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THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO SUCCESS
FOR CDS/NDA
 SOUND AND WAVE OSCILLATION

Sound
Sound is a mechanical wave generated by vibrating objects and propagates through a medium.
Requires a medium (solid, liquid, or gas) and cannot travel in a vacuum.
Nature: Longitudinal wave, where particle vibrations are parallel to the direction of wave propagation.
Production of Sound
Vibration of objects causes compressions (high pressure) and rarefactions (low pressure) in the
surrounding medium.
Examples: Vibrating strings in musical instruments, vocal cords in humans.

Frequency (f), Determines pitch,

Amplitude (A), Determines loudness, DO IT YOURSELF
Wavelength (λ),Relation: v=f⋅λv, Speed
of Sound (v) Characteristics of
Wave Oscillation Sound and
Application
Definition
Oscillation: Repeated back-and-forth motion of particles in a wave.
Types of Waves
1. Mechanical Waves: Require a medium to propagate. Examples: Sound waves, water waves.
2. Electromagnetic Waves: Do not require a medium. Examples: Light, radio waves.
Classification of Mechanical Waves
Longitudinal Waves: Particle vibration is parallel to wave direction. Examples: Sound waves.
Transverse Waves: Particle vibration is perpendicular to wave direction. Examples: Water waves, light
waves.

DIY- Properties of Waves

Sound Phenomena

Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction, Interference, Resonance [Elaborate]

Applications
Sonar: Uses sound waves to detect objects underwater.
Medical Ultrasonography: Imaging using high-frequency sound waves.
Noise Control: Soundproofing and noise reduction techniques.
Musical Instruments: Sound production and amplification through resonance.
Natural Resources
Definition
Natural resources are materials and components available in nature that can be used by humans for survival,
development, and comfort.
Examples: Air, water, soil, minerals, forests, and wildlife.

Types of Natural Resources

Renewable Resources:
Can be replenished naturally over time. Examples: Solar energy, wind energy, water, forests.
Non-Renewable Resources:
Exist in finite quantities and cannot be replenished within a human lifetime. Examples: Coal, petroleum,
natural gas, minerals.

Air and Water Resources

Air: Essential for respiration, photosynthesis, and combustion.
Key gases: Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide. Concerns: Air pollution caused by industrial emissions, vehicle
exhaust, and deforestation.
Water: Vital for drinking, irrigation, and industrial use. Concerns: Water pollution from chemical runoff,
sewage, and plastic waste.

Land and Soil Resources

Land: Used for agriculture, housing, industries, and mining. Concerns: Land degradation due to
deforestation, urbanization, and soil erosion.
Soil: Supports plant growth and stores water. Concerns: Loss of fertility due to overuse of chemical fertilizers
and pesticides.

Forests and Wildlife

Forests: Provide timber, oxygen, regulate climate, and conserve biodiversity. Concerns: Deforestation for
agriculture, logging, and urban development.
Wildlife: Maintains ecological balance and contributes to biodiversity. Concerns: Habitat destruction,
poaching, and climate change.

Fossil Fuels and Minerals

Fossil Fuels: Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are major energy sources. Concerns: Depletion and pollution
from extraction and use.
Minerals: Used in construction, manufacturing, and electronics. Concerns: Over-mining and environmental
degradation.
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Conservation of Natural Resources
 LIGHT
Definition
Light is a form of energy that enables us to see objects when it is reflected into our eyes.
It travels in a straight line and can exhibit reflection, refraction, and dispersion.
Nature: Electromagnetic wave, does not require a medium to propagate.
Speed: 3×10^8 m/s in a vacuum.

Reflection of Light
The bouncing back of light rays when they hit a smooth surface.
Laws of Reflection:
The angle of incidence (i) is equal to the angle of reflection (r).
The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal lie in the same plane.

Refraction of Light
The bending of light as it passes from one medium to another due to a change in speed.
Laws of Refraction:
The incident ray, refracted ray, and normal lie in the same plane.
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant (Snell’s
Law): sin⁡i/sin⁡r=μ, where μ(mu) is the refractive index.

Dispersion of Light
Splitting of white light into its constituent colors when passed through a prism.
Colors in order: Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red (VIBGYOR).

Important Formulae
Mirror Equation: 1/f=1/u+1/v
Lens Equation: 1/f=1/v−1/u
Where:
f = Focal length
u = Object distance
v = Image distance Types of Reflection
Magnification:
For mirrors: m=−v/u​
For lenses: m=v/u​
 IMAGE
FORMATION
BY MIRRORS

Plane Mirrors:
Forms virtual, erect, laterally inverted images of the same size as the object.

Spherical Mirrors:

Concave Mirror:
Forms real and inverted images for distant objects.
Forms virtual and magnified images when the object is close.
Convex Mirror:
Always forms virtual, erect, and diminished images.
Image Formation by Lenses
Convex Lens (Converging):
Forms real and inverted images when the object is far.
Forms virtual and magnified images when the object is close.
Concave Lens (Diverging):
Always forms virtual, erect, and diminished images.

DO IT YOURSELF

SIGN CONVENTION

1. An object is placed at a distance of 2 times of focal length from the pole

of the convex mirror, Calculate the linear magnification.

2.If the image is a distance of 6 cm and the object is at 12 cm in the front

of the concave mirror, Calculate the magnification formed.
 THE HUMAN EYE
The human eye is a sensory organ that enables vision by capturing and processing light to create
images.

Structure of the Human Eye

Cornea
Transparent, curved front layer of the eye.
Refracts most of the light entering the eye.
Iris
Colored, muscular structure behind the cornea.
Controls the size of the pupil to regulate light entry.
Pupil
Circular opening in the center of the iris.
Expands in dim light and contracts in bright light.
Lens
Transparent, flexible structure behind the pupil.
Focuses light on the retina by changing its shape using ciliary muscles.
Retina
Light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye.
Contains photoreceptor cells:
1. Cones: Detect colors in bright light.
2. Rods: Detect black, white, and shades in dim light.
Optic Nerve
Connects the eye to the brain.
Transmits visual signals for image processing.
Vitreous Humor
Gel-like substance filling the eye, maintaining its shape and allowing light to
pass to the retina.
Blind Spot
Region on the retina where the optic nerve exits.
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No photoreceptor cells, thus no image detection.
Defects of Vision and Their
Corrections
Working of the Eye Myopia
Light enters the cornea and is refracted. (Nearsightedness):
The iris adjusts the pupil size to control light intensity. Hypermetropia
The lens further focuses light onto the retina. (Farsightedness):
Presbyopia:
The retina converts light into electrical signals.
Astigmatism:
The optic nerve transmits these signals to the brain for interpretation.
Cataract:

Accommodation of the Eye

The eye lens adjusts its focal length to focus on objects at varying distances.
Distant Objects: Ciliary muscles relax; lens becomes thinner.
Near Objects: Ciliary muscles contract; lens becomes thicker.