Water from different sources such as distilled water, bottled water, tap water, seawater, rainwater,
borehole water, river water, lake water, drum water and lagoon water.

Procedure:
1. Draw the table below in your exercise book.
Physical properties of water
Water Sample Colour of the Water Smell of the Water Taste of the Water
Sample Sample Sample
Distilled Water
Bottled Water
Tap Water
Harvested Rain
Water
2. Put 100 ml of distilled water in a beaker. Repeat this with other samples of water in separate
beakers.
3. Observe the colour of the water. Write your observations in your table.
4. Hold the beaker of water with one hand and smell the water. Describe the smell (odour) of the
water.
Caution: Do not smell anything in the laboratory unless instructed, like in this case.
5. With guidance from your teacher, taste the water only from safe sources using clean glasses or
cups.
Be safe: Only taste water if it is from a safe source.
6. Repeat steps 2, 3 and 4 with the other water samples.
7. Record your observations in the table.
8. Discuss your findings with your classmates.

Observations
- You observed that water had neither any colour nor odour.
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- Water is a colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid in its natural state.

1.26. Experiment to determine the boiling point of different samples of

water
Requirements:
❖ distilled water
❖ borehole water or seawater
❖ tap water
❖ a rubber cork
❖ graph paper
❖ boiling chips
❖ glass tubing
❖ a thermometer
❖ a measuring cylinder
❖ a boiling tube
❖ wire gauze
❖ a retort stand and clamp
❖ a source of heat
❖ a stopwatch

Procedure:
1. Copy the table below into your exercise book. Use it to record your results.
Table 1.17: Values of Temperatures Taken at Different Times
Time (minutes) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Temperature of
water (°C)
2. Half-fill one of the boiling tubes with distilled water and add boiling chips to it.
3. Measure the temperature of the water using a thermometer. Record your measurement in the
table you created.
4. Set up your apparatus as shown in the figure below.
Caution: Do not allow the boiling tube to touch the wire gauze to avoid intense heating and
rapid boiling.

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 5. Heat the water gently, preferably by rotating the flame, and immediately start the stopwatch.
6. Measure and record the temperature of the water every half-minute until it boils. Continue
heating the water for two more minutes.
7. Use your results to draw a graph of temperature (y-axis) against time (x-axis).
8. Use your graph to determine the boiling point of the water.
9. Repeat steps 2 to 8 using two other water samples: one from borehole or seawater and the other
from tap water.

Observations:
- The boiling point of water is the constant temperature at which liquid water gets changes to water
vapour.
- When pure water is heated, the temperature rises steadily. However, when the boiling point is
reached, the temperature remains constant.

1.27. Hard and soft water

- Water hardness refers to the mineral content in water.
- Water is categorized into two types:
➢ hard water
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 ➢ soft water
- The difference between hard and soft water is based on the mineral content in each. Water is
considered hard if it contains calcium and magnesium ions.
- Soap reacts with these ions to form an insoluble substance called scum. Hard water does not lather
easily with soap.
- Hard water typically comes from groundwater sources such as rivers, lakes and wells, that pass
through or over rocks containing calcium and magnesium minerals such as limestone and gypsum.
The longer the water stays in contact with these minerals, the harder it becomes.
- Soft water is usually found in areas with low mineral content such as rainwater or water from rivers
and lakes that do not pass through limestone or other mineral-rich deposits. It can also occur in areas
where the water has been treated to remove minerals.

1.28. Differences between soft and hard water

Soft water Hard water
Easily forms lather with soap. Does not easily form lather with soap.
Does not form scum with soap. Forms scum with soap.
Does not contain calcium or magnesium Contains calcium and magnesium ions.
ions.
Tastes smoother and more pleasant. May taste bitter or metallic.
Does not cause scaling in pipes or Causes scaling in pipes and appliances.
appliances.
Softer on skin and hair. Can make skin dry and hair dull.
Often treated with sodium ions (in Naturally occurring minerals like calcium and
softening). magnesium.
Does not leave stains on laundry. Can cause stains on laundry and fixtures.

1.29. Methods of softening hard water in day-to-day life

- Water softening is the process of removing dissolved calcium ions and magnesium ions that cause
hardness in water.
- Before softening hard water, it is important to understand that there are different types of hard water:
temporary hardness and permanent hardness.
- This distinction means that different methods are required for softening hard water. Temporary
hardness can be removed by boiling, while permanent hardness cannot be removed by boiling.
- Permanent hardness is a type of hardness that cannot be removed by boiling the water. The
compounds of calcium and magnesium in water are not decomposed by heat when the water is
boiled.
- Some of the methods of softening temporary hard water are:
a) Distillation - Hard water is heated, and the water evaporates to form steam. Calcium and
magnesium compounds in water do not evaporate; they are left in the round-bottomed flask.
The steam cools and condenses to form pure water. This method removes both temporary and
permanent water hardness.

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 b) Boiling the water - When hard water is boiled, dissolved magnesium and calcium hydrogen
carbonates are decomposed into their respective insoluble salts (carbonates). These
carbonates are insoluble and can be removed by filtration to obtain soft water. This method
removes only temporary hardness.
c) Using sodium carbonate (washing soda) - In this method, sodium carbonate is added to hard
water. Sodium carbonate reacts with dissolved compounds of calcium and magnesium to
form their respective carbonates. These carbonates are insoluble and can be removed by
filtration to obtain soft water.
d) Lime soda process - In this method, a mixture of lime and soda ash is added to hard water.
The lime reacts with the calcium and magnesium ions in the water to form insoluble
precipitates, which are then removed by filtration. This method removes both temporary and
permanent hardness but is often used for industrial-scale water softening.

1.30. Practical experiment to soften temporary hard water by boiling

Requirements:
❖ Distilled water
❖ a test tube holder
❖ a test tube rack
❖ a measuring cylinder (10 ml)
❖ boiling tubes
❖ labels
❖ a stopwatch
❖ a source of heat
❖ rubber corks
❖ a burette
❖ soap solution
❖ water sample containing calcium hydrogen carbonate
❖ water sample containing magnesium hydrogen carbonate.

Procedure:
1. Copy the following table into your exercise book and use it to record your results.
Volume of soap used to form lather in different types of water
Water sample Volume of soap used before Volume of soap used after
boiling (cm³) boiling (cm³)
Distilled water
Water containing
Calcium Hydrogen
Carbonate
Water containing
Magnesium Hydrogen
Carbonate

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 2. Measure 10 cm³ of distilled water. Transfer the measured water into a boiling tube and label the
boiling tube as distilled water.
3. Repeat step 2 with other boiling tubes and water samples containing calcium hydrogen carbonate
and magnesium hydrogen carbonate instead of distilled water. Label them accordingly.
4. Boil each water sample for 10 minutes.
5. Keep the boiling tubes aside in a test tube rack. Allow the contents of the boiling tubes to cool.
6. Measure 10 cm³ of unboiled cold distilled water. Transfer the measured water into a boiling tube
and label it as cold distilled water.
7. Repeat step 6 using unboiled cold water samples containing calcium hydrogen carbonate and
magnesium hydrogen carbonate, respectively. Label the test tubes.
8. Clamp a burette onto a stand and fill it with soap solution up to the zero mark, as shown in the
figure below.

9. Add 1 cm³ of soap solution to the first sample of unboiled distilled water in a boiling tube.
10. Cork the boiling tube and shake it vigorously. If no lather is formed, add another 1 cm³ of soap
solution. Cork the boiling tube and shake it vigorously again.
11. Continue adding portions of soap solution until a permanent lather (one that lasts for 30 seconds
or more) is obtained. Record in your table the total volume used to form the permanent lather.
12. Top up the burette with the solution to the zero mark.
13. Repeat steps 8 to 11 with the unboiled water samples containing calcium hydrogen carbonate and
magnesium hydrogen carbonate. Record your observations in the table you drew.
14. Repeat steps 8 to 11 with the three water samples that were boiled and cold. Record your
observations in the table you drew.
15. Discuss your results with your classmates.

Observations:
- You noticed that the volume of soap solution required to form permanent lather with distilled water
was the same before and after boiling. You may also have noticed that distilled water used the least
volume of soap solution to form permanent lather.

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- You observed that unboiled cold water containing calcium hydrogen carbonate and magnesium
hydrogen carbonate used more soap solution to form permanent lather compared to distilled water.
- Boiled water samples containing calcium hydrogen carbonate and magnesium hydrogen carbonate
used a volume of soap solution almost equal to the soap solution used with distilled water to form
permanent lather.
- Distilled water is soft water. It does not have dissolved calcium and magnesium ions. Water samples
containing calcium hydrogen carbonate and magnesium hydrogen carbonate are hard water.
- Hard water containing calcium hydrogen carbonate and magnesium hydrogen carbonate became soft
after boiling. This is because it has temporary water hardness.

1.31. Practical experiment to soften hard water by distillation

Requirements
❖ Liebig's condenser
❖ a boiling tube
❖ a thermometer
❖ a round-bottomed flask
❖ a cork
❖ boiling chips
❖ two stands
❖ two clamps
❖ a conical flask
❖ a source of heat
❖ a tripod stand
❖ hard water containing either calcium or magnesium hydrogen carbonate
❖ a wire gauze
❖ a stopwatch
❖ a measuring cylinder (10 ml).

Procedure:
1. Copy the following table into your exercise book. Use it to record your results.
Volume of soap used to form lather
Water Before distillation After distillation
Volume of Soap Solution Used (cm³)
2. Measure 10 cm³ of hard water. Transfer the measured water into a boiling tube.
3. Clamp a burette on a stand and fill it with soap solution up to the zero mark.
4. Add 1 cm³ of soap solution to the sample of hard water.
5. Cork the boiling tube and shake it vigorously. If no lather is produced, add another 1 cm³ of soap
solution, cork, and shake it vigorously again.
6. Continue adding portions of soap solution until a permanent lather (one that lasts for 30 seconds
or more) is obtained. Record the volume of soap used in the table you drew in step 1.
7. Put 100 cm³ of hard water in a round-bottomed flask and set up your apparatus as shown in
figure below.
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 8. Heat the water and collect the distillate. Allow the distillate to cool.
9. Repeat steps 2 to 6 using the distillate in place of hard water. Make and record your observations
in the table you drew in step 1.
10. Discuss your observations with your classmates.

Observations
- You noticed that the volume of soap solution used to form permanent lather with the distillate is less
compared to that used with hard water.
- When hard water is heated, water evaporates to form steam. The dissolved compounds of calcium
and magnesium are left as residue in the round-bottomed flask. The steam is condensed to obtain
distilled water, which is soft water.
- Distillation removes both temporary and permanent hardness.

1.32. Practical experiment softening temporary hard water using sodium

carbonate (washing soda)
Requirements
❖ a weighing scale
❖ a pipette
❖ a pipette filler
❖ a burette
❖ soap solution
❖ rubber corks
❖ a measuring cylinder
❖ a conical flask
❖ sodium carbonate
❖ a spatula
❖ petri dishes
❖ water sample containing calcium hydrogen carbonate

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 ❖ water sample containing magnesium hydrogen carbonate.

Procedure:
1. Copy the following table into your exercise book and use it to record your results.

Volume of soap solution used in different types of water

Water Sample Volume of Soap Solution Used Volume of Soap Solution
Before Adding Sodium Carbonate Used After Adding Sodium
(cm³) Carbonate (cm³)
Distilled Water
Water Containing
Calcium
Hydrogen
Carbonate
Water Containing
Magnesium
Hydrogen
Carbonate
2. Use a pipette to measure 25.0 cm³ of distilled water and transfer it into a conical flask.
3. Fix the burette on a stand and fill it with soap solution up to the zero mark.
4. Add 1 cm³ of soap solution to the distilled water in the conical flask.
5. Cork the conical flask and shake vigorously. If no lather is produced, add another 1 cm³ of soap
solution.
6. Continue adding portions of soap solution until a permanent lather (one that lasts for 30 seconds
or more) is obtained. Record the volume in the table you drew.
7. Weigh 3.0 g of sodium carbonate.
8. Use a pipette to measure 25.0 cm³ of distilled water and transfer it into a conical flask.
9. Add 3.0 g of sodium carbonate to the distilled water in the conical flask. Shake the mixture.
10. Repeat steps 3 to 6 and record your observations in the table you drew.
11. Repeat steps 2 to 10 using water samples containing calcium hydrogen carbonate and water
samples containing magnesium hydrogen carbonate instead of distilled water.

Observations:
- You observed that a smaller volume of soap solution was used to form a permanent lather when
sodium carbonate was added to water samples containing calcium hydrogen carbonate and
magnesium hydrogen carbonate.
- You also observed that the same volume of soap solution was used in distilled water, whether sodium
carbonate was added or not.
- The addition of sodium carbonate to hard water softens it by precipitating out calcium ions and
magnesium ions.
- The addition of sodium carbonate precipitates insoluble calcium and magnesium carbonates.
Magnesium hydrogen + Sodium → Magnesium + Sodium hydrogen
carbonate carbonate carbonate carbonate

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 (solution) (solid) (solid) (solution)

Calcium hydrogen + Sodium → Calcium + Sodium hydrogen

carbonate carbonate carbonate carbonate
(solution) (solid) (solid) (solution)
- Sodium carbonate removes both temporary and permanent water hardness. It can be used on a large
scale for the production of soft water.
- Other chemicals such as calcium hydroxide solution and ammonia solution, can also be used to
remove temporary water hardness.

1.33. Advantages of hard water

a) Hard water provides some dietary benefits. Drinking hard water is a source of magnesium and
calcium ions in the diet. Calcium ions present in hard water are necessary for the development of
strong bones and teeth, as well as the formation of shells in animals such as fish and crabs.
b) Deposition of magnesium or calcium carbonate on water pipes made of lead prevents lead poisoning.
c) The presence of calcium and magnesium ions improves the taste of water.
d) Hard water can improve the growth of certain plants as calcium and magnesium are important
nutrients for plant growth.
e) Hard water can help maintain proper hydration in the body because of its mineral content, especially
in areas with low mineral-rich soil.

1.34. Disadvantages of hard water

a) Wastage of soap because it does not lather easily making it less effective for washing clothes.
b) Formation of scum, which may stain clothes.
c) Formation of limescale on electrical heating appliances like kettles and hot water pipes making them
less efficient. The accumulation of limescale in hot water pipes narrows the pipes which increases
pressure and may cause the pipes to burst.
d) It is not suitable for use in the textile and paper industries because it damages fabrics by removing
dye.
e) It leaves white spots on glassware when used to wash and rinse them.

1.35. Advantages of soft water

a) It produces lather easily with soap and does not form scum. Therefore, it is good for use in laundry,
textile and paper manufacturing industries.
b) It does not deposit limescale in water boilers and electric kettles.
c) It does not stain utensils or clothes when used to wash or clean them.
d) Soft water is gentler on skin and hair, preventing dryness and irritation, which is beneficial for
people with sensitive skin.
e) It can help preserve the efficiency and longevity of appliances that use water such as washing
machines by preventing mineral buildup.

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1.36. Disadvantages of soft water
a) Soft water can dissolve lead metal. A solution of lead and water is toxic if ingested.
b) It does not contain calcium ions, which are necessary for the development of strong bones and teeth.
c) Soft water tends to have a higher sodium content, which may not be suitable for individuals on a
low-sodium diet.
d) It can make food taste flat or bland as the minerals in hard water are known to enhance the taste of
certain foods.
e) Soft water is often more expensive than hard water because it needs to be processed or softened,
leading to higher costs for consumers.

1.37. Applications of soft water

1. Soft water is used for laundry because it reduces soap wastage by preventing the formation of scum.
2. It is used in the textile industry since it does not affect the range of dyes used in fabric production.
3. Soft water is used in the paper manufacturing industry to prevent scale build-up and ensure smooth
operations.
4. Soft water is ideal for dishwashing, as it helps soap to lather better and reduces mineral deposits on
dishes.
5. Soft water is used in cooling systems, such as in air conditioners or industrial cooling towers, to
prevent scale build-up on equipment.

1.38. Applications of hard water

1. Hard water is used in brewing because the minerals, such as calcium, enhance the flavor of beer and
other beverages.
2. The dissolved calcium and magnesium ions in hard water are beneficial for bone health and
contribute to the daily intake of essential minerals.
3. Hard water is used for irrigation in some regions where the minerals in the water are beneficial for
plant growth.
4. Hard water is used in the preparation of concrete, as the minerals help strengthen the mixture.
5. Hard water can be used in water purification systems where the minerals can help in certain
chemical processes.

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2. LIVING THINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
2.1. NUTRITION IN PLANTS
- In lower classes, you learned that food is important for all living organisms. You also discovered that
food contains different components such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals.
- These components are called nutrients and they are essential for maintaining good health.
- Nutrition refers to the process by which organisms acquire and use nutrients.
- Green plants produce their own food using carbon dioxide and water, with the help of sunlight, in a
process called photosynthesis.
- The type of nutrition in which organisms create their own food from simple substances is known as
autotrophism. As a result, plants are considered autotrophs.

2.2. External parts of a leaf

- A leaf is the flat lateral outgrowth in plants. Most leaves are green in colour. Leaves come in
different shapes and sizes.
- Generally, leaves are flattened and thin. They are the main organs responsible for photosynthesis in
plants.
- The structure of the leaf is well-suited for photosynthesis.

- Blade: The broad, flat part of the leaf where most of the photosynthesis occurs. It increases the
surface area for sunlight absorption.
- Petiole: The stalk that connects the leaf blade to the stem. It supports the leaf and allows the
transport of water, nutrients and sugars to and from the leaf.

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- Veins: The network of small tubes in the leaf that carry water, minerals and nutrients throughout the
leaf. The veins also provide structural support.
- Midrib: The central vein running down the middle of the leaf, which provides strength and helps in
transporting water and nutrients.
- Leaf Margin: The edge of the leaf, which can vary in shape (smooth, serrated or lobed).
- Apex: The tip of the leaf, which can be pointed or rounded depending on the type of plant.

2.3. Internal structure of a leaf

Cuticle
- It covers the upper surface of most leaves and makes them appear shiny.
- The cuticle is thin and transparent, allowing light to pass through.
- It contains a waxy material that protects the leaf from attacks by bacteria.
- The waxy material also acts as a waterproof layer that prevents excessive water loss from the leaf.
- If the leaf loses too much water, the rate of photosynthesis will be reduced.

Upper epidermis
- This is the layer of cells below the cuticle.
- It is usually one cell thick, allowing light to pass through the cells easily.
- Cells of the epidermis do not have any chloroplasts, which allows them to remain transparent for
light to pass through.
- The epidermis forms a protective layer over the cells that carry out photosynthesis.

Palisade mesophyll
- Optimum photosynthesis takes place in the palisade mesophyll. This is a layer of cells located below
the upper epidermis.
- Palisade cells are closely packed, with few air spaces between them. The cells are elongated and lie
at right angles to the leaf epidermis.
- They contain many chloroplasts. Their shape allows them to absorb most of the light falling on the
leaf.

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- They are close to the upper epidermis to absorb more light. The chloroplasts can move within the
palisade cells to the side receiving the highest amount of light.

Spongy mesophyll
- It is composed of cells located between the palisade mesophyll and the lower epidermis. The cells
are irregular in shape and loosely arranged.
- They have large air spaces between them, allowing air circulation and gaseous exchange between the
cells and the air surrounding them.
- The spongy mesophyll cells are also lined with moisture to facilitate the uptake of oxygen and the
release of carbon dioxide.
- They have fewer chloroplasts than the palisade mesophyll cells.

Vascular tissue
- The network of veins in a leaf is made up of vascular tissue. This tissue contains vessels that supply
water and mineral salts to the leaf.
- The vessels also transport manufactured food substances from the leaf to other parts of the plant. The
vessels are the xylem and phloem.
- Vascular tissue also provides support for the cells in the leaf.

Stomata
- Stomata are pores bordered by guard cells.
- They are found on the upper or lower epidermis or both.
- They allow the entry of carbon dioxide into the leaf for photosynthesis.

2.4. Adaptations of the leaf to photosynthesis

1. The thin lamina allows light and carbon dioxide (CO₂) to pass through a short distance to reach the
photosynthetic cells, which speeds up the process of photosynthesis.
2. The broad lamina increases the surface area for the absorption of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and
sunlight, both of which are necessary for photosynthesis.
3. The existence of extensive veins enables the quick transportation of water and mineral salts to the
photosynthetic cells and the removal of the products of photosynthesis from the leaves to other parts
of the plant.
4. The regular arrangement of leaves on the stem reduces overlapping and overshadowing, ensuring
that all leaves receive sunlight, which is used during photosynthesis.
5. The presence of stomata ensures efficient diffusion of carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the leaf.
6. In the spongy mesophyll, the cells have irregular shapes and are loosely arranged to create air
spaces between them. This allows for the diffusion of gases during photosynthesis.
7. Guard cells contain numerous chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll necessary for
photosynthesis. They are well-positioned to receive maximum sunlight for this process.
8. The cuticle and epidermis are transparent, allowing sunlight to penetrate the palisade cells.
9. The palisade cells have numerous chloroplasts, and their arrangement and location next to the
upper epidermis enable them to receive maximum sunlight required for photosynthesis.
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10. The high surface-to-volume ratio of the leaf allows for efficient gas exchange and water retention,
optimizing photosynthesis while minimizing water loss.
11. The leaf's flexible structure helps it adjust its position to capture sunlight more effectively
throughout the day.
12. The waxy cuticle on the leaf's surface helps reduce water loss through evaporation, preventing
dehydration of the photosynthetic cells.
13. The stomata's ability to open and close, regulated by guard cells, ensures that carbon dioxide can
enter the leaf while preventing excessive water loss.

2.5. Structure of the chloroplast

- The chloroplast is the organelle in a plant cell where photosynthesis takes place.
- Chloroplasts are found in the cytoplasm of the palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll and guard
cells

- The following structures make up a chloroplast.

a) Double membrane envelope – The chloroplast is enclosed by a double membrane envelope.
The outer membrane acts as a barrier between the chloroplast and the cell. The inner membrane
regulates the passage of molecules in and out of the chloroplast.
b) Thylakoids (Lamella) – They are suspended in the stroma. They have grana, which contain
chlorophyll that absorbs sunlight energy.
c) Grana – They provide a large surface area for the packaging of many chlorophyll molecules.
d) Stroma – The stroma is an aqueous, protein-rich, and colorless fluid that encloses the thylakoids.
The stroma consists of lipid droplets, ribosomes and starch granules.
e) Ribosomes – They are involved in protein synthesis.
f) Lipid and starch granules – Chloroplasts store lipids and starch granules. Lipid granules act as
the energy reserve, while starch granules are the storage form of glucose that is produced during
photosynthesis.

2.6. Process of photosynthesis

- Photosynthesis occurs through a series of chemical reactions. These reactions can be divided into
two main stages: the light stage and the dark stage.

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- The first stage, called the light stage or the light-dependent stage, requires light energy.
- The second stage, called the dark stage or the light-independent stage, does not require light energy.

The light stage

- The light stage takes place in the grana.
- During this stage, chlorophyll absorbs light energy.
- This energy is used in two ways:
1. Some of the energy is used to split water molecules into hydrogen ions and oxygen. This is
known as the photolysis of water, named after the words photo (light) and lysis (splitting).
The hydrogen produced is used in the dark stage. Some of the oxygen formed is released from
the leaf through the stomata. The rest is used up in the plant cells for respiration.
2. Some of the absorbed sunlight energy is stored. This energy will also be used in the dark stage.
ATP energy is produced at this stage. Hydrogen ions and ATP are taken to the dark stage.

The dark stage

- The dark stage takes place in the stroma at the same time that the light stage is taking place in the
grana.
- Carbon dioxide diffuses into the stroma from the cell cytoplasm. The hydrogen ions from the light
stage combine with carbon dioxide to form glucose.
- This process uses the energy stored during the light stage. The manufacture of a carbohydrate
(glucose) from carbon dioxide is called carbon fixation.

The process of photosynthesis can be summarized by the following word equation:

- It is important to note that photosynthesis only produces carbohydrates for a plant. Carbohydrates
are important sources of energy for living organisms.
- However, a plant needs proteins as well to grow and develop, and other mineral nutrients for various
chemical reactions to take place in its cells.
- A plant obtains mineral salts from the soil by active transport or diffusion through its root hairs.
Examples of such mineral salts are nitrates.
- The plant uses nitrates for the manufacture of proteins. Magnesium ions from the soil are also
important because they are used in the formation of chlorophyll.

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2.7. Practical experiment to test for the presence of starch in a leaf
Requirements:
❖ distilled water
❖ a dropper
❖ beakers
❖ a source of heat
❖ a measuring cylinder
❖ a wire gauze
❖ a tripod stand
❖ a boiling tube
❖ a leaf
❖ a petri dish
❖ tweezers
❖ a tile
❖ methylated spirit
❖ iodine solution

Procedure:
1. Get a leaf that has been exposed to light for at least three to four hours.
Safety tip: Some leaves are poisonous. For this reason, ensure you consult your teacher when
collecting the leaf.
2. Put 100 ml of water in a beaker and boil it.
3. Immerse the leaf in the boiling water for about 2 to 3 minutes, as shown below.

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 4. Use tweezers to remove the leaf and place it in the boiling tube containing methylated spirit.
5. Put the boiling tube in a beaker containing boiling water for about 15 minutes. See figure 2.7.
The beaker acts as a water bath.
Caution: Do not heat methylated spirit directly; it is highly flammable.

6. Use tweezers to remove the leaf from the test tube and wash it in hot water in the beaker.
7. Spread the leaf on the tile and flood the leaf surface with dilute iodine solution for 2 minutes.

8. Observe the color change in the leaf and record your observations.
9. Safely dispose of your used specimen.
Health tip: Wash your hands with clean water and soap after this experiment.

Observations
- The blue-black coloration on the leaf after adding iodine solution. This indicates the presence of
starch.
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- The leaf was exposed to light for some time to allow the process of photosynthesis to take place. The
fresh leaf to be tested was dipped in boiling water to stop any further chemical reactions and to make
the cells more permeable to the iodine solution.
- The leaf was decolorized by boiling it in methylated spirit to remove chlorophyll and make it clear
for observation. The water bath was used to avoid directly heating the methylated spirit because it is
highly flammable.

2.8. Conditions necessary for photosynthesis

a) Sunlight
b) Carbon dioxide
c) Chlorophyll

2.9. Experiment to investigate if light is necessary for photosynthesis

Requirements:
❖ a potted plant such as a Geranium or a bean plant from a dark room
❖ aluminum foil strips or some black paper
❖ paper clips
❖ iodine solution
❖ a white tile
❖ methylated spirit
❖ water in a beaker.

Procedure:
1. Cut out a star shape or circle in the middle of a piece of aluminum foil or black paper that is large
enough to cover a significant portion of a leaf.

2. Use a paper clip to securely attach this paper around one of the green leaves of the potted plant,
as shown in the diagram.
3. Leave the plant to stand in bright sunlight for 5 to 7 hours.
4. Detach the aluminum foil and collect the following:
a) The leaf with the foil/paper covering.
b) A leaf with no foil or paper covering.
5. Test the leaves for starch.

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Observations and conclusions
- After testing the first leaf for starch, the shape that was cut out in the paper appears as a blue-black
colored shape on the leaf.

- This is because light reached this part of the leaf, causing photosynthesis to take place. The starch
changed the color of the iodine solution from brown to blue-black.
- The area under the paper or foil remained brown. It did not change color to blue-black, indicating
that no starch was present. Since light could not penetrate the foil or paper to reach this part of the
leaf, no photosynthesis occurred. Therefore, no starch was formed.
- The part of the plant not covered with the foil had all the conditions needed for photosynthesis.
Therefore, when tested with iodine, it appeared blue-black because starch was present. This part of
the leaf acts as a control group.

2.10. Experiment to investigate if Carbon dioxide is necessary for

photosynthesis
Requirements:
❖ two potted plants kept in the dark for 24 hours
❖ transparent plastic bags
❖ sodium hydroxide (soda lime) or potassium hydroxide (potash) solution
❖ rubber bands to fit around plastic containers for the solutions
❖ methylated spirit
❖ a beaker with water
❖ a boiling tube
❖ sodium hydrogen carbonate (sodium bicarbonate)

Procedure:
Set up the two potted plants as follows:
1. Plant A: Put some sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide into the small plastic container.
Place it carefully on the soil holding the plant. Take the transparent material and cover the whole
plant with it. Secure the bottom by tying it with one or two elastic bands.

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 2. Plant B: Repeat the procedure, but place sodium hydrogen carbonate (sodium bicarbonate) in the
plastic container.

3. Leave the setup in a well-lit part of the laboratory, exposed to sunlight for several hours, up to 2
days. Detach leaves from each setup and test for the presence of starch.

Observations and conclusions

- Sodium hydroxide (or potassium hydroxide) absorbs carbon dioxide from the air. The air in the bag
in setup A becomes free of carbon dioxide after some time. Photosynthesis will not take place
without carbon dioxide. As a result, no starch is formed. Hence, the iodine does not turn blue-black.
- On the other hand, setup B has a container with sodium hydrogen carbonate. This chemical slowly
breaks up to release carbon dioxide into the air in the polythene bag. Photosynthesis takes place and
the leaves produce starch.
- When tested with an iodine solution, these leaves give a positive test for starch. The colour of iodine
changes from brown to blue-black. This experiment shows that carbon dioxide is needed for
photosynthesis to take place.
- Setup B acts as the control experiment.

2.11. Experiment to investigate if chlorophyll is necessary for

photosynthesis
Requirements:
❖ a destarched variegated potted plant, such as Tradescantia
❖ a tripod stand
❖ wire gauze
❖ methylated spirit

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 ❖ a white tile
❖ iodine solution
❖ a pair of forceps
❖ a beaker with water
❖ a boiling tube

Procedure
1. Detach a variegated leaf from the plant and draw it.

2. Label the green part and the white part.

3. Test the leaf for starch.
4. Draw the leaf after the test and label the brown part and the blue-black part.

Observations and conclusions

- A variegated leaf is one whose surface shows two colors such as green on some parts and white on
others.
- The green part has cells with chlorophyll, so they can carry out photosynthesis and form starch. This
part will turn iodine from brown to blue-black.

- The white part has cells that do not contain chlorophyll. These cells will not carry out
photosynthesis, so no starch will be formed. The starch test will be negative.
- The green part of the leaf acts as the control experiment because it meets all the conditions required
for photosynthesis.

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2.12. Experiment to investigate whether oxygen is produced during
photosynthesis
Requirements:
❖ two large beakers
❖ two glass funnels
❖ two test tubes
❖ water with sodium hydrogen carbonate dissolved in it
❖ splints
❖ a matchbox
❖ a water weed such as Elodea or Spirogyra

Procedure:
1. Prepare the two apparatuses as shown below:
A. Setup placed in a dark cupboard B. Setup placed in bright sunlight

2. Place one setup in bright sunlight and the other in a dark cupboard for 2–3 hours.
3. Observe the setup in the dark cupboard. What did you notice?
4. Observe the setup in the sunlight. What do you notice?
5. Test any gas produced using a glowing splint.

Observations and conclusions

- The sodium bicarbonate provides carbon dioxide for the water weed to use in photosynthesis.
- In bright sunlight, bubbles of gas are seen leaving the plant and collecting in the test tube.
- The gas relights a glowing splint, confirming that it is oxygen.
- No photosynthesis takes place when the waterweed is placed in the dark, so no oxygen collects in the
test tube.

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2.13. NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
- Unlike plants, animals cannot make their own food and are dependent on plants for getting nutrients.
- Animals get their food from plants either directly by eating plants or indirectly by eating animals that
eat plants.
- Animals require food for growth, repair and functioning of the body.

2.14. Modes of nutrition in animals

- Nutrition is the process by which living organisms acquire and utilize nutrients in their bodies.
- There are four modes of nutrition in animals:
➢ Parasitic
➢ Saprophytic
➢ Symbiosis
➢ Holozoic

a) Parasitic mode of nutrition

- Parasitism is the relationship between two organisms in which one organism (the parasite) lives on
and obtains nutrients for survival from another organism (the host) at their expense.
- When the parasite lives inside the body of the host, it is called an endoparasite. Examples of
endoparasites include tapeworms, roundworms, hookworms and liver flukes.
- When the parasite lives on the outside of the host's body, it is called an ectoparasite. Examples of
ectoparasites include head lice, ticks, bedbugs, jiggers and fleas.
- Parasites cause many diseases that affect humans, domestic animals and crops.
- Parasites that do not kill their hosts may still reduce their growth rate. A low growth rate will result
in a slower increase in the host's population.

b) Saprophytic mode of nutrition

- This is a type of relationship whereby organisms obtain nutrients from dead and decaying matter.
- Saprophytes release digestive enzymes to decompose the dead matter. Some of the decomposed
matter is absorbed by the saprophytes, while the rest is released into the ecosystem.
- It can be absorbed and utilized by other organisms like plants in the form of nitrates.
- Examples of saprophytes include some bacteria and fungi, such as mushrooms and bread moulds.
- Saprophytes are important in recycling elements such as nitrogen from dead plants and animals.
- Hence, saprophytism promotes the growth of plants by releasing nutrients from dead plant material.

c) Symbiotic mode of nutrition

- This is a mutual relationship between two organisms whereby both organisms benefit from each
other.
- There are different types of symbiosis, that is, mutualism and commensalism
- In mutualism both organisms benefit. In commensalism, one organism benefit while the other
organism neither gain or lose.

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- The two associated organisms may or may not live together. The relationship may involve just
plants, just animals or both plants and animals.
- Examples include:
1. Lichen – an association between blue-green algae and fungus. Lichens usually grow on the
stems of trees. The blue-green algae carry out photosynthesis and provide the fungus with
nutrients, and the fungus provides moisture and a place of attachment for the algae.
2. Symbiotic bacteria – found in the root nodules of leguminous plants. The most common one is
Rhizobium bacteria, which converts free nitrogen from the atmosphere into a usable form for
plants in exchange for nutrients, namely carbohydrates, to make proteins and produce energy.
The bacteria live on root hairs and burrow into the plant.

d) Holozoic mode of nutrition

- Holozoic nutrition is a mode of nutrition in which animals take in complex solid food materials
which are broken down into simple soluble form.
- These food substances are broken down to simple soluble form in the digestive system.
- Some examples of holozoic animals are:
❖ human beings
❖ cows
❖ pigs
❖ goats
❖ rabbits

2.15. Structure and functions of different types of teeth

- There are four different types of teeth found in animals, namely: incisors, canines, premolars and
molars.
- Incisors have chisel shaped ends and one root.
- Canines have sharp, conical pointed ends with one root.
- Premolars have broad surfaces with cusps and two roots. e) Molars have broad surfaces with
cusps and three roots.
Incisor Canine Premolar Molar

- The table below shows the characteristics and functions of different types of teeth.
Tooth Characteristics Functions

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 Canine a) Conical and sharp pointed. Tearing flesh and seizing prey.
b) Has one root to fix the tooth on the jawbone.
Incisor a) Has chisel-shaped edges. Cutting and biting food.
b) Has one root.
Premolar a) Has a broad surface with ridges (cusps). Chewing and grinding food.
b) Has two roots.
Molar a) Has a broad surface with ridges (cusps). Chewing and grinding food.
b) Has three roots.

2.16. Classifying animals based on their dentition

- The number, type and arrangement of the teeth of an animal are referred to as their dentition.
- The type of dentition in an animal is related to the type of food that they eat.
- When all the teeth are similar in structure and size, the animal is known as a homodont. This can
include:
➢ Fish
➢ Frogs
➢ Crocodiles
➢ Shark
- When the teeth are of different types and sizes, the animal is known as a heterodont. All
mammals have differentiated teeth. They include:
➢ Human beings
➢ Cow
➢ Dog
➢ Sheep
➢ Goat
➢ Rabbit
- The different types of teeth in mammalian dentition are incisors, canines, premolars and molars.
Dentition of a sheep Dentition of a dog Dentition of a human

2.17. Classification of animals based on the food they eat

a) Herbivores
- Herbivores are animals that feed on plants only.
- They consume a variety of plant materials such as leaves, fruits, seeds and flowers.

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 - Herbivores are typically well-equipped with flat, broad teeth for grinding and breaking down
plant matter.
- Their digestive systems are often designed to efficiently process plant fibers.
- Examples:
➢ Cows: They graze on grass and other vegetation.
➢ Goats: They eat shrubs, grasses and even some trees.
➢ Sheep: Sheep mainly eat grass and other herbaceous plants.
➢ Rabbits: These small mammals feed on grasses, leaves and vegetables.
➢ Elephants: As large herbivores, they consume leaves, bark, fruit and grasses.
➢ Giraffes: They feed on leaves from tall trees, particularly acacia.

b) Carnivores
- Carnivores are animals that feed on flesh only.
- They may hunt their prey or scavenge for food.
- Carnivores have sharp teeth and claws, which help them capture and tear apart their prey.
- Some carnivores are also scavengers, feeding on the remains of animals killed by other
predators.
- Examples:
➢ Lions: Known as apex predators, lions hunt in packs to bring down large prey such as zebras
and antelopes.
➢ Tigers: Solitary hunters, tigers typically hunt deer, wild boar and smaller mammals.
➢ Cheetahs: They are known for their speed and prey on antelopes and small mammals.
➢ Leopards: Leopards are opportunistic hunters, often feeding on smaller animals like
monkeys, antelopes and birds.
➢ Wolves: Wolves hunt in packs and feed on large prey like deer and moose.
➢ Eagles: As birds of prey, they hunt small mammals, fish, worms and other birds.

c) Omnivores
- Omnivores are animals that feed on both plants and meat.
- Their diet is diverse, allowing them to adapt to a variety of environments.
- Omnivores typically have a mix of sharp and flat teeth, enabling them to tear meat and grind
plant matter.
- These animals can survive on a wide range of food sources.
- Examples:
➢ Human beings: Humans are omnivores, consuming a wide variety of foods including fruits,
vegetables, meat and grains.
➢ Bears: Depending on the species, bears eat berries, nuts, fish and even large mammals.
➢ Pigs: Pigs are opportunistic feeders and will eat plants, fruits, small animals and garbage.
➢ Raccoons: These adaptable creatures eat fruits, insects, small animals and human food scraps.
➢ Chickens: Chickens forage for grains, seeds, insects and small animals like worms.
➢ Crows: They eat fruits, small animals and scavenged human food.

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2.18. Adaptations of herbivores to their feeding habits
1. They lack upper incisors but have a horny pad instead, where grass is pressed against and cut by
the lower incisors.
2. They have a diastema, a space between the canine and the first premolar, for turning food in the
mouth.
3. Premolars and molars have broad surfaces with cusps for chewing and grinding vegetation.
4. Their digestive system is adapted for fermenting and breaking down plant fibers, with a longer
gut for increased absorption of nutrients.
5. They have a large cecum or rumen (in ruminants) for housing microorganisms that aid in
breaking down cellulose.

2.19. Adaptations of carnivores to their feeding habits

1. They have chisel-shaped incisors for seizing prey and cutting flesh.
2. They have long and sharp pointed canines for tearing flesh.
3. They have carnassial teeth for slicing through flesh and crushing bones.
4. Their stomachs have a high acidity to help digest meat and kill harmful bacteria.
5. Their digestive tracts are shorter, allowing for quick digestion of protein-rich meat.

2.20. Adaptations of omnivores to their mode of feeding

1. They have small and chisel-shaped incisors for cutting.
2. Their canines are not pointed and are used for tearing.
3. They have premolars and molars with broad surfaces and cusps for chewing and grinding food.
4. They possess a more flexible digestive system, capable of handling both plant and animal matter.
5. Their saliva contains enzymes that begin the digestion of starches, aiding in the breakdown of
both plant and animal foods.

2.21. Process of digestion in human beings

- Ingestion is the process by which food is introduced into the mouth. It is the first step in the
digestive process and prepares the food for further breakdown.
- Digestion is the process by which complex food materials are broken down into a simple, soluble
form. This process occurs primarily in the stomach and small intestine, where enzymes help to break
down food into nutrients.
- Absorption is the process involving the diffusion of soluble products of digestion into the
bloodstream. This mainly takes place in the small intestine, where nutrients are absorbed through the
walls into the blood.
- Assimilation is the utilization of soluble products of digestion by body cells. Once absorbed into the
bloodstream, nutrients are transported to various cells where they are used for energy, growth and
repair.
- Egestion is the removal of undigested and indigestible food materials through the anus. This process
is essential for eliminating waste from the body and maintaining proper digestion.

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2.22. Parts of the digestive system

2.23. Digestion of food in the mouth

- Digestion of food starts in the mouth.
- Food in the mouth is broken down by teeth. The process by which teeth break down food is called
mastication.
- This increases the surface area for digestion by chemical substances called enzymes.
- Food is also mixed with saliva produced by salivary glands.
- Saliva contains water, mucus and salivary amylase (ptyalin).
- Water dissolves the food.
- Salivary amylase digests starch into maltose.
- Mucus lubricates food to facilitate swallowing.
- The tongue in the mouth rolls the food into small round masses called boluses. The tongue pushes
the boluses to the back of the mouth for swallowing.
- During swallowing, the soft palate is raised to open the gullet and close the nasal cavity.
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- The epiglottis relaxes to close the trachea.

- Food is swallowed and enters the oesophagus.

- Food is moved by a wave of muscular contractions and relaxations called peristalsis through the
oesophagus until it reaches the stomach.

2.24. Digestion of food in the stomach

- The cardiac sphincter muscle relaxes to allow food into the stomach and the pyloric sphincter muscle
contracts.

- The muscles in the wall of the stomach expand, contract and relax, causing movements that mix the
food in a process called churning, forming chyme.
- Gastric glands in the wall of the stomach produce gastric juice. Gastric juice contains:
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 a) Hydrochloric acid, which has the following functions:
➢ Kills microorganisms present in the food.
➢ Creates an acidic medium for the functioning of enzymes.
b) Rennin and pepsin:
➢ Pepsin digests proteins into peptides.
➢ Rennin digests soluble protein in milk to an insoluble form.
- Food passes through the pyloric sphincter muscle into the duodenum.

2.25. Digestion of food in the duodenum

- In the duodenum, food is mixed with bile from the liver and pancreatic juice from the pancreas.
- Bile digests fats by breaking down large fat droplets into small fat droplets, a process known as
emulsification.
- Bile also creates an alkaline medium for the functioning of enzymes.

- Pancreatic juice contains the following enzymes:

❖ Trypsin - digests proteins into peptides.
❖ Pancreatic lipase - digests lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
❖ Pancreatic amylase - digests starch into maltose.
- From the duodenum, the food enters the ileum (small intestine).

2.26. Digestion in the Ileum

- Digestion is completed in the ileum.
- Glands in the wall of the ileum produce intestinal juice, which contains the following enzymes:
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 ❖ Peptidase - digests peptides into amino acids.
❖ Lipase - digests lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
❖ Sucrase - digests sucrose into glucose and fructose.
❖ Maltase - digests maltose into glucose.
❖ Lactase - digests lactose into glucose and galactose.
- Digestion in the ileum results in chyle. Chyle contains soluble products of digestion such as amino
acids, glycerol, glucose, galactose and fructose.
- Food is then absorbed into the bloodstream.
- The ileum has small finger-like projections called villi. Villi increase the surface area for absorption.
Villi are also well supplied with blood capillaries to facilitate absorption of food.
- Soluble products of digestion are transported to the body cells, where they are assimilated.
- Glucose is broken down to produce energy.
- Amino acids are used to synthesize proteins, which are required for growth and development and for
the formation of structures in the body such as hair and nails.
- Fatty acids and glycerol are also broken down to produce energy. Excess fats are stored beneath the
skin to insulate the body against heat loss.

2.27. Large Intestines (Colon)

- Undigested and indigestible food remains enter the large intestines.
- Water and mineral salts are absorbed into the bloodstream. This results in a semi-solid waste called
faeces.
- Faeces are removed from the body through the anus.
- The process of removing faeces is called egestion.

2.28. REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

- In the previous grades, we learnt that all living things have certain common characteristics.
- Reproduction is one of the characteristics of living organisms.
- Reproduction is the process by which living organisms give rise to new members of their own kind.
- In this sub strand we shall learn how flowering plants reproduce.

2.29. Parts of a flower

- A flower is the reproductive part of a flowering plant. Flowers are made up of four basic parts: the
pistil, stamen, sepals and petals.

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- The female part of a flower is called the pistil or carpel. The pistil is usually located at the center of
the flower and is made up of three parts: the stigma, style and ovary.
- The stigma is located at the tip of the style. The style leads to the ovary, which contains the female
reproductive cells known as ovules.
- The male part of a flower is called the stamen. The stamen is made up of two parts: the anther and
the filament.
- The anther produces pollen grains, which contain the male reproductive cells. The filament holds the
anther.
- The other parts of a flower are the sepals, petals, receptacle and flower stalk. A group of sepals is
called the calyx, and a group of petals is called the corolla.
- The receptacle is found at the end of the flower stalk, where the other parts of the flower arise.

2.30. Functions of parts of a flower

➢ The stigma receives pollen grains during pollination.
➢ The style connects the stigma to the ovary and allows for the growth of the pollen tube to the
ovary.
➢ The ovary produces the ovules, which contain the female reproductive cells.
➢ The ovules are the female reproductive cells that, when fertilized by pollen, develop into seeds.
➢ The anthers contain pollen grains, which carry the male reproductive cells.
➢ The filament supports the anthers.
➢ Petals are colored in insect-pollinated flowers to attract insects or birds for pollination.
➢ The receptacle connects the flower to the flower stalk.
➢ The sepals enclose and protect the flower from damage, especially in the early stages of
development.

2.31. Pollination in plants

- Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of one flower to the stigma of another
flower of the same kind.
- Butterflies visit flowers to collect nectar. Nectar is a sweet liquid produced by the nectary of a
flower.
- Butterflies are attracted to the flowers by their bright colors and strong, sweet scent.

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- As the butterfly collects nectar, its body rubs against the anthers and collects some of the pollen
grains that stick to it.
- When the butterfly flies to other flowers to collect more nectar, the pollen grains picked up from the
first flower stick to the stigma of other flowers where they land. If these flowers are of the same
kind, then pollination will take place.

2.32. Types of pollination

a) Self-pollination
b) Cross-pollination

a) Self-pollination
- Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of a flower to the stigma of the same
flower or to the stigma of a different flower on the same plant.
- Few plants can pollinate without the aid of pollen vectors (such as wind or insects). This mechanism
is most often seen in some legumes, such as peanuts.

- Advantages of self-pollination include:

➢ During self-pollination, the number of flowers can be small and widely spaced, as the pollen
grains are not transmitted from one flower to another, and less pollen is wasted.
➢ Self-pollinated plants expend less energy in the production of pollinator attractants and can
grow in areas where the types of insects or other animals that might visit them are absent or
very scarce; such as in the Arctic or at high elevations.
- The disadvantages of self-pollination arise from a lack of genetic variation, which can limit natural
immunity to potential pathogen attacks.

b) Cross-pollination
- Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of a flower to the stigma of a
flower on a different plant, but of the same species.

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- Advantages of cross-pollination
➢ Cross-pollination introduces genetic recombination, leading to variations in the progeny.
New and more useful varieties can be produced through cross-pollination.
➢ Cross-pollination increases the adaptability of the offspring to changes in the environment.
➢ Plants produced through cross-pollination are more resistant to diseases.
➢ The seeds produced are usually larger, and the offspring often exhibit traits that are superior
to those of the parents due to the phenomenon known as hybrid vigor.
- Disadvantages of cross-pollination
➢ Plants must produce a larger number of pollen grains and other accessory structures to suit
the various pollinating agencies.
➢ A factor of chance is always involved in cross-pollination.
➢ Some unfavorable variations, more vulnerable to the environment, may be produced during
cross-pollination.
➢ Sometimes, plants are bred commercially for a specific appearance or purpose by humans.
Cross-pollination may remove or diminish those characteristics.

2.33. Agents of pollination

a) Pollination by wind – This is when the wind carries and transfers pollen grains from one flower to
another. Examples of plants whose flowers are pollinated by wind include grass and maize.
b) Pollination by insects or birds – This is when insects or birds carry and transfer pollen grains to the
stigma of the flower. Examples of these plants include rose flowers, sunflowers and lotus flowers.
c) Pollination by Water – In water pollination, pollen grains are transferred from one flower to
another through the movement of water such as in rivers, lakes or the ocean. The pollen is either
carried along the surface of the water or submerged in it, depending on the type of aquatic plant.

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2.34. Characteristics of wind-pollinated flowers
1. Flowers are small and inconspicuous.
2. Non-essential parts are either absent or reduced.
3. The flowers are colorless, odorless, and nectarless.
4. In the case of unisexual flowers, the male flowers are more abundant. In bisexual flowers, the
stamens are generally more numerous.
5. The flowers extend from the foliage or bloom before the appearance of new foliage.
6. Pollen grains are light, small, and winged or dusty. They can be blown by the wind over distances of
up to 1300 km.
7. Pollen grains are dry, smooth and unwettable.
8. The stigma is hairy, large, feathery or branched to catch the wind-borne pollen grains.
9. Pollen grains are produced in very large numbers. Consequently, the pollen grains spread over large
areas so that even isolated plants get pollinated.

2.35. Characteristics of insect-pollinated flowers

1. Flowers are large and brightly colored to attract pollinators.
2. Flowers produce a pleasant scent to attract insects like bees and butterflies.
3. Insect-pollinated flowers produce nectar as a reward for pollinators.
4. The pollen is sticky or spiky, allowing it to adhere to insects as they visit the flower.
5. The stamens and pistils are positioned for easy contact with insects during pollination.
6. Many insect-pollinated flowers have patterns or markings that guide insects to the nectar.
7. These flowers often have bilateral symmetry, making it easier for insects to land and pollinate.
8. Insect-pollinated flowers produce less pollen, as insects help transfer it efficiently.
9. The anthers are positioned within the flower to ensure pollen is transferred by insects rather than the
wind.

2.36. Differences between insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers

Insect-pollinated Wind-pollinated
Flowers have very conspicuous petals that are Flowers are small with green bracts and not very
large and brightly colored. conspicuous.
Flowers have glands called nectaries that No nectaries or nectar.
produce nectar to attract insects.
Flowers are scented to attract pollinators. Flowers are not scented.
The stigma is small, rigid and sticky, located The stigma is large, feathery and often hanging
inside the flower. outside the flower.
Pollen grains have a rough, sticky texture. Pollen grains are small, lightweight, smooth and
produced in large amounts.
Anthers are small, firmly attached to filaments Anthers are large, loosely attached to filaments,
inside the flower, positioned where insects can dangling outside the flower and shake readily
brush against them. when the wind blows.

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2.37. Effects of agrochemicals on pollinating agents and their effects on
reproduction in plants
- Insects like bees, wasps, and butterflies are very useful to farmers because they are pollinators for
flowering plants. This clearly shows that the absence of these pollinators could affect crop
production, especially in the case of flowering plants.
- Excessive or uncontrolled use of agrochemicals severely affects pollinators. If pollinators ingest the
chemical residue left on pollen grains and nectar in flowers, they may be killed, resulting in a
reduction of pollinators.
- Some agrochemicals contain toxic substances that affect the quality of the soil. As a result, flower
and nectar production are impacted, which eventually affects the visitation of pollinators. The
absence of pollinators affects crop production.
- The following are recommendations to prevent the decline of pollinators:
➢ Alternative practices and substances to agrochemicals can be used by farmers. These include
the use of organic pesticides, such as wood ash, and encouraging farmers to embrace cultural
practices like crop rotation to control pests.
➢ If pesticides and insecticides must be used on the farm, they should only be applied to the
affected plants in the correct amounts.

2.38. Fertilisation and fruit formation in flowering plants

- Fertilization in flowers takes place inside the ovary when the nuclei of the male reproductive cell in
the pollen grain fuse with the nuclei of the female reproductive cell in the ovules.
- When pollen grains fall on the stigma, the pollen grains absorb nutrients from the stigma and
germinate to form a pollen tube.
- The pollen tube grows down the style to the ovary, reaching the embryo sac and carrying the male
reproductive cells with it.
- The pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle. The male reproductive cells are released into
the ovules, and the nucleus of one male reproductive cell fuses with the nucleus of the egg cell
(female reproductive cell) to form a zygote.
- The figure below represents the fertilization process in flowering plants.

(i) Pollen grain on stigma (ii) Pollen tube growing down (iii) Fertilisation taking place
the style in the ovary
- The following changes occur in a flower after fertilisation.
a) Parts of the flower such as stamen and petals wither out after the fertilisation process.

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 b) The ovules develop into a zygote which later develops into a seed.
c) The ovary develops into a fruit. The walls of the ovary grow bigger and develop into the
fleshy parts of a fruit. If the ovary contained a lot of ovules and all of them fertilised, then the
fruit will have lots of seeds. If there was only one ovule fertilised, then the fruit will have
only one seed. The fruit contains the seeds in it.
d) The outer part of the ovary becomes the pericarp or the fruit wall. The pericarp is usually
made of three layers: an outer pericarp, middle layer (mesocarp) and inner layer (endocarp).

2.39. Categorizing fruits and seeds based on their mode of dispersal

- Seed or fruit dispersal refers to the process through which fruits or seeds are transported to new sites
away from the parent plants.
- This allows the new plant to grow away from the parent plant and minimizes overcrowding and
competition for resources.
- Fruits and seeds can be dispersed by wind, water, animals, and explosive mechanisms. Modifications
in fruit or seed structure, composition, and size help in dispersal.
- The following are some of the adaptive features of seeds and fruits to their agents of dispersal:
i) Wind dispersal
➢ Some seeds dispersed by wind have parachute-like structures that enable them to be
easily carried by the wind.
➢ They are light and hairy. An example is the dandelion seed.
➢ Other seeds dispersed by wind have wing-like structures that enable them to spin as they
fall from trees.
➢ Examples of these are the maple fruit seeds and sycamore seeds.

ii) Animal dispersal

➢ Some seeds dispersed by animals have hooks on their outer surface. The hooks are used
for attachment to animals' fur or feathers.
➢ The seeds are then carried from one place to another by the animals. Examples are black
jack seeds and goose grass seeds.
➢ The animals dispose of the seeds, which later germinate into new plants if the conditions
for germination favor them.

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 Some seeds are eaten together with the fruit; they then pass through the gut undigested
and are later dispersed by the animals in their feces. An example is the guava fruit.

iii) Water dispersal

➢ Seeds and fruits dispersed by water are often light and small to help them float on water.
➢ Others have fibrous mesocarps, which trap air to make the fruit light and able to float on
water.
➢ The water can then carry them long distances to suitable locations for germination.

iv) Explosive mechanism or self-dispersal mechanism

➢ Some plants store their seeds in pods.
➢ When the pods are dry, they burst open through lines of weakness, scattering the seeds
for dispersal.
➢ An example is a bean pod.

2.40. Importance of seed and fruit dispersal

1. Several plants growing in one small area usually compete for resources like water, minerals in the
soil, light and space. Seedlings growing beneath the parent plants do not get sufficient nutrients and
sunlight. Dispersal of fruits and seeds is important because it reduces competition for resources
among plants.
2. Fruit and seed dispersal promotes the survival of plants as they grow, since competition for resources
is reduced.
3. Fruit and seed dispersal is an important agent of distribution and establishment of plants over a wide
geographical area. This promotes afforestation. Afforestation is the process of establishing a forest,
especially on land that previously had no trees.

2.41. Roles of flowers in our environment

a) Flowers and reproduction of plants: Without flowers, there would be no reproduction in flowering
plants.
b) Flowers make our environment beautiful.
c) Providing food and nutrition to humankind: Some flowers such as cauliflower and broccoli, are
edible.
d) Some flowers have medicinal uses. For example, sunflower is used to treat sore throats, and
cornflower can be used to treat acne.
e) Providing ingredients for the beauty industry: Perfumes, essential oils and creams are made from
some flowers.

2.42. THE INTERDEPENDENCE OF LIFE

- Interdependence is a relationship where organisms depend on each other for their survival.
- Organisms of different kinds share relationships where at least one of the organisms benefits.
- Biotic and abiotic components of the environment affect the survival of organisms.

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- Biotic components are living things within our surrounding, while abiotic components are non-living
things that make up our surrounding.

2.43. Interrelationship between living components in the environment

- The interrelationship between living components refers to the interaction among living organisms
with each other in one way or another as they search for resources such as food and shelter.
- The following are types of interrelationships between the living components of the environment:
a) Predation is an interrelationship where one organism kills another for food and feeds on it
wholly or in part. The organism that kills is the predator, while the one that gets killed is the prey.
Examples of predation include owls hunting mice, birds hunting insects and leopards hunting
antelopes.
b) Competition occurs when individuals or groups compete for the same resources. The resources
being competed for can include food, water, air, space and shelter. There are two types of
competition:
➢ Interspecific competition: This is competition between organisms of different species.
For example a leopard and a lion competing to hunt an antelope or maize and bean plants
growing in the same field competing for water and nutrients in the soil.
➢ Intraspecific competition: This is competition between organisms of the same species.
For example, maize plants competing for water and nutrients in the soil. The plant that
gets water survives, while those that do not, wilt and die. Another example is wild dogs
competing to hunt a rabbit for food.
c) Parasitism is an interaction where one organism, the parasite, benefits while causing harm or
even death to the host organism. There are two types of parasites:
➢ ectoparasites
➢ endoparasites
d) Saprophytism is an interaction where the saprophyte, commonly some species of fungi, gets
nutrition from dead organic material. The saprophytes produce enzymes that digest the dead
organic substrate into simpler substances that they can absorb for nutrition. They help in the
decomposition of organic matter, releasing important nutrients for plants, which can increase
crop production. Examples of saprophytes include molds, penicillium, mushrooms, yeast and
mucor.
e) Symbiosis: There are two types of symbiosis; commensalism and mutualism. Mutualism is the
interaction between two organisms whereby both organisms benefit from the association.
Commensalism is the interaction between two organisms in which one organism benefits while
the other organism neither benefits nor loses. An example of a symbiotic interrelationship is
between leguminous plants and nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

2.44. Interrelationship between biotic factors of the environment

- Intraspecific competition may lead to the migration of the disadvantaged organisms.
- Intraspecific competition may also lead to death. For example, maize plants competing for water and
nutrients in the soil. The plants that obtain the required resources survive while those that do not wilt
and die.

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- Organisms that are less adapted may acquire fewer of the resources they need. As a result, these
organisms are less likely to survive and may be wiped out.
- Interspecific competition can also lead to the specialization of the disadvantaged organism. This
enables the disadvantaged organism to develop more adaptive ways of surviving.
- Animals reduce interspecific competition by developing mechanisms that enable them to coexist
with others.
- For example, all herbivores feed on vegetation, but some feed on grass like zebras, while others feed
on trees and shrubs like giraffes.

2.45. Interrelationship between predators and preys

- Predation provides food, which gives energy to predators, allowing them to live and reproduce, often
to the disadvantage of the organism being consumed, the prey. Predation reduces the number of prey.
- An increase in the number of predators will lead to a decrease in the number of prey. Therefore, the
numbers of both organisms must be balanced.
- Predation influences the fitness of both predators and prey. Individuals must both feed and avoid
being fed on.
- Predators show characteristics such as sharp teeth, sharp eyesight, sharp claws and venom that
enhance their ability to catch food.
- They also possess sensory organs that help them find potential prey. For example leopards can spot
potential prey from over a kilometre away, owls can locate mice by sound and dolphins use
echolocation.
- Predators catch their prey either by pursuing them or by ambushing them. Similarly, prey species
show features that help them avoid detection or being captured by predators.

2.46. Interrelationship between parasites and hosts

- External parasites such as ticks, jiggers, fleas and bedbugs often attack their hosts by biting,
attaching to or irritating the skin.
- Internal parasites such as tapeworms and roundworms obtain nutrients from their host. Parasites can
cause serious diseases such as scabies, which affect an animal's health and growth.
- Both external and internal parasites may weaken the host and create conditions favorable to
microorganisms that cause diseases. In severe cases these diseases can lead to death thus reducing
the host's population.
- The number of parasites is controlled by the host. Without hosts, parasites cannot survive, so they do
not necessarily kill the host.
- Parasites are adapted to receive maximum benefit from the host. For example, tapeworms have
strong hooks for attachment to the lining of the small intestine.
- Hosts are adapted in different ways to help them escape from parasites.

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2.47. Symbiotic and saprophytic interrelationships
- Symbiosis improves both organisms' competitive ability and allows them to out-compete organisms
of the same kind that lack the symbiont, resulting in an increase in the number or size of the
symbiotic organism.
- Sometimes, a decrease in the number of one organism can lead to a decrease in the number of the
other organism.
- Saprophytes break down complex decomposing matter into simple nutrients that can be used by
plants for proper growth. This helps in the recycling of nutrients in the environment.
- Saprophytes also help in reducing the accumulation of dead organic matter in the environment.
However, some harmful saprophytes may cause rapid decay of food, making it very perishable.

2.48. Roles of decomposers in an ecosystem

1. Release nutrients back into the soil, making it fertile. Organisms at this level of the food chain
provide nutrients for producers (plants), which are in turn eaten by consumers in the next level.
Decomposers clean up dead material by processing it and returning the nutrients to the soil for the
producers.
2. Decomposers regulate the food chain by breaking down dead organic compounds into simpler forms
so that producers can use them to grow.
3. Decomposers assist in the recycling of nutrients and other important elements such as calcium,
nitrogen and phosphorus, into the water, soil and air for reuse by producers like green plants.
4. Decomposers assist in cleaning the environment by decomposing dead organisms. They act like the
housekeepers of an ecosystem. Without them, dead plants and animals would keep piling up in the
environment. An ecosystem is a group of living things that live and interact with each other in a
specific environment.
5. Decomposers break down dead material and create space for new life.

2.49. Effects of abiotic factors of the environment on living organisms

- Abiotic are non-living components in the environment.
- Living components depend on abiotic components for survival.
- Some of the abiotic components of the environment are:
➢ Atmospheric pressure
➢ Humidity
➢ Light
➢ pH and salinity
➢ Temperature
➢ Water
➢ Wind

2.50. Effects of water on living organisms

- When there is more water or high rainfall in a region, more plants grow thus increasing their number.
This also contributes to an increase in number of animals that feed on plants.
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- Lack of water causes drying out and death of plants resulting in a decrease in their number. This in
turn results in a decrease in the number of animals that feed on plants because they lack food.
- Water is essential for all living organisms. Living organisms need water for survival. In the absence
of water, plants will die. In the absence of water, animals will die due to dehydration.

2.51. Effects of wind on living organisms

1. Wind is an important agent for the dispersal of pollen grains, fruits and seeds in plants. Thus, it plays
an important role in distribution of plants.
2. Wind causes erosion of soil and wearing of vegetation. This results in a decrease in growth of plants
due to loss of soil nutrients.
3. Strong wind may cause big trees to be uprooted. Strong wind may also cause weak plants like wheat,
maize and sugarcane to bent against the ground. If their stems are not too mature, they may become
partially upright affecting the growth.
4. Wind blows scents hence determining the positioning of predators with respect to their preys in a
habitat. Habitat is the natural home of an animal, plant and other living organisms.

2.52. Effects of light on living organisms

- Light is an important factor in determining the distribution of organisms. Green plants need sunlight
to carry out photosynthesis, and hence the distribution of green plants is highly dependent on the
amount of light available.
- Plants also need sunlight for flowering. Plants are categorized as short-day plants, long-day plants
and day-neutral plants, depending on how long they are exposed to light.
- Animals too depend on light and show certain behavioral patterns based on daily and seasonal
variations in light. Many animals get up early in the morning and start exploring, except for animals
that are active at night such as owls. For many animals, reproductive and migratory activities are
also governed by the amount and duration of light.

2.53. Effects of salinity on living organisms

- Salinity refers to the salt concentration of water. Salinity has a significant effect on organisms that
live in aquatic environments.
- Based on this, animals that live in water are divided into marine, estuarine and freshwater species.
- Living organisms that inhabit freshwater cannot survive in salty water. This is because their bodies
lose water through osmosis.
- Living organisms that live in salty water cannot survive in freshwater because their bodies are highly
concentrated with salt. This causes water to flow from the surrounding environment into their
bodies. This can result in the bursting of cells as they lack cell walls. Cell bursting leads to the death
of the organisms.
- The marine environment has a high salt content. Plants growing in the marine environment have
adaptations to help them survive.
- For instance, mangrove plants have breathing roots that grow above the soil surface to absorb
oxygen from the air. Marine fish also have adaptations to cope with the high salt content of the
water.

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2.54. Effects of temperature, atmospheric pressure and pH on living
organisms
Temperature
- Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a place.
- A change in temperature has a direct influence on the functions of living organisms such as
transpiration, evaporation and sweating.
- Temperature varies due to seasons, altitude and latitude. Therefore, this affects the distribution of
living organisms.
- Different living organisms are found in different regions as long as the temperature is suitable for
their survival.
- For example, camels cannot survive at low temperatures and polar bears and penguins cannot
survive in high-temperature regions.

Atmospheric Pressure
- The higher the altitude, the lower the atmospheric pressure.
- Diffusion of gases across the lungs in animals is lower at higher altitudes.
- At low altitudes, there is higher pressure making it easier for living things to breathe.

pH
- pH is the measure of how acidic or alkaline a solution or soil is.
- It influences the distribution of plants and animals, as some plants and animals thrive best in
neutral, alkaline or acidic conditions.
- Living organisms have an optimum pH, so if the pH changes, it can have a significant effect on
living organisms.

2.55. Food chain

- A food chain is a linear sequence through which energy is transferred from one organism to another
through feeding.
- The arrow in a food chain always points to the direction of the energy flow.
- Different animals feed on different foods. Plants manufacture their own food using sunlight energy.
- Animals feed on plants or other animals because they do not manufacture their own food.
- Living organisms are grouped into different feeding levels.
a) Producers are the first link in a food chain. They are green plants that manufacture their own
food through photosynthesis.
b) Consumers are the second link in the food chain. They obtain energy from the food they eat.
There are three types of consumers: primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary
consumers. Primary consumers feed on producers and are therefore referred to as herbivores.
Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers and tertiary consumers feed on secondary
consumers.

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2.56. Constructing simple foodchains
- A food chain is composed of producers, consumers, and sometimes decomposers. Decomposers
break down waste and dead matter.
- Examples of food chains:

2.57. Food webs

- A food web consists of many food chains that are interlinked.
- A food web is similar to a food chain but the food web is larger than a food chain.
- Occasionally, a single organism is consumed by several different organisms.

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2.58. Effects of human activities on the environment
1. Clearing of forests stands as one of the most concerning human activities affecting the environment.
As we cut down trees to make way for agriculture, infrastructure and settlements, we disrupt the
environment where plants and animals live. This leads to the loss of natural habitats for plants and
animals, pushing them closer to extinction.
2. Fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas drive much of our energy production. However, the
burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. As these greenhouse gases
accumulate, they create a thickening blanket around the Earth, trapping heat and leading to global
warming. The consequences are stark, with rising sea levels and more frequent extreme weather
events.
3. The rapid rise of industrialization has also given rise to air pollution. Industrial activities emit a wide
range of pollutants. These pollutants not only lead to poor air quality but also contribute to the
formation of smog and acid rain. The consequences of air pollution are severe, affecting both human
health and the environment. Respiratory problems and other health issues become more prevalent in
areas with high levels of air pollution.
4. Water pollution resulting from human activities is a threat to human health, as well as to animals and
plants living in water. Contaminated water poses severe health risks to humans who rely on it for
drinking, cooking, and bathing.
5. As urban areas grow, wildlife is displaced from their natural habitats, leading to potential conflicts
between humans and animals. Animals and plants that once thrived in diverse ecosystems struggle to
adapt to the altered environments.
6. From deforestation to climate change, each activity presents its own unique challenges to the
delicate balance of nature. However, among these challenges, there is hope. Through collective
action, responsible choices and sustainable practices, we can address these environmental issues and
safeguard the environment for future generations.

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3. FORCE AND ENERGY
3.1. CURVED MIRRORS
- When a ray of light falls on a polished surface, it is reflected. In the previous grades, we learnt about
reflection by different materials.
- The materials were plane-polished surfaces such as plane mirrors. In this sub strand, we shall learn
about reflection by curved mirrors.
- We shall start by discussing the meaning of the terms associated with curved mirrors.

3.2. Types of mirrors

a) Concave mirror
- It is a type of curved mirror in which the reflecting surface is curved inward.
- They are also known as converging mirrors because they cause light rays to converge or come
together after reflection.
- The image created by a concave mirror can either be real or virtual.

- It can also magnify and invert images.

b) Convex mirror
- A convex mirror is a type of curved mirror in which the reflecting surface is curved outward, as
shown below.

- They are also known as diverging mirrors because they cause light rays to diverge or spread out
after reflection.
c) Parabolic surface
- It is designed in such a way that the surface can converge or diverge all incident light rays.
- Any light rays that fall on the surface are converged at the focal point of the parabolic surface.

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 - Light rays generated by a source placed at the focal point of the parabolic surface will diverge
parallel to the principal axis of the parabolic surface after falling on its surface

3.3. Terms used in curved mirrors

- The figures below show the terms used in curved mirrors

Concave mirror

Convex mirror
- Incident ray: A ray of light that falls on a surface.
- Reflected ray: A ray of light that is sent back after reflection.
- Radius of curvature (r): The radius of the imaginary hollow sphere of which the spherical mirror is a
part. It is usually denoted by the letter r.
- Pole (P): The center of the reflecting surface of a curved mirror. It is denoted by the letter P.

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- Principal axis: The straight line joining the center of curvature (C) and the pole (P) of a curved
mirror.
- Principal focus (F): The midpoint between the pole (P) and the center of curvature (C). For a
concave mirror, it is the point at which all rays parallel and close to the principal axis converge after
reflection. For a convex mirror, it is the point from which all rays parallel and close to the principal
axis appear to diverge after reflection.
- Focal length (f): The distance from the pole to the principal focus of a curved mirror.
- Center of curvature (C): The center of the sphere from which the mirror is a part. For a concave
mirror, the center of curvature is in front of the mirror, while for a convex mirror, it is behind.
- Focal plane: A plane that is perpendicular to the principal axis of a curved mirror and passes through
the principal focus.
- Aperture: The portion of a curved mirror from which the reflection of light takes place.

3.4. Determining the focal length of a concave mirror

Requirements:
❖ Concave mirror
❖ meter rule
❖ white screen
❖ distant object
❖ mirror holder

Procedure:
1. Open the laboratory window curtains and make sure you can see a distant object.
2. Place the mirror vertically on a mirror stand and ensure it is stable. Let it face a distant object
that is well-lit.
3. Place the screen in front of the reflecting surface of the mirror, as shown below.

4. Move the mirror forward and backward until you obtain a clear image of the distant object.
5. Using the meter rule, measure the distance between the concave mirror and the screen and record
it in a table similar to the one below.
Values of length measured
Readings Position of Concave Position of the Screen Focal Length (f) =
Mirror (b) (a) (a - b) cm

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 First Reading (f1)
Second Reading (f2)
Third Reading (f3)
6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 three times to calculate the average focal length.
7. Calculate the average focal length using the following formula:
𝑓1 +𝑓2+𝑓3
f= 3
8. Discuss your results with your classmates.

Observations
- In the practical activity above, the distance between the screen and the concave mirror where you
got a clear image of the distant object is the focal length.
- A clear image is formed at the principal focus of the curved mirror. The image is inverted.
- Focal length can also be obtained by dividing the radius of curvature by two.

3.5. Drawing ray diagrams to locate images formed by concave and

convex mirrors
❖ A ray diagram shows the path that light takes from an object to a mirror, and then to a screen or an
eye.
❖ Specific rays behave in particular ways, and this behavior helps us locate images after reflection.

a) Investigating the reflection of a ray close and parallel to the principal axis for a concave mirror
Requirements:
❖ A pencil
❖ plain white paper or your exercise book
❖ a 30 cm ruler

Procedure:
1. Draw the figure below in your exercise book.

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 2. Draw a line parallel and close to the principal axis to meet the mirror at point x. Which ray is
this?
3. From point x, draw a ray passing through F. Which ray is this?

b) Investigating the reflection of a ray close and parallel to the principal axis for a convex mirror
Requirements:
❖ A pencil
❖ plain white paper or your exercise book
❖ a 30 cm ruler

Procedure:
1. Draw the figure below in your exercise book.

2. Draw a line parallel and close to the principal axis to meet the mirror at point x. Which ray is
this?
3. Draw a reflected ray at point x such that it appears to have emerged from point F. Use a dotted or
broken line for the part of the ray that is on the right of the mirror's pole.
4. Discuss the ray diagram you have drawn with your group members.

Observations:
- The shaded lines represent the concave and convex curved mirrors.
- An incident ray that is close to and parallel with the principal axis, CP, is reflected through the
principal focus, F, in a concave mirror.
- Such a ray appears to be coming from the principal focus when reflected from a convex mirror.

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c) Determining the reflection of a ray through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror
Requirements:
• A pencil
• A plain white paper or your exercise book
• A 30 cm ruler
• Concave mirror

Procedure
1. Draw the figure below in your exercise book.

2. Draw a ray passing through the centre of curvature C to the mirror. Which ray is this?
3. On the ray, use an arrowhead pointing towards the mirror and another arrowhead pointing away
from the mirror.

d) Determining the reflection of a ray through the centre of curvature of a convex mirror
Procedure:
1. Draw the figure below in your exercise book.

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 2. Draw a line towards the mirror to meet the mirror at point x. This represents the incident ray. Use
an arrowhead on the line pointing towards the mirror.
3. Draw a dotted or broken line from C to the mirror and then extend it to meet the line drawn in
step 2 at point x. On the continuous side of the line, put an arrowhead pointing away from the
mirror.
4. Discuss the ray diagram you have drawn and share your findings with other groups.

Observations and conclusions

- An incident ray that passes through the centre of curvature, C, is reflected back along the same path
in a concave mirror, as shown in Figure 3.14.

ay passing through the centre of curvature in a concave mirror

- A ray that appears to pass through the centre of curvature, C, is reflected back along the same path in
a convex mirror. It appears to come from C and is thus drawn as a broken line. This shows that it is a
virtual ray.

ay appearing to pass through the centre of curvature in a convex mirror

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e) Determining the reflection of a ray passing through the principal focus, F of a concave mirror
Requirements:
• A pencil
• A plain white paper or your exercise book
• A 30 cm ruler
• Concave mirror

Procedure:
1. Draw the figure below in your exercise book.

2. At the point where the incident ray hits the mirror, draw a reflected ray that is parallel to the
principal axis. Put the arrowhead to show the ray's direction away from the mirror.
3. Discuss the ray diagram you have drawn with your classmates.

f) Determining the reflection of a ray passing through the principal focus, F of a convex mirror
Requirements:
❖ A pencil
❖ A plain white paper or your exercise book
❖ A 30 cm ruler
❖ Convex mirror

Procedure:
1. Draw the figure below in your exercise book.

2. At the point where the incident ray hits the mirror, draw a reflected ray that is parallel to the
principal axis. This ray should be continuous on the left side of the mirror. Use an arrowhead to
show the ray's direction away from the mirror.

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 3. Discuss the ray diagram you have drawn with your classmates.

Observations and conclusions

An incident ray passing through the principal focus, F is reflected parallel to the principal axis

Concave mirror Convex mirror

3.6. Locating images of objects in front of a concave mirror

a) Determining the location of an image formed by an object placed beyond the centre of
curvature
Requirements
❖ A pencil
❖ A plain white paper or an exercise book
❖ A 30 cm ruler

Procedure:
1. Draw the figure below in your exercise book.

2. Draw an incident ray from the tip of the object parallel to the principal axis to hit the mirror. This
ray is reflected and passes through the principal focus F.
3. Draw another incident ray from the tip of the object to pass through the principal focus F to the
mirror. This ray is reflected and becomes parallel to the principal axis.
4. Identify the point of intersection of the reflected rays.
5. Draw a vertical line from the principal axis to the point of intersection of the reflected rays. The
vertical line represents the image of the object. Its tip will be where the reflected rays meet.
Draw the arrowhead.

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Observations and conclusions
- The image of an object placed beyond C is located between C and F. The resulting image is shown
below.

- The following are the characteristics of the image formed when an object is placed beyond the centre
of curvature of a concave mirror:
i) The image is formed between C and F.
ii) The image is real.
iii) The image is inverted.
iv) The image is smaller than the object.

b) Locating an image formed by an object placed at the centre of curvature

Requirements:
❖ A pencil
❖ A plain white paper or an exercise book
❖ A 30 cm ruler

Procedure:
1. Draw the figure below in your exercise book.

2. Draw an incident ray from the tip of the object parallel to the principal axis to hit the mirror. This
ray is reflected to pass through the principal focus, F.
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 3. Draw a second incident ray from the tip of the object passing through the principal focus, F. The
reflected ray will be parallel to the principal axis.
4. Identify the point of intersection of the reflected rays.
5. Draw a vertical line from the principal axis to the point of intersection of the reflected rays. The
vertical line represents the image of the object. Its tip will be where the reflected rays meet.
Draw the arrowhead.
6. Discuss your work with your classmates.

Observations and conclusions

- The image of an object placed at C will be located as shown below.

- The following are the characteristics of an image formed when an object is placed at point C.
i) The image is formed at C.
ii) The image is real.
iii) The image is inverted.
iv) The image is the same size as the object.

c) Locating the image formed by an object placed between the centre of curvature and the
principal focus
Requirements:
❖ A pencil
❖ A plain white paper or an exercise book
❖ A 30 cm ruler

Procedure:
1. Draw the figure below in your exercise book.

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 2. Draw an incident ray from the tip of the object parallel to the principal axis to hit the mirror. The
ray is reflected and passes through F.
3. Draw another incident ray from the tip of the object, passing through F to hit the mirror. The ray
is reflected and becomes parallel to the principal axis.
4. Draw a vertical line from the principal axis to the point of intersection of the reflected rays. Draw
the arrowhead at the tip where the arrows meet. What does this vertical line represent?
5. Discuss the characteristics of the image formed.
6. Share your work with your classmates.

Observations and conclusions

- The image of an object placed at C and F is located as shown below.

- The following are the characteristics of the image formed when an object is placed between centre of
curvature, C and principal focus, F.
i) The image is formed beyond C.
ii) The image is real.
iii) The image is inverted.
iv) The image is larger than the object.

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d) Determining the location of an image formed by an object at the principal focus
Requirements:
❖ A pencil
❖ A plain white paper or your exercise book
❖ A 30 cm ruler

Procedure:
1. Draw the figure below in your exercise book.

2. Draw an incident ray from the tip of the object, parallel to the principal axis to hit the mirror. The
reflected ray should pass through the principal focus, F.
3. Draw a second incident ray passing through the centre of curvature, C, and through the tip of the
object. It is reflected back through C.
4. Discuss your work with your classmates.

Observations and conclusions

- The resulting ray diagram should look like the one drawn below.

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- The reflected rays are parallel to each other. This means that the image is located at a far-off
distance, that is, infinity.

e) Determining the location of the image formed when an object is placed between the principal
focus and the pole
Procedure
❖ A pencil
❖ A plain white paper or an exercise book
❖ A 30 cm ruler

Procedure:
1. Draw the figure below in your exercise book.

2. Draw an incident ray from the top of the object passing through the centre of curvature, C and
then to the concave mirror. This ray is reflected along the same direction.

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 3. Draw a second incident ray from the top of the object parallel to the principal axis and reflected
through the principal focus, F.

4. Extend the reflected rays using dotted lines towards the back of the concave mirror until they
intersect. Draw the image.
5. Discuss your diagram with other groups.

Observations and conclusions

- The reflected rays are divergent. That is, they move away from each other.
- When the reflected rays are extended behind the mirror, they appear to meet at a point behind it. The
point where they appear to intersect at, is where the image is located with respect to the principal
axis. This is shown below.

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- The following are the characteristics of an image formed when an object is placed between the
principal focus, F and the pole P
i) The image is virtual. A virtual image is one which does not exist. It cannot be focused on a
screen.
ii) The image is formed behind the mirror.
iii) The image is upright
iv) The image formed is larger than the object

f) Determining the location of the image when an object is at a distance

Procedure:
❖ a pencil
❖ a plain white paper or an exercise book
❖ a 30 cm ruler

Procedure:
1. Copy the figure below in your exercise book.

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 2. Draw the reflected ray of the ray passing through the pole. Remember that the angle of incidence
of this ray is equal to its angle of reflection.
3. Draw the reflected ray of the ray passing through F.
4. Locate the position of the image and draw it. Discuss the characteristics of the image formed.
5. Share your drawing with your classmates.

Observations and conclusions

- The parallel lines represent the incident rays from a distant object. Through a ray diagram, the image
is formed at F.

- The following are the characteristics of the image formed when an object is at a distance.
➢ The image is formed at the principal focus, F.
➢ The image is inverted.
➢ The image is real.
➢ The image is smaller than the object.

3.7. Locating images of objects in front of a convex mirror

a) Locating the image formed when an object is placed in front of a convex mirror
Requirements:
❖ A pencil
❖ A plain white paper or an exercise book
❖ A 30 cm ruler

Requirements
1. Draw the figure below in your exercise book.

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 2. Draw an incident ray from the tip of the object parallel to the principal axis to hit the mirror. This
ray is reflected and appears to have come from the principal focus, F.

3. Draw an incident ray from the tip of the object appearing to have passed through C. Upon
reflection, the ray appears to have come from C and passes through the tip of the object.
4. Locate the point of intersection of the virtual rays.

5. Draw the image and discuss its characteristics.

Observations and conclusions

- In convex mirrors, the image is always formed behind the mirror as shown below.

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- The following are characteristics of the image formed by a convex mirror:
➢ The image formed is virtual.
➢ The image is formed between P and F.
➢ The image formed is smaller than the object.
➢ The image formed is upright.

3.8. Illustrating images formed by curved mirrors using ray diagrams

1. Draw the two figures below in your exercise book. Follow the steps prescribed to locate the images
formed in the following convex mirrors.

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2. Draw the figure below in your exercise book. Use ray diagrams to locate the image in the figure you
drew.

3. a) An object is placed 2 cm in front of a concave mirror whose focal length is 6 cm. Use a ray
diagram to locate the image, given that the object is 1 cm tall.
b) An object of height 10 mm is placed 70 mm in front of a concave mirror with a focal length of 60
mm. Use a ray diagram to locate the image.
4. Show your work to the teacher.

3.9. Characteristics of images formed by a concave mirror when object is

at various positions
1. When the object is placed beyond the center of curvature, the image formed is real, inverted and
smaller than the object.
2. When the object is placed between the principal focus and the center of curvature, the image formed
is real, inverted and larger than the object. A real image is one that can be seen and focused on a
screen.
3. When the object is placed at the center of curvature, the image formed is real, inverted and the same
size as the object.
4. When the object is placed at the principal focus, the image formed cannot be seen on the screen.
5. When the object is between the principal focus and the pole, the image cannot be seen on the screen.

3.10. Characteristics of images formed by a convex mirror when object is

at various positions
- No matter where you place the object, the images formed by the convex mirror have the same
characteristics.
- The images formed are upright, smaller than the object, virtual and found on the opposite side of the
mirror as the object.
- The size of the image varied depending on the object position.

3.11. Applications of curved mirrors in our day-to-day life

1. A car side mirror (driving mirror) uses a convex mirror to give a wide field of view behind the car.

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2. A dentist's mirror uses a concave mirror to form a magnified image of the patient's teeth.
3. A projector lamp uses a built-in reflector to concentrate light in a specific direction.
4. A shaving mirror uses a concave mirror to provide a magnified image of the face.
5. A solar concentrator is a device that uses mirrors to collect and concentrate solar energy at a single
focal point.
6. A telescope uses curved mirrors to view distant objects.
7. At the base of a microscope, a concave mirror serves as a condenser to shine light on the specimen.
8. In a car headlamp, the bulb is located at the focal point of a concave parabolic reflector. This ensures
the headlamp emits a parallel beam, properly lighting the road ahead.
9. In a torch, the bulb filament is located at the focal point of the concave reflector to produce a parallel
beam.
10. Large shops and supermarkets use curved mirrors to monitor all the walkways and help control
shoplifting.
11. Security personnel use curved mirrors to search the underside of cars without having to bend down.

3.12. WAVES
- Waves help us understand many things happening around us.
- We hear sound because of waves.
- We are also able to receive audio and watch videos because of waves.
- Sometimes, earthquakes cause destruction such as the collapse of buildings and landslides.
- In this sub-strand, we will learn about waves, their types, characteristics, parts and their usefulness in
day-to-day life.

3.13. Generation of waves

- A wave was formed when a stone was dropped into the water. When the stone fell into the water, it
created a disturbance in the form of a circular pulse (ripple) that spread outwards from the point of
impact.
- A wave is a disturbance that carries energy from one point to another in an organized and regular
way without the movement of particles.
- Waves can be classified as electromagnetic or mechanical in nature.
➢ Mechanical waves are waves that require a medium for transmission. Examples of
mechanical waves include water waves and sound waves.
➢ Electromagnetic waves are waves that do not require a material medium for transmission.
Examples of electromagnetic waves include radio waves and light waves.
- We depend on waves for nearly everything we do, from talking, being able to see things with our
eyes, listening to music and using a mobile phone.

3.14. Demonstrating the generation of waves using a slinky spring

Requirements:
❖ A slinky spring

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 ❖ A block board
❖ Metallic hooks
❖ A hammer

Procedure:
1. Fix one end of the slinky spring onto the block board using the metallic hooks.

2. Hammer the hooks tightly to prevent the slinky spring from getting loose.
3. Take turns flicking the slinky spring up and down as shown. Observe the behavior of the slinky
spring.

4. When the slinky spring is at rest on a level surface, give its free end a push to the right or left as
shown. Observe and record your observations in your exercise book.

5. Discuss your observations with your classmates.

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Observations and conclusions
- As the slinky spring moves up and down, humps and valleys are formed that move up and down
along the spring.

- When the slinky spring is pressed to the right, a disturbance moves horizontally along the spring.
This activity shows how waves are produced and how they move using a slinky spring.

3.15. Demonstrating the generation of waves using a rope

Requirements:
❖ A rope
❖ A pole or a vertical support

Requirements:
1. Tie one end of the rope to the pole.
2. Move the rope up and down as shown.
3. Increase the tension of the rope by making it tight. Repeat Step 2.

4. Observe the movements the rope makes. Share your findings with other groups.

Observations and conclusions

- Humps and valleys were formed and moved along the rope as the rope moved up and down.
- When you increase the tension, the waves formed have a higher speed.
- The humps and valleys are waves. The waves carry energy from the hand to the rope until they hit
the pole.
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3.16. Demonstrating the generation of waves using water
Requirements:
❖ A basin
❖ Water
❖ Two smooth stones of different sizes

Procedure
1. Half-fill the basin with water.
2. Gently drop the small stone at the center of the basin.
3. Repeat step 2 using the larger smooth stone.
4. Observe the behavior of the water in the basin.
5. Discuss what you observed in your groups.

Observations and conclusions

- You will notice a circular ripple spreading outward from the point where the small stone was
dropped.
- When the stone falls into the water, it transfers energy to the water particles. One way in which this
energy moves is by forming waves
- The ripples increase in speed when you use the larger smooth stone.
- The water starts to move up and down, which spreads out the energy. This happens continuously at
the surface of the water, producing ripples similar to the ones shown.

- The ripples spread to the edge of the basin.

3.17. Demonstrating the generation of waves using sound

Requirements:
❖ A retort stand
❖ A plastic cling wrap
❖ Uncooked rice
❖ A hollow plastic pipe
❖ A speaker
❖ A cello tape

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 ❖ A signal detector

Procedure:
1. Using a cellotape, connect the speaker on one end of the pipe.

2. Hold it upright using a retort stand.

3. Cover the top open end of the plastic pipe with plastic cling wrap. Make sure it clings tightly.
4. Place the uncooked rice on top of the plastic wrap.
5. Connect the speaker to the signal detector.

6. Put on the signal detector and observe what happens to the uncooked rice.

Observations and conclusions

- The uncooked rice jumps up and down. This is because the speaker produces longitudnal waves.
- The waves can travel through the air inside the pipe causing the plastic wrap to vibrate.

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3.18. Demonstrating phase in waves
Requirements:
❖ Two speakers
❖ Signal generator

Procedure:
1. Place the two speakers side by side at a distance of 6 meters.
2. Connect one speaker to the signal generator.
3. Stand 3 meters away from each other.
4. Put on the signal generator so that only one speaker produces sound. Listen to the sound.
5. Now connect all the speakers to the signal generator and out it on. Note the sound.
6. Move one speaker away from the person standing in the middle.
7. Put on the signal generator and note the sound.
8. Discuss your findings and share with the members of your class.

Observations and conclusions

- If one stands in front of two speakers, a person will hear the sound louder than each individual
speaker could produce. This shows the waves are in phase.
- As the person moves one speaker away, the person will reach a point where they will not hear any
sound. At this point, we say the two sound waves are out of phase.

3.19. Classification of waves as longitudnal and traverse

- In longitudinal waves, the movement of particles is parallel to the motion of the energy, i.e. the
displacement of the medium is in the same direction in which the wave is moving.
- When you move a slinky spring back and forth, it produces some areas with high concentration of
the spring coils and other parts where the spring coils are far apart.
- These continuous to and fro movements result in the formation of sections of compression
alternating with rarefaction along the length of the spring.

- The figure below shows the displacement of a particle in a longitudnal wave in relation to the
direction of wave motion.
- Examples of longitudinal waves are sound waves and waves in slinky springs.

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- In traverse waves, the movement of particles is at right angle to the motion of energy i.e. the
direction of the wave travel.
- This is because as the wave passes the motion of the rope takes an up and down movement and is at
right angles to the direction of the wave itself, which is along the rope.

- The figure below shows the displacement of an individual particle in relation to the direction of the
wave motion.
- Examples of traverse waves are light waves, microwaves and water waves.

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3.20. Characteristics of waves

- The highest surface part of a traverse wave is called a crest and the lowest part is called a trough.
- Amplitude is the maximum vertical displacement of the wave particles from the rest position. In a
traverse wave, amplitude is the height of a crest or the depth of a trough. It is measured in meters.
- Frequency is the number of complete waves passing a given point per second. The unit of frequency
is called hertz (Hz). It can also be defined as the number of crests passing a given point per second.
- Period is the time taken between two consecutive wave crests. The period is measured in time units
(seconds). It is usually represented by T.

- Wavelength is the distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs in a traverse
wave. It is usually represented by lambda.
- Speed is how fast the disturbance of a wave is moving. The speed of mechanical waves depend on
the medium that the wave is travelling through.
Speed = Frequency × Wavelength
- In a longitudinal wave, the wavelength is the distance between two successive compressions or
rarefactions.

i) In a longitudinal wave, where the particles are furthest apart from each other, that part of the
wave is called a rarefaction.
ii) The compression part is where the particles are much closer to each other.
iii) Period is the time taken to cover one wavelength.
iv) Frequency is the number of wavelengths per second.

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 v) The amplitude of a longitudinal wave is the distance between the particles in the areas it
compressed.

3.21. Parts of a traverse wave

Parts of a longitudinal wave

3.22. Remote sensing in relation to waves

- Visible light is also an electromagnetic wave. Remote sensing satellites often use this light to capture
detailed images of the Earth's surface. Remote sensing is the process of monitoring the physical
characteristics of an area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation from a distance.
- The remote sensing process involves an interaction between incident radiation and the target of
interest. The Sun is a very important source of energy for remote sensing. The Sun's energy is either
reflected, absorbed, and then re-emitted. It is then studied to provide information about the physical
characteristics of a place.

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- The atmosphere is where the transmission of energy from the source (the Sun) takes place. Once
energy from the Sun makes its way through the atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on
the properties of the target and the transmitted radiation. Here, there is absorption and reflection of
energy.
- Targeted Earth features have different proportions of energy being reflected, absorbed, and
transmitted. For example, a water body will absorb radiation differently from a landmass.
- Ground stations are built to collect and process remote sensing satellite data for different users and
applications. Sensors collect and record electromagnetic radiation. They also interpret the data
collected.
- The remote sensing process involves the following:
i) Energy source - The foremost requirement for remote sensing is the energy source that
provides radiation energy to the target object.
ii) Radiation and the atmosphere - The energy will come into contact with the atmosphere. It
passes through the atmosphere as it moves from the source to the target.
iii) Interaction with the target - Once the radiation energy has passed through the atmosphere and
reached the target, it interacts with the target based on the characteristics of both the
electromagnetic radiation and the target.
iv) Energy captured by the sensor - After the release of radiation from the target, a sensor is
required to capture it. It can capture different electromagnetic radiation at different
wavelengths and interpret the data.
v) Transmission, reception, and processing - The radiation energy captured by the sensor must be
sent to a station that receives the data and processes it.
vi) Analysis - The processed image is analyzed to extract information regarding the target.
vii) Application - Data from the imagery of the target is used to improve our understanding of it,
expose new facts, or help us solve problems such as weather forecasting, geology, and
mining.

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3.23. Application of waves in our day-to-day life
1. Sound waves are important in daily verbal communication as they enable us to pass information to
others. When we speak, the movement of different parts of our mouth creates vibrations in the
surrounding air. These vibrations spread through the air by disturbing nearby air molecules. The
sound wave continues to travel until it reaches the ear of the person we are speaking to.
2. Radio waves are used in radio and television to produce audio and video.
3. Mobile phones use waves to carry signals. The waves can penetrate solid materials such as walls;
therefore, they are able to carry telephone signals.
4. Waves are used in sound navigation and ranging (SONAR). This technology uses sound waves in
water to locate obstacles, shoals of fish, sea mines or submarines. Sound waves are emitted by a
transmitter into the water. When they hit an object, they are reflected back to the transmitter. A
receiver detects the reflected waves, which can be used to determine the depth and distance of the
object.
5. Radio detection and ranging (RADAR) uses electromagnetic waves to detect objects in the sky. This
technology is used in air traffic control and safety.

3.24. Applications of remote sensing

1. Air safety: Satellite remote sensing allows scientists to monitor dust and ash from volcanic eruptions,
which are unsafe for aircraft. With more information about dangers in their flight path, pilots can make
more informed decisions before taking off. This is increasingly important as the volume of worldwide
air traffic continues to increase. Information obtained from remote sensing satellites can also be used
to accurately predict severe weather, such as thunderstorms, which are one of the most threatening
conditions for aircraft.
2. Animal census: Remote sensing is used to accurately measure the distribution of wild animals. For
instance, drone-mounted cameras are employed to count and track animals in hard-to-reach areas,
providing valuable data about their numbers, distribution and movement patterns. This could be
especially helpful in monitoring animals that are under threat from human activities such as poaching.
3. Assessing the weather: Patterns and images of the atmosphere can be easily obtained with the help
of remote sensing techniques. This data is valuable and accurate for meteorological departments to
predict the weather.
4. Car tracking: The application of remote sensing technology to vehicle tracking and security has
significantly improved theft prevention and recovery. Remote sensing devices such as Global
Positioning System (GPS) trackers are installed in vehicles, allowing the owners to monitor their
location. In the event of theft, these trackers provide accurate information on the vehicle's location,
aiding in its quick recovery.
5. Fighting forest fires: It is crucial for the public to know when wildfires start and where they are
headed. Wildfires are a worldwide issue, and they can occur at any time. Satellites are able to detect
indicators of wildfires such as smoke, ash, dust and surface temperature from above. This allows
firefighters to be sent to the right places at the right time, thus reducing the damage caused by forest
fires.
6. Forest mapping: Remote sensing technology is used to obtain images of large areas of forests. The
forests can be easily mapped and identified with the help of remote sensing techniques. Photographs

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 of areas where deforestation has occurred can be easily studied and afforestation plans can be put in
place.
7. Identification of land boundaries: Remote sensing plays a pivotal role in modern land administration
by enabling efficient monitoring and management of land resources. Remote sensing's capacity to
capture details from a distance significantly aids in the identification of land boundaries. By utilizing
satellite imagery, land maps can be created, empowering authorities with accurate data for land-use
planning and boundary identification.
8. Road safety: Remote sensing is used by traffic police to monitor vehicles' speed. This helps in keeping
drivers within safe driving speeds, thus reducing cases of accidents resulting from over-speeding.

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