Flower

Flowers​ are no doubt the most enticing parts of plants. You hardly
even look at the plants who do not have flowers! Isn’t it? However,
more than the aesthetic pleasure, the flower performs other important
functions. Ever wondered if flower bouquet didn’t exist. Yes! Flowers
are so much more than the beautiful and colorful petals and fragrance.
Here, we will study flowers in more detail. We will cover all of the
various parts of flowers as well. But, before we proceed, do you know
what flowers actually are?

What are Flowers?

Flowers are the reproductive unit in the ​angiosperms​. These are the
main parts responsible for ​sexual reproduction​ in these plants. In
simple terms, without flowers, these angiosperms won’t be able to
produce more like themselves! A typical flower has four different
kinds of whorls arranged successively on the swollen end of the stalk
or pedicel, called thalamus or receptacle.

These four parts are called calyx, corolla, androecium, and

gynoecium. Calyx and corolla are accessory organs. On the other
hand, androecium and gynoecium are reproductive ​organs​. However,
there are some exceptions to this.

Perianth

In some flowers like lily, the calyx and corolla are not distinct and are
termed as perianth. Now, we will look at the various parts of flowers
in greater details.

Parts of the Flower

Each flower normally has four floral whorls, viz., calyx, corolla,
androecium, and gynoecium. Let us look at each of these parts
individually.

i) Calyx (Sepals)
The calyx may be gamosepalous (sepals united) or polysepalous
(sepals free). Generally, sepals are green, leaf-like and protect the
flower in the bud stage. They form the outermost whorl of the flower.

ii) Corolla (Petals)

Petals are usually brightly coloured to attract insects for ​pollination​.

Yes! That is why the flowers are coloured and attractive! Corolla may
be also free (gamopetalous) or united (polypetalous). The shape and
colour of corolla vary greatly in plants. It may be tubular, bell-shaped,
funnel-shaped or wheel-shaped.

iii) Androecium (Stamens)

This part of the flower represents the ​male reproductive​ organ. Each
stamen consists of a stalk or a filament and an anther. Each anther is
usually bilobed and each lobe has two chambers, the pollen-sacs. The
pollen grains are produced in pollen-sacs. A staminode is a sterile
stamen.

When stamens are attached to the petals, they are called epipetalous.
The examples of this type include brinjal. When stamens are attached
to the perianth, they are called epiphyllous. Lily is an example of this
type. Flowers are also classified on the basis of the fusion of stamen.
They are divided into the following types.

● Polyandrous: In this, the stamens in a flower remain free.

● Monadelphous: In these, the stamens are united into one
bundle. Examples include China rose.
● Diadelphous: These have the stamens united into two bundles.
Examples include pea.
● Polyadelphous: In Polyadelphous, the stamens are united into
more than two bundles. Examples include citrus. There may be
a variation in the ​length​of filaments within a flower, as in
Salvia and mustard.

iv) Gynoecium (Carpels/Pistils)

The gynoecium is the ​female reproductive​ part of the flower. It

consists of three parts – stigma, style, and ovary. An ovary is the
enlarged basal part, on which lies the elongated tube, the style. The
style connects the ovary to the stigma. The stigma is usually at the tip
of the style and is the receptive surface for pollen grains.
Each ovary bears one or more ovules attached to a flattened,
cushion-like placenta. We can classify gynoecium into further types:

● Monocarpellary: These have only one carpel.

● Multicarpellary: These have more than one carpel.
● Apocarpous: When carpels are free. e.g., lotus and rose.
● Syncarpous: When carpels are fused. e.g., mustard and tomato.

After ​fertilisation​, the ovules develop into ​seeds​ and the ovary matures
into a ​fruit​.

Aestivation

Aestivation is the mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in the floral

bud with respect to the other members of the same whorl. We have
mentioned the various possibilities below.

● Valvate: When sepals or petals in a whorl just touch one

another at the margin, without overlapping. e.g., Calotropis.
● Twisted: If one margin of the appendage overlaps that of the
next one and so on. e.g., China rose, lady’s finger and cotton.
 ● Imbricate: If the margins of sepals or petals overlap one
another but not in any particular direction. e.g., Cassia and
gulmohur.
● Vexillary (papilionaceous): It’s a special type of aestivation. It
has five petals, the largest (standard) overlaps the two lateral
petals (wings) which in turn overlap the two smallest anterior
petals (keel). e.g., Pea, Bean.

Solved Examples for You

Q: Mention the different types of flowers.

Solution: There are different types of flowers based on their

reproductive organs, symmetry etc.

● On the basis of reproductive organs, flowers are unisexual or

bisexual.
● On the basis of symmetry, flowers are Actinomorphic (radial
symmetry), zygomorphic (bilateral symmetry) or asymmetric
(irregular).
● A flower may be trimerous, tetramerous or pentamerous when
the floral appendages are in multiple of 3, 4 or 5, respectively.
 ● On the basis of bracts, flowers can be Bracteate and Ebracteate.

Inflorescence

Have you ever wondered why some flowers bloom in bunches while
some others bloom vertically? No, that is no magic! There is pure
science behind it. As biology students, you must be aware of the term
inflorescence. In this chapter, we will study more about inflorescence.
We will also look at the various inflorescence types in different
categories.

What is Inflorescence?

Inflorescence is the arrangement of flowers on the floral axis. The

flowers are arranged with respect to a fixed floral axis. We will look at
the various types and arrangements of flowers now.

1) Racemose

In this type of inflorescence, the main axis continues to grow. It does

not terminate in a flower and gives off flowers laterally in an acropetal
manner (where old flowers are arranged lower side and young flowers
are on the upper side). We can further divide it into:

● Raceme: When peduncle or (main axis) is elongated and

Eg. ​Radish, Mustard
flowers are pedicellate. ​

● Spike: Here, the peduncle is elongated but flowers are sessile.

​ chyranthes.
Eg.A
● Catkin/Amentum: Here, the peduncle is thin, long and weak.
Eg.​ Mulberry, Betula,
The flowers are sessile and unisexual. ​
Oak.
● Spadix: In it, the peduncle is thick, long and fleshy. The
. ​Examples include
flowers are small, sessile and unisexual​
Colocasia, Maize, Aroids, Palms etc.
● Corymb: In it, the peduncle is short and all flowers are present
at the same level because the lower flower has much long
 pedicel than the upper one. eg. Candytuft

● Umbel: An inflorescence in which the flower stalks are of more

or less equal in length, arise from the same point. At the base of
flowers stalk, there is a whorl of bracts forming the involucre.
Eg.Centella.
● Capitulum/Racemose head (Anthodium): Here, the peduncle
doesn’t grow. It becomes broad, flattened concave or convex.

Learn more about ​the Types and Parts of Flower here in more detail​.

2) Cymose

In this type of inflorescence, the peduncle terminates in a flower.

Here, the older flowers are present at the upper portion and young
buds are arranged towards the base. This arrangement is called as the
basipetal succession. It is of the following types:

● Uniparous cyme/Monochasial cyme: The peduncle ends in a

flower producing lateral branch at a time It is of two types
again: Helicoid cyme and Scorpioid cyme.
● Dichasial or biparous cyme: In this type, peduncle ends in a
flower and from the basal part of peduncle, two lateral
branches arise. These also end in a flower and this same
arrangement occurs on these lateral branches. Eg.
Bougainvillaea, Jasmine, Teak, Mirabilis.
● Multiparous cyme/Polychasial: Here, the peduncle ends in a
flower and from the base of it many lateral branches arise,
which also terminate in flowers.

Now, we will look at some special types of Inflorescence.

Inflorescence Types
1) Cyathium

The bracts or the involucre fuse and form a cup-shaped structure on

the margin. This houses the glands. In the central part of the
cup-shaped structure, you can find the female flowers. These mature
earlier. Due to the growth of pedicel, this comes out from the
cup-shaped structure.

Small male flowers surround these female flowers. These are also
found on Pedicel. The male flowers, which lie towards the centre,
mature earlier than the flowers which are towards the periphery. This
inflorescence is found in Euphorbiaceae family like Euphorbia,
Poinsettia, Pedilanthus.

2) Verticillaster

We can find this type of inflorescence in Labiatae/Lamiaceae family,

where the leaves are arranged in opposite manner on the stem. From
the axil of each leaf, inflorescence develops. From the main axil,
lateral axil arises, on which flowers you can find the flowers.
Examples include Salvia, Ocimum, Coleus etc.
3) Hypanthium

In this type of inflorescence, you can see the peduncle modified in

narrow cup-like structure. At the base of the cup, the female flowers
develop while towards mouth the male flower develops. All three
types of flowers are present in this inflorescence. Eg. Banyan, Peepal
etc.

Solved Example for You

Question: Write a note on Mixed Inflorescence.

Solution: In this arrangement, you can find the flowers arranged in

both racemose and cymose manner on the same peduncle. It is further
of two types:

● Mixed spadix: eg: Banana

 ● Cymose raceme or thyrsus: eg: Grapes

Leaf

We all know what leaves are, don’t we? However, when we are a
student of biology, our knowledge has to be different from what others
know. Do you agree? So, for you, Leaves are not the green parts of the
plants that have chlorophyll in them. You are too old for that! In this
chapter of ​plant morphology​, we will look into greater depths of
Leaves. We will look at their characteristics and types. However,
before we proceed, let us first know what a leaf is!

What is a Leaf?

The leaf is a green, flat, thin, expanded lateral appendage of the stem.
This part is borne at a node and bears a bud in its axil. It is exogenous
in origin and develops from the leaf primordium of shoot apex. The
green colour of the leaf is due to the presence of the photosynthetic
pigment – chlorophyll. This pigment helps the various plants to
synthesise their organic food.
You must have heard of the term foliage. Foliage refers to the green
photosynthetic leaves of a plant. They are borne on the stem in
acropetal succession. Now, we move on to the section where we look
at the various characteristics of leaves.

Browse more Topics under Morphology Of Flowering Plants

● Flower
● Inflorescence
● Root
● Stem
● The Fruit
● The Seed
● Classification of Flowering Plant
Characteristics of a Leaf

● The leaf is a lateral dissimilar appendage of the stem.

● A leaf is always borne at the node of the stem.
● Generally, there is always an axillary bud in the axil of a leaf.
● It is exogenous in origin and develops from the swollen leaf
primordium of the growing apex.
● The growth of leaf is limited.
● The leaves do not possess any apical bud or a regular growing
point.
● A leaf has three main parts – Leaf base, petiole and leaf lamina.
In addition, it may possess two lateral outgrowths of the leaf
base, called stipules.
● The leaf lamina is traversed by prominent vascular strands,
called veins.

Venation

It is the arrangement of veins and also the various veinlets in the

leaves. Different plants show different types of venation. Usually,
there are two types of venation:
 ● Reticulate venation: In a reticulate venation, the veinlets are
arranged in a random fashion to form a complex network of
veinlets. Ex: Dicotyledonous plants like a rose plant.
● Parallel venation: In this fashion, the veinlets are arranged
parallel to each other. Ex: In monocotyledons like paddy.

Types of Leaves

You have possibly come across various plants with different shapes
and sizes of leaves. They are categorized as follows:

● Acicular type: They are needle-shaped.

● Linear Type: They are long and relatively broader as compared
to other leaves.
● Lanceolate Type: They are lance-shaped.
● Oblong Type: They are rectangular in their shape and structure.
● Reniform type: They refer to the leaves with the shape of
kidneys.
● Cordate type: They are heart-shaped and have a deep notch at
the base.
● Orbicular type: They are more or less circular in their shape.
 ● Saggitate type: They are shaped like arrow-heads.
● Elliptical Type: They have shapes of ellipses.
● Hastate type: The shape of these leaves is like saggitate. The
two basal lobes are directed outwards.
● Ovate Type: They are oval or egg-shaped in their structure.
● Lyrate Type: They are in the shape of a lyre.
● Spatulate Type: They have shapes resembling spatulas or
spoons.
● Centric Type: They are cylindrical and hollow.
● Oblique Type: The lamina of this leaf has unequal halves.
● Cuneate Type: They are wedge-shaped.

This is all about the characteristics and types of leaves. We will look
at a few solved examples for a better understanding.

Solved Examples for You

Question: Explain how various leaf modifications help plants.

Solution: Though the main function of leaves is to carry out

photosynthesis, in a lot of plants, the modification of roots performs
various functions. Therefore, they become an important part of the
plants. They include

● Tendrils: These help the plant in climbing.

● Spines: These act as an organ of defence. The common
example includes cactus.

Root

Have you ever wondered why various flowers are different in their
looks, place of origin and season of growth? Why don’t you find your
favourite marigold flowers in the scorching summers? Well, there is a
lot of story behind it! In this chapter, we will discuss everything about
roots. Ever thought that roots are that significant? Yes! Before, we
proceed, we will have a quick recap of what morphology is all about

What is Morphology?

Morphology is the branch of science related to the study of form and

structure of anything. In botany, it generally means the study of
external features, forms and relative positions of different organs on
plants. Angiosperms or flowering plants show a great variety of shape,
size and form.

They could range from minute ​Wolffia​ and ​Lamna​ (0.1​cm)​ to the tall
Eucalyptus​ (up to 100 ​meters​). Now we head on to read more about a
significant part of the flowering plants: the roots.

The Roots

The root is usually an underground part of the plant. It is primarily

responsible for the fixation and absorption of water. The root with its
branches is known as the root system. Now, we move ahead and look
at the characteristics of the roots in various plants.

Characteristics of the Root

● The root is the descending portion of the plant axis.

● It is positively geotropic.
 ● It is usually non-green or brown in colour.
● The root is not further differentiated into nodes and internodes.
● As per the rule, the root does not bear leaves and tree buds.
● Usually, a root cap protects the root tip.
● The root bears unicellular root hairs.
● Lateral roots arise from the root. These are endogenous in
origin (arises from pericycle).

Without the roots, the transportation system in many plants would

cease to exist. Therefore, it is important that you understand the need
for roots. However, there are more than one types of root systems in
plants. We will now look at them in brief.

Types of Root System

The root system is generally of two types. We will look at these two
types in the section below.

● Taproot system: The taproot system develops from radicle of

the germinating seed. It is also called the normal root system.
The taproot system is present in only dicotyledonous plants.
 ● Adventitious root system: The root system that develops from
any part of the plant body other than the radicle is called the
adventitious root system. It is mostly seen in
monocotyledonous plants.

Regions of the Root

● Root Cap: The root cap is a thimble-like structure covering the
tip of the root. The root cap protects the tender root apex when
it makes its way through the soil.
● Region of Elongation: This part is responsible for the
meristematic activity. The cells in this region are very small,
have a thin wall and dense protoplasm.
● Region of Maturation: We get the root hairs in this region.
These are a part of the root epidermis.

Modifications of Root
● Food storage: Taproots of turnip and carrot are examples where
roots are modified for food storage.
 ● Support: In banyan trees, hanging roots come out from
branches. The hanging roots then go into the soil to provide
additional support to the huge banyan tree.
● Respiration: In swampy plants, many roots come out vertically
above the ground. These are hollow roots and their primary
function is the exchange of gases in the roots.

Solved Examples for You

Question: Pneumatophores or breathing roots occur in

A. Hydrophytes
B. Epiphytes
C. Xerophytes
D. Mangrove plants

Solution: Pneumatophores are respiratory roots belonging to

Mangrove plants. Hence, the correct answer is option d.

Question: Haustoria or sucking roots occur in

A. Betel
B. Orchid
 C. Cuscuta
D. Tinospora

Solution: The parasitic plant produces some knob like roots at the
point of attachment with the host plant known as haustoria which
penetrate into the host plant and draws nourishment. Therefore, the
correct answer is option c.

Stem

You possibly know about a stem since you were a kid. Then what are
we going to do now? We will know more about a stem! Stems play an
important role in any plant. No, it is not just ​transportation​ of water
and ​minerals​! There is more to the story indeed! Let us look at the
details of plant stems in this chapter. We will look at their
characteristics and types as well. This is an important concept and will
help you score better in your exams!

What is a Stem?

The stem is the ascending part of the axis bearing branches, leaves,
flowers and fruits. It develops from the plumule of the embryo of a
germinating seed. It bears nodes and internodes. What are nodes and
internodes? The regions of the stem where leaves are born are called
nodes. On the other hand, internodes are the portions between two
nodes.

The stem bears buds, which may be terminal or axillary. Now, let us
look at what the functions of a stem are.

Functions of the Stem

The stem performs the two major functions of

● Spreading out branches bearing leaves, flowers and fruits.

● Conducting ​water​, minerals and ​
photosynthates​
.

Learn more about the ​Morphology of Leaf​ and ​Fruits here​.

However, many a time stems also have various modifications. These
help the stem to perform the function of storage of food, support,
protection and ​vegetative propagation​. Before we proceed to know
more about such modifications, let us look at the various
characteristics of stems.

Characteristics of Stems
● The stem is an ascending axis of the plant and develops from
the plumule and epicotyl of the embryo.
● It is generally erect and grows away from the soil towards the
light. Therefore, it is negatively geotropic and positively
phototropic.
● The growing apex of stem bears a terminal bud for ​
growth​in
length.
● In flowering plants, the stem is differentiated into nodes and
internodes.
i.e.​, leaves and branches) are
● The lateral organs of the stem (​
exogenous in origin (i.e., from the cortical region).
● The young stem is green and photosynthetic.
● Hair, if present, are generally multicellular.
 ● In mature plants, stem and its branches bear flowers and fruits.

Now that we know quite a few things about stems, let us look at the
various modifications of stems. This is an important ​aspect​ of this
chapter. Hence, you must pay extra attention to it.

Modifications of Stem

Too often, stems are modified to perform a range of functions. Below,

we will discuss in brief about the various modifications of stems.

● Modification of Stems for the Storage of Food: Underground

stems of potato, ginger, turmeric, zaminkand, colocasia are
modified to store food in them. They also act as organs of
perennation to tide over conditions unfavourable for growth.
 ● Modifications for support: Stem tendrils which develop from
axillary buds, are slender and spirally coiled and help plants to
climb such as in gourds (cucumber, pumpkins, watermelon)
and grapevines.
● Stem modifications for defence: Axillary buds of stems may
also get modified into woody, straight and pointed thorns.
Thorns are found in many plants such as Citrus, Bougainvillea.
They protect plants from browsing animals.
● Modification of stems for photosynthesis: Some plants of arid
regions modify their stems into flattened (Opuntia), or fleshy
cylindrical (Euphorbia) structures. They contain chlorophyll
and carry out photosynthesis. Besides these, stems can also be
modified for vegetative propagation.

Thus, we see the characteristics and functions of the stem. We also

went through the concept of various modifications of stems. A
modification is important in various organs of the plants as they help
to perform separate functions. At times, these functions are crucial for
the existence of the plants.
Solved Examples for You

Q1: Explain the modification in stems for vegetative propagation.

Ans: At times, the ​stems​ of the plants can be modified to serve various
purposes. They include:

● Runner: Underground stems of some plants spread to new

niches and when older parts die new plants are formed. e.g.,
grass and strawberry
● Stolon: In these plants, a slender lateral branch arises from the
base of the main axis and after growing aerially for some time
arch downwards to touch the ground. e.g., mint and jasmine
● Offset: A lateral branch with short internodes and each node
bearing a rosette of leaves and a tuft of roots are found in
aquatic plants. e.g., Pistia and Eichhornia.
● Sucker: In these, the lateral branches originate from the basal
and underground portion of the main stem, grow horizontally
beneath the soil and then come out obliquely upward giving
rise to leafy shoots. e.g., banana, pineapple and
Chrysanthemum.
Q2: Ginger is a stem which can be differentiated from ​root​ because it:

a. Grows parallel to the ground

b. Stores food
c. Lacks chlorophyll
d. Has nodes and internodes

Ans: A rhizome is a thick horizontally growing stem. It has nodes and

internodes as well as scale leaves, axillary buds, adventitious roots and
a terminal bud. Hence the answer is d.

The Fruit

Almost all of us love all types of fruits! However, have you ever
thought about how complex the fruits can be? Yes! Fruits are of
various types, with different characteristics and each one with a
distinct scientific name! So, what’s your favorite fruit? Mango? But,
how much do you know about it, apart from the fact that it is tasty! In
this topic, we will read more about the various types and
characteristics of fruits.

The Fruit
Fruits protect the seeds. Yes! This is the primary function of the fruits
and not just satisfying your taste buds! But, in some fruits, seeds are
absent. Examples include grapes, banana, etc. They are parthenocarpic
or seedless fruits. Let us now look at the various parts of the fruit in
greater detail.

Browse more Topics under Morphology Of Flowering Plants

● Flower
● Inflorescence
● Leaf
● Root
● Stem
● The Seed
● Classification of Flowering Plant

Pericarp

After ripening, the ovarian wall changes into pericarp. This pericarp
may be thick and fleshy or thick and hard or thin and soft. The
pericarp has 3 layers. They are

● Outermost layer: Epicarp

 ● Middle layer: Mesocarp
● Innermost layer: Endocarp

Now we move on to know more about the various types of fruits.

True Fruit

A true fruit is one that develops only from the ovary. Examples are
Mango, Coconut, Zizyphus, etc.

False Fruit or Pseudocarp

In some fruits, it is not the ovary that forms the fruit. In fact, some
other parts of the flower, like the thalamus, inflorescence, calyx are
modified to become a part of the fruit. These types of fruit are called
false fruits. Examples are Apple, Strawberry, etc.

Know more about ​Flower

Classification of Fruits

There are two criteria for the classification of fruits:

 ● Whether the carpels present in gynoecium are free or in a fused
state.
● One or more flower takes part in the formation of fruit.

According to the above points, we can classify fruits into types of

fruits

Types of Fruits

● Simple
● Aggregate
● Composite

Simple fruit

These fruits develop from the monocarpellary ovary or multicarpellary

syncarpous ovary. Only one fruit is formed by the gynoecium. Simple
fruits are of two types

● Fleshy Fruits: In fleshy fruits, the fruit wall is differentiated

into epicarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. These fruits develop
from superior or inferior syncarpous gynoecium.
 ● Dry Fruits: The pericarp of simple dry fruits is usually quite
dry and hard. It is not differentiated into the three layers of
epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. In some dry fruits, this
pericarp is broken down and the seeds are scattered or
dispersed. These fruits are dehiscent fruits.

In some fruits, the pericarp is further arranged into one or more seeded
segments. Such fruits are schizocarpic fruits. In some fruits, the
pericarp is not observed to be dehisced even after maturing/ripening.
Such fruits are indehiscent Fruits.

What is ​Inflorescence​?

Aggregate Fruits

These are the fruits that develop from the multicarpellary apocarpous
ovary. It becomes a fruitlet because each carpel is separated from one
another in the apocarpous ovary. These fruits make a bunch of fruitlets
which is known as etaerio.

● Etaerio of follicles: Each fruit or etaerio is a follicle. Eg.

Calotropis, Catharanthus, Magnolia -e. In calotropis, the stigma
 is fused or joined in carpellary ovary and ovaries of ovules are
separated. It means only two follicles are present in etaerio.
● Etaerio of achenes: In this aggregate fruit, each fruit is an
achene. Eg. Ranunculus, Strawberry, Rose, Lotus. In lotus, the
thalamus becomes spongy and some achenes are embedded in
it. In strawberry, the thalamus is fleshy and we can find small
achenes on its surface.
● Etaerio of berries: It is an aggregate of small berries. Eg.
Polyalthia, Annona squamosa (Custard-apple). In the etaerio of
Annona, all the berries are arranged densely on the thalamus.
● Etaerio of drupes: In this type of fruit, many small drupes
develop from different carpels. Eg. Raspberry. In this type
carpel of apocarpous ovary form drupe fruit.
Composite Fruits

All composite fruits are false fruits. In these fruits, generally, there are
many ovaries and other floral parts combining to form the fruit. These
are of two types:

● Sorosis: These fruits develop from spike, spadix or catkin

inflorescence. Examples inJackfruit fruit, Kevda (screwpine).
In jackfruit (Kathal) pistillate flowers are developed around the
peduncle. In fruit formation, the pericarp becomes spongy and
fused.
 ● Sycosis: These fruits develop from hypanthodium
inflorescence. Receptacle becomes hollow and has a pore.
Numerous small scales surround the pore. Eg. Ficus species
Peepal

Understand ​Classification of Flowering Plant

Geocarpic Fruit

These are underground fruits. Examples include Arachis.

Solved Examples for You

Question: Write a note on the dispersal of fruits and seeds.

Solution: Most of the plants do not move from one place to another.
They grow, produce flowers and fruits while remaining fixed at one
and the same place. The seeds falling directly under the mother plant
have to germinate and develop under limited food supply and space.

To overcome this problem, the fruits and seeds have several special
devices for wide dispersal. The natural agents like wind, water and
animals and even the mechanism of dehiscence in some fruits, help
the seeds and fruits to disperse from one place to another, and to long
distances from the parent plant.

● Wind: In the species where the seeds are light in weight or have
some accessory part to help dissemination, are dispersed by the
air current.
● Water: The fruits and seeds with specialized devices which
may be in the form of spongy and fibrous outer walls as in
coconut and spongy thalamus as in lotus, and small seeds with
airy aril as in water lily, float very easily in water and are
carried away to long distances with the water current.
● Animals: The fruits and seeds with hooks, spines, bristles, stiff
hair, etc., get attached to the body of hairy and woolly animals
and are carried away by them to distant places. For instance
fruits of Xanthium and Urena bear curved hooks, spear grass
has a bunch of stiff hair, Tribulus has sharp and rigid spines.

The Seed

You, of course, hate the seed when you are savouring your favourite
watermelon. However, are you aware that without the seeds, you can’t
get to eat and enjoy that fruit at all? Seeds are important for plants in
more ways than you can actually imagine! In this chapter, we will
look at the types of seed and study about their characteristics in more
detail.

What is the Seed?

A seed is a basic part of any plant. The ovules after fertilization,

develop into seeds. A seed is made up of a seed coat and an embryo.
The embryo is made up of a radicle, an embryonal axis and one
(wheat, maize) or two cotyledons (gram and pea). A seed is found
inside a fruit which converts into a new plant when we plant it. Hence,
the seed is the most important part.

Let us now look at the different types of seeds and study their
characteristics.
Types of Seeds

A Seed is primarily of two types. The two types are:

● Monocotyledonous Seed
● Dicotyledonous Seed

Let us now study about these types of seeds in brief.

Structure of a Monocotyledonous Seed

A Monocotyledonous seed, as the name suggests, has only one

cotyledon. There is only one outer layering of the seed coat. A seed
has the following parts:

● Seed Coat: In the seed of cereals such as maize, the seed coat is
membranous and generally fused with the fruit wall, called
Hull.
● Endosperm: The endosperm is bulky and stores food.
Generally, monocotyledonous seeds are endospermic but some
as in orchids are non-endospermic.
● Aleuron layer: The outer covering of endosperm separates the
embryo by a proteinous layer called aleurone layer.
 ● Embryo: The embryo is small and situated in a groove at one
end of the endosperm.
● Scutellum: This is one large and shield-shaped cotyledon.
● Embryonal axis: Plumule and radicle are the two ends.
● Coleoptile and coleorhiza: The plumule and radicle are
enclosed in sheaths. They are coleoptile and coleorhiza.

Learn more about the ​Morphology of Flower here​.

Structure of a Dicotyledonous Seed

Unlike monocotyledonous seed, a dicotyledonous seed, as the name

suggests, has two cotyledons. It has the following parts:

● Seed coat: This is the outermost covering of a seed. The seed

coat has two layers, the outer testa and the inner tegmen.
● Hilum: The hilum is a scar on the seed coat through which the
developing seed was attached to the fruit.
● Micropyle: It is a small pore present above the hilum.
● Embryo: It consists of an embryonal axis and two cotyledons.
● Cotyledons: These are often fleshy and full of reserve food
materials.
 ● Radicle and plumule: They are present at the two ends of the
embryonal axis.
● Endosperm: In some seeds such as castor, the endosperm
formed as a result of double fertilisation, is a food storing
tissue. In plants such as bean, gram and pea, the endosperm is
not present in the matured seed. They are known as
non-endospermous.

Solved Question for You

Question: What are the types of mature seeds?

Solution: We know two types of mature seeds. These are:

 ● Non-albuminous – These seeds do not contain any residual
endosperm to store the food. Example: pea, groundnut.
● Albuminous – These seeds consist of an endosperm to function
as a storage for the food. Example: wheat, maize.

Classification of Flowering Plant

You hardly look at plants that do not bear flowers. Do you? It is

obvious that fruits and​ flowers​ make a plant or ​tree​ very attractive.
Are you aware that there are numerous types of plants based ONLY
on the type of flowers and fruits that they have? We will look at the
classification of​ flowering plants​ or ​angiosperms​ in this topic. Let’s
begin.

What are Angiosperms?

In the angiosperms or flowering plants, the pollen grains and ovules

are developed in specialised structures called flowers. In angiosperms,
fruits enclose and protect the ​seeds​. The angiosperms are a huge group
of plants. They usually occur in a wide range of habitats. Their size
ranges from tiny, almost microscopic Wolfia to tall trees of
Eucalyptus (over 100 metres).

They are the plants that provide us with ​food​, fodder, fuel, medicines
and several other commercially important ​products​. We can divide
them into two classes: the dicotyledons and the monocotyledons. The
dicotyledons are those that have two cotyledons in their seeds. On the
other hand, the ​monocotyledons​ have only one. Let us now look at the
classification of flowering plants in more details.

Classification of Flowering Plants

The classification of flowering plants is done into two major groups:

Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons.

1) Dicotyledons

They show the following distinguishing characteristics:

● They have tap roots.

● The leaves in members of these class exhibit reticulate
(net-like) venation.
● The flowers are tetramerous or pentamerous. They have four or
five members in the various floral whorls, respectively.
 ● The vascular bundles in these plants are arranged in a ring.
They are numbered 2-6, are open and with cambium.
● The seeds of dicotyledons are with two cotyledons, as we
already know from the name.

2) Monocotyledons

They show the following characteristics:

● They have adventitious roots.

● The leaves are simple with parallel venation.
● The flowers are trimerous having three members in each floral
whorl.
● The vascular bundles are scattered in the ground tissue, are
many in number and without cambium.
 ● The seeds of monocotyledons are with one cotyledon as the
name indicates. Examples include Cereals, bamboos,
sugarcane, palms, banana, lilies and orchids.

Based on Longevity

We can divide flowering plants into 4 types based on the duration of

their life. They are:

● Ephemerals: This category of plants can only live for a few

weeks. This is mainly because they have a very short growing
season. We find such plants near deserts or in very cold
countries. For example, Arabidopsis species have a lifespan of
20–28 days.
● Annuals​:​These plants live and complete their life-cycle in a
single favourable season. During this period, they grow in size
and produce flowers. These plants also shed their seeds,
undergo senescence and die in this phase. They pass the
unfavourable period in the form of seeds. Many ​
crop​plants
(e.g., wheat, rice, maize, etc.) are annuals. The smallest
angiosperm – Wolffia is an aquatic annual.
 ● Biennials: These plants are known to complete their life-cycle
in two favourable seasons (i.e., in two years). They grow
vegetatively in the first season. On the other hand, these
produce flowers and set seeds in the next. Often they produce
some storage organs, as in the sugar beet, where food is stored
in their swollen roots.
● Perennials: These plants can live for more than two years.
Generally, they live for many years and bear the flowers and
fruits during specific seasons. Some of these perennials can
continue their vegetative growth for several years. They
produce fruits and seeds only once in their lifetime. Examples
​ gave​, ​Bamboos, etc. They are monocarpic.
include​A

Based on the Habit of Plants

Angiosperms belong to following categories on the basis of their

habits:

● Herb: Herbs are small, soft, non-woody plants. They do not

have persistent parts above the ground. The height of plants
 usually reaches up to 1 m. The plants may be annual (Brassica),
biennial (Sugar beet) or perennial (Canna).
● Shrubs: These are of a relatively lower height and are woody
plants. their height can vary from 1-4 m. They typically branch
at or near the base and do not have the main trunk, e.g., Rose.
They are mostly perennial.
● Trees: These are perennial woody plants with one main trunk.
The trunk may or may not be branched.

Solved Example for You

Q: Classify plants on the basis of their habitat.

Ans: We can divide plants into four major groups – hydrophytes,

mesophytes, xerophytes and halophytes. This classification is on the
basis of their habitat. We can also include a fifth group, epiphytes.

(i) Hydrophytes: The plants which grow in aquatic habitats are called
hydrophytes. We can further group them as–

● Submerged (​e.g., Hydrilla)​

● Attached floating (​e.g., Nymphaea​)
 ● Free-floating (​e.g., Eichhornia, Wolffa)​
e.g., Sagittaria)​ .
● Amphibious or partly emerged hydrophytes (​

(ii) Mesophytes: These plants grow under moderate moisture and

temperature conditions. They are not usually adapted to grow either in
very dry or in very wet conditions (​e.g., ​Sunflower, ​Brassica)​ . These
plants do not possess special adaptations to reduce ​transpiration​.

(iii) Xerophytes: These plants grow in dry or xeric habitats (​i.e., u​ nder
deficient supply to available water). They face acute shortage of
water. This is the reason they develop morphological, structural and
physiological adaptations as a weapon to survive under such habitats.

(iv) Halophytes: Halophytes are those plants which grow in saline

habitats, ​i.e., i​ n salt marshes, alkaline soils, river estuaries, saline
ponds near seashore or sandy and heavy soils having an excess of
salts. In such habitats, the ​water​ is present in sufficient amount but due
to high osmotic concentrations, it is physiologically not available to
normal plants. Such conditions are physiologically dry. ​e.g., Spartina,
Atriplex, Portulaca e​ tc.
(v) Epiphytes: These are the plants which grow on other plants for
space only. The plants are autotrophic and occur both in aquatic and
terrestrial habitats. ​e.g., Vanda (​ an orchid).