Linear

Systems of linear equations (SLE)

Algebra
:
-

>
-
Consistent and independent (cas)-has I solution

>
- Consistent and dependent (CDS) -
has
infinite solutions

-
Inconsistent
system (as)-has no solution.

Sishgeneous ifallindependenttermsarezeoel variables

equal to zero is
always a solutiona

Principlesof equicance :

1st eliminate the and and 3rd eq

goal :
from

and Eliminate the 3rd

goal :

y from eq.

ng me
Gaussian elimination - Methodgoaf : Reduce the

Matrix matrix to the

Sl
system augment row

1 echelon form
All
·
zero vows are
grouped together at the bottom

Constant terms
Coefficient Mati of the matrix.
matrix
augmented the 1st element
· for
any
2 consecutive rows ,
different from
Story Matrix only me w/ zero in the row bellow appears in a column to the

the 1st element the

column
right of different from zero in row

above.
(row echelon
form

of y
11

O O

Exercise 1)

↓
! I
solution
Only I

Exersice2)

I -
3 -

3 -
3

· Impossible
Impossible solution

Exercise 3)

-
I
n +
2y z 1
-
=

E -

x
n

+
+

6y
2y
+
+

7z
9z

=
=

5
3 S
 Sz
+ 2-4z- z =
1st
-

z 1
n
2y x Sz 1
= =
+ -
-

Gayt I y
ZEIR
=
CDS_ Infinite
of Z
solution because

Discussion of SLE (af it's CDS cas , , Is) Rank

of matrix : No
of non-zero rows
after reducing
After reducing the
system augmented matrix to the row echolon
form ,
the matrix to its now echelon.

3
things can
happen :

1st
case:
(no of equations = no
of variables

I
· I I
x--'

I: I
CIS
O
· 35
-

CDS

Coefficient matrix There's at least of the

has It has a
degree one zero row

no of no of

coefficient matrix that does not

-

no Zero rows variables non-zerorows correspond to a

Rank
zero vow
of the augmented matrix

↑
and case : mcn (undeterminated >
-
less equations than variables
-

the constant there will

>
-

Is
never CIS because
if system is be
free variables

has no zero
-
①
rows ③

·
I -

IF

& has zero rows that correspond to zero vows

of the
augmented matrix
3rd case : man Coverdetermined) -

Eq . variables

I-
I &
matrix bellow
0 All of the
augmented
-

rows row A are

- -

eliminated
zero rows and can be
yielding a
system with

m =n that can be discussed

considering the 1st case .

E
-

I ↓
E : n -

y
+ kz =

E n + 3z = t 3 - 31t 3
! -

Conclusion :
If 3-3k + 0 k #1 the
system will be ·

cas

1
1 =
,

·
CDS
if k 1 n + 3,
degree =
·
= =

·
35
if k = 1 N ++ 3

Matrices

triangular

mana
matrix

mix:Ne
matrix
Lower matrix
triangular
Upper dagonal Edentify
·

(20 1) 10 =

( )
 For two matrices to be equal
- Must have the same dimension

Corresponding elements must be equal

& c) = )
1 = 3n - 2

S
·

Opposite matrix-If we
multiply an
mynmatrixby-u-Amen = (1) Amm =

(a)( (2) . =

(2 i)
-

Matrix multiplication -of ommsof

no of

sof X
BM = CmxM
·
Matrices A and B are commute if ABBA

Multiplication Oman xAnxk

absorving elements Amxn On Ome Omxk
·
: x = vo n =

Properties
:
A + B = B+ A ·
AO = 0

commutablel A(B + C) AB + Ac + (B CA BA CA
AB BA)
general not =
-
# in is
· =
+ +

- Aj = 3 A= A

>
-

Idempotent : A?= A

>
-

hilpotent w/degree : A" =

Onxm
and A * Onem

ArASAs Grandi
·
A = 1
see
·
AV = AxAx ... xA
(rfactors)

Transpose of A-AT Row : = Column

Properties

A =

223A]ax ·

·
(AT)T

(A)
T
=

= a
A

AT
·

·
(AB)T

(A + B)T
= BAT

= AT + BT

Symmetric : A = A
Anti-symmetric/skew symmetric : AT -A
=

Orthogonal : AT
. A = AAT = In

Is
unique just linverse

matrix
,

·
Inverse of it has no inverse ,

↑ ~
Matrix invertible if it exists matrix At such that A AA it
A is a : A . = = I is
regular
-

Properties
· (AB)" B" = A
- ·
(AT)" (A-1)T
=

· (A-)" = A ·
(A + B) A
-
+
-
B

·
(A %
"
= (A-oipeN ·
AA" = I

· (xA)" = x- A
-

by definition AA"
-
= 2

↓ Gauss-Jordan [A1]-(IAY
Adjoint matrix A" =

AA) , Adj(A) Scofactor of adj]

=

If IAl = 0 - A does not exist

Determinants (1Al , det (a)

anbybirable -
a = no of rows = no
of columns
will determine
if the system has
only I solution or not

If a = 1 ,

(a) = det ((a ,

3) =
ai

If
,I
2
= -a
·
a =

123
I 293)
·

at aaxax)
anxa23xa32
+ 11x92)xayi + -
-

ac2xa21xax

↓ -

Minor of entry aili M ,

=

10 =58-61

·I
cofactor
I
3 I

(ij ( 1)" )xMij

+

A = 2 S

=1
-- )
-

+22
=
1 4
M = 3
-

Properties :

If ritory or
ccj ,
Bl = -IA)

· IBI = KIAI ,
if is results from A
by multiplying a row/column
by k

IAl
=B+ I

I &I /I
I 3) 2)3) 2x(x2) = =
= 2
a bi + baC

=
-
6 -
h = 2

ghetha
(B) and
·
= IA)
if Rilar i citaci

IA) = 0
if there are C proportional rows or columns

if there columns
are rows or
of zero

·
(xAl = x"(A) ·
10nxml = 0

(AT) = (A) ·
lAB) = 1A)xIB)

IA"1
↑ lassumingMisestible
(A B) (A) + (B) general
·
·
= + + ,
in

(in) matrix then the product of

1
If triangular IAI the entries
-
=
·
A is a ,
is

the the matrix

on main
diagonal of

When to use the matrix inversion

formula ?
the shortcut Cramer's rule &
1.
If 2x2 : Use
formula
2 .
If 3x3 : Use the matrix inversion
formula Cayley - Hamilton theorem

.
3
If higher dimension :
augment the matrix w/identify matrix and use Gauss -

Jordan elimination

· (Alto- CIS

- has an inverse

Epface
Rulese
b( - + 2 df 1)
d e
f = ax( d -

ef + + cx) -

de

hi
gi
h
gh
i
9

If N > 3 ,
A = aC(a) + b((b) + c((c) + dC(d) =. -

=
cofactor
 Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
vectori

eigenvectoreigenvalve
Non-zero
·

·
Scalor X

A T = 1 = Av - xv = 0 , = (A - x])v =

as an
homogeneous system
>

always admits solution =

-

>
-
In order to have more than the zero solution the system needs to be DS

det
=>
-
Algebric multiplicity : how
uantas
many
times each

aparece
1 solves 1A-X11
solusco-
=
0

vezes
na
-
· Geometric
multiplicity :
degree of CDS of IA-11) = 0

Polynominal

Example :

1.
Eigenvalues
det (A -
x1) = 0 +=
det)(23) -

"(b)) = 0 c
/" -x) = 0(( -
x)) -
4 -
x) -
6 = 02 - -
x + 2+ 1 -
6 = 0 1 1 34
+ -
10 = 01x = 2ux = 5

The
..
eigenvalues of are X=-S and xG both w/
algebric multiplicity I

Trace
of A : tr(A) = sum
of all eigenvalues

G .

Eigenvectors

/glomer L
#S

[G)(m)
=

(A-X3) = =

(8) - (i)
( -
4 + 5)
Maxa + Maxi = Maxi

= (3) : ver1404 :
geometric multiplicity of 1--5 is
Lavariables , row

(2 -
1)

T -
m (x 2) 1
g
= =
. .
 invertible / A C with the same
·

If A is non
singular I , is an
eigenvalue of corresponding eigenvectora
Example : B = 2A A3
+ -
3A + 3 =
2x x3 + - 3x + ]

Cayley-hamilton theorem : All square

matrix satisfies its own characteristic eq .

P(x) = P(A)

A and AT have same

eigenvalues
·

(A -xy) =
0 -
(AT x3)
- = 0

Matrix
diagonalization procedure :

10
Eigenvalues
Go
Eigenvectors
30 Since
for all
eigenvalues the
algebric multiplicity is
equal to the
geometric multiplicity ,
the matrix A is
diagonizable
.

matrix
One
diagonalizing Pis
·

And the diagonal is

I ve
I
Nx1 Nzl :

I
Xa O

I
= va O

Nz3 D 0 X O
Nx3
Sys B

* A
T
xB
T
XA
= O Xa

Application :

A = PDP" - AN = PDYpD PAP =

I oI
X, 06

Ex :. AS PDSp =
+
D =

O
 Functions -

THIS CAN'T
Even
function flu) fl-x)
-
HAPPEN
·

: =

:
Odd
function ((-x) f(x) T function
·
: = -
a

One to
one/injective function finil
·
n +

-
fixa

function
·

Onto/subjective us

Domain :
Df =
GUER :... h graph
·
h(n)
= iglu. Range onverse
function
by construction

· h(x) =
ful ; fluk,o -
fn par

·
n(x) =
(n(f(x)) f(x)0 ; functiity
verse on
y f(x) f - (y)
·

=
, = x =

·
h(u) =
tan(f(u)) ; f(x)
+
+ kπikez f exists if t
injective
is

Df =
Rf
-

rf Df =

Example :

xx
①
f(x) = 2 -

al Determine
Df b) Characterize the inverse
function
Df = \nER : < - 23,04 =
[ 2 2]
,
f(a) = f(b) )=

A = 2- (a) -Inb) =
=

3430 n =
=et 1= 2 -
4+ a = 2 -
4 + b2 = a b =
,
fa = b

-f is not
injective -f"does not exist

Determinetherange a
18 41 22x0

LATE
02, -
-

= 14
,
4 -

1 23,2013-2 -20 = 0 = 2-22

-

[0 23 f(x)
Rf =
,
 & nverse
trigonometric functions
arcos(u)
1 . Arccos -

W
>
restriction for cost

cos1 : D = [0 , iT]

f (-1 1) ,
= [0 3 ,
=

Rf
·

arcos (n) = a c = n = cos(a) nDf

·
arcos(u) a == u = (a)s
f
.
2 Arctan (2) Tan(u)
y
=

M
E

--------g arctang(n)

-
=

-----

restriction
for tan : fr
·
arctanz = a= n = tan a NDf
arctanza =tan
-
,
a a
NDf

Arcsinka
3 .

. ·
f:
y
=
(-1 13
Sin(n) =n
,

=
+

[]
arcsin(y) nDf
ysin(a) =
arcsin(y)n Df
·

Intervals
Domain
Range cScu = 1
Sinn

arcsin(x) -
1 = n)) U
= T
1 = n = 1 0 = y
(n)
secu
-

arcos

E -
y=
-

arctan (n) N(n =

-
+a

0 T
arctan(a) cotu
- =
8 = x = +x y

ig
arcot(a)
-

=
=

arcsec(u) = arcos(a) 14k 1 , Ozy = iy + 44

arcsin(t) 11 E y
=
I y+ 0 arctan ( +)
aproxima-rede
+
in
-

,
arcosc = -
>
 8 (n) gin Method If (n)]
pu
+ : 10 =

2018 /f(u)) = ul
Limits and Continuity
, y

m flaT f
-

is continuous at x = a
ifim f(ul flat
=

y =

f(x) is continuous at x = a
ifImf(x) linf s =

Algebraoflimits
·
· + N + ( + x) = + a · -
x = ! + Nx( +2) = +2

·
- -
N = - N · IN a = Eg + xx) x) - =
-
x

o +
Nxa = +x
-
N
,

,
as0
ac0
. =* xa = ? - xx) x) -
= + x

= [as
· · = 0
= 0

Indeterminate
forms o N -
x

limit a Inlo )
notable
special
+
= -
x

(n 1 + x)
·

Sim. = +x

Pim(1
·

lim a ·im A) lime =+ it

Derivatives - Rate of change of y

when a comes
infinitesimally

=im fnd =m -f
F(u)

f is
differentiable at x =
no if limit exists (f'not =
f'mot)

Differentiable =>
Continuity Non continuous = No differentiable
in e
Tangent ni
f(a) f'(a)(2 G = + -

Higher order derivatives

fly(i)
[Incul] = (fin (

Bengal
a
·

f(n) = = ,

f'(n) =

() =

L'Hopital Rule

mim fall a
we're that If G continuous at
assuming and are 2 a

m fu =
fam gul glas =

f and g
are
differentiablef and g
are continous at = a and

f(a) =limf(x) = 0
glaim glon

Thus ,
we can write,

in m
Ga =
If Lim f(ul = 0 and
him glc or
If flul=8 and him ful

#&
3018 000 ,
°im (fn] = A In (a) =

In him (f)] In A =
emInfmg(u)(f
Study of functions
1) Domain 5) Concavity and inflection points --f"(n)
2) Intersection wlaxes >
-
Zeros ↓ Graph
3) Asympotes +
Range
3)
Monocity and extrema -
f'(

③ Asymptotes
1) Vertical

Sa f(u) +
= 10 or
lim ful =

2)
Horizontal
limf(u) =L
on lmfu
3) Oblique/slant (f(u) -
(ma + b) = 0

m
=m

b
= Im (f(ul-my

Table
of denivatives Table

S
of integrals
I' = 0 Soda = 1 ,
KERR

(kx) = k Skdx = kn + C

(xw) = man
-
Surda- m+1
,
+ -1

Iln ul e =

u
Sidn = In

(er) = ver Sue" du = en + c

(a) navlna
=
Su'adu-
 Antiderivatives (fin) du = F(u) + c : cer

sinlaa) = Isinacos a

egrating vs ofLigonometric functions costal = costa-sinda

costa + sinha = 1

stan cost
sink
=
=
coal
tanka cotin
=on =

san-

Example :

Jitsu du Jud = d == =

= cotr-sin n +
c = cotn -
1 + c
Sinn

·
Jen du =

Stdu-Jindd
= Inkosul +

(indInd Incosul-sinn) = du

(sndu
=
Inkosul + = Inkosul + Inl-sinul + ce

en/1-sinz)

Area problem : f(u) du =

(F(ul]/ = F(b)-F(a) = 1

definitive integral [ - 2 , 2]

M
de
 Leibriz rule #

(g at) g(n)xflgu)-hi
+
=
-

fly-

Improper integrals

S
type type

S
type
#

u a

(f(n)du
m
=
Limulde find e
Def : The improper integral off over the
integral I- ,
to 2 is
defined as

fin)anfuddu
The improper
integral is said to be
converge if both terms
converge ,
and
diverge if either of them diverge
Ent6

A function above-function function

En : above : n +6
y
=

Vertical below) da 31b

-
below
function
2
y 22
: aix =
= n = -
: =
-

Horizontal : A = (functionon functiononthe)dn

the
y
= Ind :
y
=
-function
-function
on

on
the right:
the lefta
n =

y + a