Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-023-02586-0

ORIGINAL PAPER

Performance and emissions characteristics of tire pyrolysis oil in diesel

engine: an experimental investigation
Haseeb Yaqoob1 · Hafiz Muhammad Ali1,2 · Haider Abbas3 · Osama Abid3 · Muhammad Ahmad Jamil4 ·
Talha Ahmed3

Received: 16 March 2023 / Accepted: 10 July 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
The consumption of fossil fuels has vastly increased in recent decades, despite rapidly depleting. The rate of tire degradation,
on the other hand, is significantly lower than the rate of tire disposal per year. Tire pyrolysis oil (TPO) produced through the
pyrolysis process can be used to substitute fossil fuels while also speeding up tire degradation. As a result, TPO blended with
diesel can be a viable solution to the issues mentioned above. The primary focus of this research is to study the performance
and emission characteristics of TPO blends from 10 to 100% without any modifications of diesel engines at varying speeds
ranging from 1500 to 3500 rpm with 500 rpm increments. This study uses a four-stroke, single-cylinder, compression igni-
tion (CI) engine to study the brake power, torque, specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency, and emissions ­(NOx,
­CO2, HC, and CO). These diesel engine performance parameters are then compared between diesel fuel (DF) and various
TPO blends of different concentrations. When the emissions are examined, it is observed that CO emissions are minimal at
RPMs ranging from 1500 to 3000 with the maximum value of 0.035% vol but increase up to 0.055% vol as the rpm increases
to the mark of 3500. DT20 (DF 80%, TPO 20%) has the lowest HC emissions of 18 ppm vol, with a progressive increase
as the TPO percentage rises. C ­ O2 emissions increase as the speed increases. Diesel fuel has the highest value for N ­ Ox of
675 ppm vol at 2000 rpm. Analyzing the performance characteristics of the CI engine for TPO blends, among other blends,
DT10 (DF 90%, TPO 10%) offers the lowest specific fuel consumption of 245 g/kWh and the highest efficiency for moderate
rpm. The DT10 has 1% and 7.2% higher brake power values at 3500 rpm when compared to DF and TPO, respectively. As
a result, DT10 is recommended as a better alternative fuel in the diesel engine without any alteration.

Keywords Renewable energy · Alternative fuel · Tire pyrolysis oil · CI engine · Waste to fuel · Diesel

Abbreviations CO Carbon monoxide

BP Brake power DF Diesel fuel
BSFC Brake-specific fuel consumption DT Diesel–TPO
BTE Brake thermal efficiency DT10 Diesel 90% and TPO 10%
CO2 Carbon dioxide DT20 Diesel 80% and TPO 20%
DT30 Diesel 70% and TPO 30%
DT50 Diesel 50% and TPO 50%
* Hafiz Muhammad Ali DT70 Diesel 30% and TPO 70%
hafiz.ali@kfupm.edu.sa
HC Hydrocarbons
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, King Fahd University NOx Nitrogen oxides
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia PM Particulate matter
2
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Renewable Energy TPO Tire pyrolysis oil 100
and Power Systems (IRC‑REPS), King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Khwaja Fareed
University of Engineering and Information Technology,
Rahim Yar Khan 64200, Pakistan
4
Department of Mechanical and Construction Engineering,
Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST, UK

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 H. Yaqoob et al.

Introduction burnt, for example, the chlorine content causes hazard-

ous compounds such as dioxins and furans to be released
As the world’s population grows and industrialization (Wang et al. 2015). As a result, pyrolysis is a fascinating
accelerates, many countries are stepping up their efforts and essential field of study. Furthermore, pyrolysis of tire
to develop new and viable energy sources (Yaqoob et al. waste offers a number of advantages that can aid in the
2021). The traditional means of supplying energy to vehi- resolution of the energy problem. So, many researches
cles are diminishing day by day and are only expected were done in which the effects of waste tire pyrolysis
to last for another few decades. Petroleum-based fuels were concluded on experimental and industrial levels and
contribute significantly to air pollution, necessitating the the possible resulting fuel oils were discussed (Antoniou
development of an environmentally acceptable alternative and Zabaniotou 2013). Oil products are very easy and
(Arpa et al. 2010; Çay et al. 2012). For that reason, many versatile to store and transport, and it is widely known
researchers have made efforts toward finding methods lead- that discarded tires have high volatile content and low ash
ing to extracting energy from waste and non-biodegradable level, as well as a higher heating value than coal and bio-
materials. Biomass (Yu et al. 2010; Elkelawy et al. 2021b), mass. As a result, discarded tires may be used to generate
municipal solid wastes, industrial wastes, agricultural energy and valuable chemical products, and their thermal
wastes, and other low-grade fuels are examples of such breakdown allows for the recovery of usable chemicals
materials, and this list also includes rubber and plastics as (Lanoir et al. 1997). As a result, there has been a surge in
they are high-density materials (Teoh et al. 2022; Yaqoob interest in the pyrolysis process of producing oil fuel from
et al. 2022). Biodiesel, in particular, offers great potential scrap tires in recent years. Because of its portability and
as an alternative fuel for compression ignition (CI) engines versatility, this revolutionary solution tackles the prob-
(Elkelawy et al. 2021a; El-Sheekh et al. 2022). When bio- lems associated with converting tires to low sulfur oil in
diesel is used in diesel engines, the number of unburned a unique way (Kumaravel et al. 2016). Pyrolysis of waste
hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and Particu- tires has been deemed a suitable and effective method of
late Matter (PM) are significantly reduced, which proves post-treatment of waste tires that does not pollute the envi-
to be a great aid in eco-friendliness. It has around 10% ronment (Wang et al. 2015). Pyrolysis is a thermal break-
oxygen in its molecules, which enhances ignition quality down process which takes place in the absence of oxygen,
and results in more efficient burning of the fuel inside the this has made the recycling of tires more common and
cylinder (Selim 2009). Despite these advantages, biodiesel thus, decreasing the focus on natural resources. The rub-
in CI engines has not proven to be a viable alternative fuel ber is made to decompose at 500 °C producing oil fuels,
in many nations since it is generated in smaller quantities. char, and coal content. The oil generated is then processed
Because of its low production, it will be highly expen- further to be used as gasoline or for hydrogen produc-
sive and will very certainly cause environmental issues. tion (Qu et al. 2006; Elbaba et al. 2011; Williams 2013).
Thus, a better approach here would be to replace biodiesel In terms of waste reduction, Tire pyrolysis oil (TPO) is
with another non-conventional fuel that is obtained from proved to be very useful as not only the waste pollution
organic wastes (Sharma and Murugan 2015). reduced but such materials are utilized in the fuel-making
Waste automobile tires are organic wastes from which process, which is a very serious concern of this century
usable energy can be extracted in the form of liquid, gas, (Siva et al. 2013; Rowhani and Rainey 2016). Rubber is
or solid (Yaqoob et al. 2020). Nowadays, waste tires are the major extract from tires along with some carbon black
regarded as a popular and practical feedstock. Annually, and a small amount of steel. Zinc, Sulfur, and additives
approximately 1.5 billion discarded tires are generated are among the other ingredients (Ramos et al. 2011). The
worldwide, with a total weight of 5 million metric tons composition of the tire may vary depending on its intended
in Europe, Japan, and the United States combined (Wang use. In the case of truck tires, their composition typically
et al. 2015). Improper handling of waste tires can have consists of a higher proportion of natural rubber compared
long-lasting negative environmental impacts as they are to synthetic rubber. Conversely, car tires tend to have a
not biodegradable. If not appropriately managed, these dis- higher percentage of synthetic rubber compared to natural
carded tires can persist for several decades, contributing to rubber (Rowhani and Rainey 2016). Tires include fiber-
environmental pollution and posing a significant challenge hydrocarbon compounds for the rubber component, while
in terms of disposal and sustainability. Furthermore, the the non-rubber component is made up of metals, fillers,
harmful exhaust gases created during incineration pollute and chemical additives like sulfur (Daniel Martínez et al.
the environment. Reprocessing or grinding can also be 2013). It proves so efficient in heat generation because
used to recycle waste tires, although both methods have of its heating value which is around 35–40 MJ/kg and
their own set of disadvantages and limits. When tires are the presence of carbon black in it (Daniel Martínez et al.
2014).

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Performance and emissions characteristics of tire pyrolysis oil in diesel engine: an…

Some earlier studies have concluded that TPO has a performance significantly and can be used without further
greater oxygen content (0.10–3.96%) than diesel, which modifications. Pote and Patil (2019) after analyzing all the
might help to reduce PM emissions (Verma et al. 2018). In emissions, efficiency factors, and the performance of TPO in
terms of performance characteristics, Verma et al. (2018) various proportions with diesel, further concluded that it is
studied that brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) and advised that a DT10 to DT90 mix may be utilized efficiently
brake thermal efficiency (BTE) are shown to be greater in in diesel engines with no changes to any engine components.
TPO mixed fuel than in diesel, this happened due to the However, greater TPO concentrations result in significant
less caloric value obtained. Furthermore, it was also studied CO, ­NOx, and smoke emissions. It is concluded that DT90
that the poor atomization of fuel usually results from high is considered superior in terms of production and efficiency.
viscosity and high density, which can lower the values for It is recommended when prioritizing these factors. On the
BSFC and BTE. Furthermore, it was concluded that TPO other hand, DT10 is suggested for situations where lower
has a lower fuel-to-air ratio due to its increased density and fuel usage and emissions are the primary concerns.
viscosity, when utilizing TPO blended gasoline, CO and ­CO2 The main objective of this study is to analyze and con-
emissions have been demonstrated to be greater. A similar clude the performance and emission characteristics of a sin-
trend was found for HC emissions (Verma et al. 2018). Pote gle-cylinder four-stroke diesel engine when tested with pure
and Patil (2019) conducted a study that yielded similar find- TPO as the fuel without any modification of the engine. The
ings. They observed that as the percentage of TPO and its performance is reviewed against the same engine parameters
blend gradually increased, along with an increase in load, running on pure diesel fuel and diesel blends with TPO.
there was a corresponding increase in brake power, mechani- A detailed analysis is done by varying engine rpm ranging
cal efficiency, and brake thermal efficiency for all blends. from 1500 to 3500. No previous study has shown to work
This can be attributed to a decrease in the calorific content on pure TPO in a single-cylinder four-stroke engine on said
of the blend as the TPO levels rise. The DT25 and DT60 RPMs. Tire pyrolysis oil has enormous potential as an alter-
blends show maximum thermal efficiency as compared to native fuel in the short to long-range speed diesel engines.
other blends. CO emissions are modest up to DT60, then Furthermore, the emission tester is used for a comprehensive
increase to DT75 and then decrease. CO also decreases at emission study which states all the emission results of every
low to moderate loads and increases at high loads (Pote and diesel–TPO blend and pure TPO. The small variations in the
Patil 2019). Teoh et al. (2022) performed an experiment and performance and emission characteristics can be controlled
revealed that DT10 showed the maximum brake thermal effi- by adding additives or nanoparticles. This article gives a
ciency (BTE) as compared to B10 (Biodiesel 10%–Diesel detailed perspective of how tire pyrolysis oil can be used as
90%) and diesel fuel. Moreover, Kumaravel et al. (2016) in an alternative to diesel fuel in diesel engines.
his research concluded that the ignition delay for TPO–DF
blends is greater than for diesel fuel (DF); peak pressure and
rate of pressure rise for TPO–DF blends are higher than for Experimental methods
DF and it was concluded that as a substitute fuel, tire pyroly-
sis oil can be utilized for diesel engines as it also showed Tested fuels
lower viscosity and aromatic compound values. Finally, it
is concluded that an increased portion of TPO in diesel fuel Standard diesel fuel is used to make blends with tire pyroly-
leads to a decrease in engine brake power. sis oil (TPO). The blends obtained produced no harmful
Thangaraja et al. (2016) worked on ­NOx emissions reduc- odors, nor does the procedure requires extreme safety meas-
tion by mixing the intake charge of biodiesel with exhaust ures. TPO process requires waste shredded tires, with steel
gas recirculation. Dimitriadis et al. (2020) determined that wires removed, which are heated in a thermal chamber at
delaying the main injection timing by 2°CA was the best high temperatures, around 400–600 ℃ (Yaqoob et al. 2021).
approach for the engine under consideration. In this case, The waste tires then vaporize, and the vapors are condensed,
the results produced further improvements in ­NOx emis- resulting in the end products of carbon black, fuel oil, and oil
sions, as they decreased by 20% while the albeit PM emis- gas. TPO in its basic form has a lower cetane number than
sions still remained below that of diesel fuel. Uyumaz et al. diesel fuel. This poor cetane number requires more activa-
(2019) claimed that DT10 reduced combustion time by tion energy to reach the auto-ignition temperature.
1.16% to diesel at 15 Nm engine load. Adding leftover tire The commercial diesel fuel was purchased from a local
oil decreased CO and soot emissions while increasing N ­ Ox. fuel station. TPO and diesel blends were made of volume
DT10 decreased CO by 13.7% to diesel at full load, however, 300 ml each. TPO, before making blends, was distilled for
­NOx rose by 7.62%. Thus, according to diesel at full load, lower sulfur content. A 500 ml beaker was used for the mix-
DT10 reduced soot by roughly 10.94%. So, the researcher ing of blends and was stirred manually to get well-homoge-
declared that the use of waste tire oil increased engine nized mixtures of the fuel. These fuels were poured directly

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 H. Yaqoob et al.

in the fuel tank of the diesel engine, and no anomaly was Table 2  Key fuel properties of diesel fuel and TPO blends
noticed so far. To study the detailed combustion properties, Fuel Kinematic vis- Density(kg/ Calorific Flash point
engine states, and emissions, a total of six blends were made cosity ­(mm2/ m3) value (MJ/ (°C)
with a detailed description in Table 1. The illustration pro- sec) ASTM D1298 kg) ASTM D92
vided in Fig. 1 shows all the blends made. ASTM D445 ASTM D240
Table 2 displays the key fuel properties of diesel and all DF 3.40 768.39 45.65 79–80
the blends made with TPO concentrations. DT10 (Diesel DT10 3.32 774.09 44.97 76
90%–TPO 10%) almost resembles pure diesel fuel but the DT20 3.21 776.11 44.62 71–72
further we move to the left; clear color differences are nota- DT30 3.15 782.44 44.39 67–70
ble as seen in the illustration. DT50 2.92 788.67 43.72 61–63
The kinematic viscosity changes remarkably in the DT70 2.60 804.48 42.94 60
TPO blends as can be seen in Table 2. Kinematic viscos- TPO 2.31 819.91 41.69 57–60
ity decreases, as TPO concentration in the blends increases,
to 32.05%. The density however increases by 6.64%. Calo-
rific values do not differ by much but a change of 8.67% is The test engine is a single-cylinder, 4-stroke, air-cooled,
observed. compression ignition engine. A visual illustration of the
engine is shown in Fig. 2. Table 3 provides detailed infor-
Test engine and operating conditions mation on the engine parameters. The engine produces 12.1
Nm of maximum Torque and 4.4 kW maximum power. This
In this research, performance, and emission characteristics engine runs on constant loads and operates on RPM between
are studied of the TPO blended diesel fuel in the CI engine. 1500 and 3500. The load value is displayed on the control
All the practical research work and analysis are done consid- panel of the engine test bed, and the engine speed is adjusted
ering that the engine experiments are all under steady-state using a lever that is placed next to the diesel engine. An eddy
conditions and the exhaust gases, like the supplied air to the current dynamometer is used to measure torque and brake
engine, are ideal gases exposed to the environment. power at the RPM of range 1500–3500. The emissions under
consideration are Carbon dioxide (­ CO2) and Carbon mon-
oxide (CO) along with Hydrocarbons (HC) and Nitrogen
oxides ­(NOx). The PM emissions are studied with the help of
Table 1  Nomenclature and concentrations of fuel a gas analyzer which receives direct emission input from the
Fuel Nomenclature Reference fuel Additive engine exhaust. The analyzer used is Infralyt smart exhaust
gas analyzer. Further details are studied ahead regarding PM
DF Diesel (100%) TPO (0%)
emissions.
DT10 Diesel (90%) TPO (10%)
DT20 Diesel (80%) TPO (20%)
Uncertainty analysis
DT30 Diesel (70%) TPO (30%)
DT50 Diesel (50%) TPO (50%)
The uncertainty analysis is carried out by Eq. (1), which
DT70 Diesel (30%) TPO (70%)
yields the total value of this system’s uncertainty (Sarıdemir
TPO Diesel (0%) TPO (100%)
and Ağbulut 2019).

Fig. 1  Tire pyrolysis oil blended

with diesel fuel with different
concentration

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Performance and emissions characteristics of tire pyrolysis oil in diesel engine: an…

Fig. 2  Schematic Diagram of

the Test Engine and Dynamom-
eter

[( )2 ( )2 ( )2 ] 21
𝜕R 𝜕R 𝜕R
WR = w + w +⋯ w (1)
Table 3  Test engine parameters 𝜕x1 1 𝜕x2 2 𝜕xn n
Type 4-stroke single-cylinder diesel
(compression ignition) engine The overall function uncertainty is denoted by R, the
system uncertainty is stated as a WR(%), and the total num-
Model EY 27-2D ber of independent variables employed in the experiment is
Brand Robin Engines denoted by “n” and “ w ” represents the shape factor dimen-
Bore 75 mm sion. Table 4 summarizes the accuracy and specifications
Stroke 60 mm and percentage uncertainty of the measuring instrument.
Piston displacement 265 cc ­(cm3)
Maximum output 4.4 kW/3600 rpm
Maximum torque 12.1 Nm/2400 rpm
Fuel Diesel Light oil
Combustion system Direct injection
Lubricant Automobile Oil Class SC
Starting system Recoil starter
Cooling system Forced air cooling

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 H. Yaqoob et al.

Table 4  Accuracy and Measurement type Range Accuracy Techniques % Uncertainty

specifications of measuring
instruments Torque ± 12.1 Nm ± 0.2–0.3 Nm Strain gauge type load cell ± 0.25
Engine Speed 0–3600 rpm ± 1 rpm Magnetic pick-up type ± 0.1
CO emission 0–10% volume ± 0.03% Non-dispersive infrared ±1
CO2 emission 0–20% volume ± 0.5% Non-dispersive infrared ±1
NOx emission 0–5,000 ppm ± 25 ppm Electrochemical ± 1.3
HC emission 0–2500 ppm ± 10 ppm Electrochemical ± 1.3
Calculated
Brake power – ± 0.06542 kW – ± 2.9
BSFC – ± 14 g/kWh – ±5

Fig. 3  Torque value of the test engine at varying speeds of different

Fig. 4  Values of brake power of different fuel blends at varying
blends
engine speeds

Results and discussion

density, lowest kinematic viscosity, and highest calorific
Engine performance characteristics value among other compared fuels in this study. For the
same load and rpm, the DT10 has a 1.3% increase in torque
Torque value compared to the DF. Koc and Abdullah (2014) also
observed a 10% TPO addition in diesel fuel significantly
TPO blends have high density, low calorific value, and increased the output torque.
low kinematic viscosity. Figure 3 illustrates that torque
increases as the engine speed increases from 1500 to Brake power
3000 rpm, while the load is kept constant at 30%. After-
ward, it decreases as engine speed increases from 3000 Figure 4 shows that brake power for all fuels gradually
to 3500 rpm. At higher rpm, torque decreases as friction increases with the increase in engine speed. As brake power
between the moving parts of the engine increases. DT10 is the product of torque and engine speed, it is dependent on
has the highest torque value at all rpm ranging from 1500 torque. Although DT10 has a slightly lower calorific value
to 3500. The highest value for DT10 torque output is 9.85 than DF, still DT10 has the highest brake power among
Nm at 3000 rpm. DT70 gives the lowest torque among all all fuels compared in this study. This is because DT10 has
the compared fuels at lower rpm, while DT50 gives the increased density; hence, it has more energy by volume
lowest torque values at higher rpm. When compared to (Pote and Patil 2019). As TPO concentration in diesel fuel
DT70, TPO 100, on the other hand, shows a slight upward increases, calorific values decrease accordingly, and densi-
trend. This could be due to the fact that it has the highest ties of the blends increase with a significant factor. Likewise,
the brake power of the engine for all other blends decreases

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Performance and emissions characteristics of tire pyrolysis oil in diesel engine: an…

gradually at all rpm. At 3500 rpm, DT10 shows a 1% and Exhaust emissions
7.2% increase in brake power compared to DF and TPO,
respectively. Across all rpm, TPO exhibits an increasing Carbon monoxide (CO) emission
trend, which is in contrast to the trend observed for DT70.
This difference in behavior can be attributed to TPO’s higher Figure 6 depicts the Carbon Monoxide (CO) emissions for
density, nearly identical flash point, and slightly lower calo- various tested fuels at varying rpm. CO emissions are often
rific value compared to DT70. These characteristics contrib- minimal in CI engines because they run on lean mixtures
ute to the observed variation in performance and can help (Nagarajan et al. 2011). It is observed that CO emissions
explain the divergent trends between the two blended fuels. for most TPO blends are higher than DF Likewise, CO
It is also observed that diesel fuel (DF) shows a slightly emissions for all tested fuels decrease at first, then increase
higher brake power than DT20 at all rpms. Frigo et al. beyond 2500 rpm. Because at low rpm, fuel burn more effi-
(2014) also observed similar behavior for DT20 and DF in ciently as the fuel mixture is lean, thus lower CO emissions.
their study. Moreover, at higher rpm: Oxidation process is hindered due
to not having enough time for complete combustion inside
Brake‑specific fuel consumption (BSFC) the engine; hence, CO emissions are increased at higher rpm
(Alahmer 2018). DF has the lowest CO emissions of all the
Figure 5 shows the brake-specific fuel consumption for vari- tested fuels between 1500 and 2000 rpm, and TPO has the
ous tested fuels at varying speeds. At lower rpm with a con- lowest CO emissions at higher rpm. Similarly, CO emis-
stant load of 30%, BSFC is highest for all the tested fuels, sions increase gradually as TPO concentration in the blends
and its value decreases gradually up to 2500 rpm and again increases except for TPO (100), and also diesel fuel (DF)
rises as the engine speed is further increased. This is because shows an abrupt increase in CO emission at 3000 rpm. This
friction inside the cylinder is highest at lowest and highest could be because pure TPO has more oxygen than any other
rpm, and it is minimum at moderate engine speeds (Sethu fuel blends evaluated in this study. Pote and Patil (2019)
et al. 2007). DT10 has the lowest BSFC of all the tested also discovered that TPO has a higher oxygen concentra-
fuels, with a value of 231 g/kWh at 2500 rpm. Pote and tion, implying an adequate supply of oxygen inside the cyl-
Patil (2019) also found that DT10 gives the lowest BSFC inder, resulting in the conversion of CO to C­ O2. In addition,
at low loads among other TPO-diesel blends. On the other burning inside the cylinder is complete at higher rpm when
hand, higher TPO blends have the highest BSFC at all rpm. the cylinder temperature is high; thus, pure TPO performs
Uyumaz et al. (2019) stated that the high density and lesser far better at higher engine speeds than other tested fuels in
heating value of TPO-Diesel blends result in higher BSFC. terms of CO emissions (Vihar et al. 2015; Nagarajan et al.
Likewise, the highest value for BSFC is 319 g/kWh for TPO 2011). However, an increase in CO emissions as the TPO
at 1500 rpm. concentration in TPO-DF blends increases can be due to
two significant reasons. One is that the high volatility of
TPO blends decreases the inside cylinder temperature, which

Fig. 5  BSFC obtained for different diesel and TPO blends compared Fig. 6  Percentage of CO produced for different fuel blends compared
at varying rpm at varying rpm

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 H. Yaqoob et al.

eventually results in high CO emissions (Doğan et al. 2012). practically all engine speeds, indicating that it is maintain-
The other is that TPO blends’ high density and viscosity ing a chemically appropriate air–fuel mixture (Pote and Patil
produce a very lean mixture, causing incomplete combustion 2019). Another reason for low ­CO2 emissions of TPO (100)
closer to the cylinder’s wall and crevice volume, resulting in at moderate rpm could be its high volatility which leads to
increased CO emissions (Murugan et al. 2008). higher CO emissions, eventually resulting in low ­CO2 emis-
sions (Doğan et al. 2012).
Carbon dioxides ­(CO2) emission
Hydrocarbon (HC) emission
Figure 7 shows the relation between engine speed and
Carbon Dioxide (­ CO2) emissions for various TPO blends. Figure 8 illustrates the relation between unburned hydrocar-
Figure shows that C ­ O2 emissions gradually increase as the bons (HC) and various TPO-diesel blends. Incomplete com-
engine speed increases. This can be a result of higher cyl- bustion inside the cylinder produces HC emissions. These
inder temperature and more fuel burning inside the cylin- emissions are not proportional to engine speed but rather to
der (Nagarajan et al. 2011; Vihar et al. 2015; Pote and Patil the combustion chamber and injection system geometry. It
2019). Meanwhile, it is observed that DF has the highest is observed that TPO blends have lower HC emissions com-
­CO2 emissions at all engine speeds than other tested fuels. pared to DF The reason is that DF has more hydrogen con-
This is due to the reason that DF has higher carbon con- tent than TPO blends. Meanwhile, oxygen content in TPO
tent than other inspected blends in this study. Pote and Patil blends is high, which aids complete combustion inside the
(2019) also revealed that higher carbon content in fuel leads cylinder and reduces HC emissions (Pote and Patil 2019).
to higher C ­ O2 emissions, which aligns with the present Bhale et al. (2009) discovered that increasing the oxygen
study. Furthermore, DT50 shows the lowest C ­ O2 emissions content in biodiesel blends improves combustion quality,
at 3500 rpm, and DT10 shows the lowest emissions at lower resulting in lower HC emissions, consistent with the cur-
engine speeds. Moreover, DT10 has the highest brake power rent study because DT20 has the lowest HC emissions of
at similar rpm where ­CO2 emissions are low as well, this all the fuels evaluated. Greater concentration TPO blends,
is entirely due to low fuel consumption as seen in Fig. 7. on the other hand, have higher HC emission values at all
Another reason for this is low carbon content of DT10 engine speeds. This could be due to two significant factors.
and lower cylinder temperatures as compared to diesel, One is that higher concentration TPO blends have a higher
thus better atomization and increased engine performance density, contributing to poor atomization and higher HC
(Wongkhorsub and Chindaprasert 2013). TPO (100), on the emissions (Wamankar and Murugan 2014). The other is the
other hand, shows the lowest ­CO2 emissions from 2500 to existence of more unsaturated hydrocarbons in the higher
3000 rpm. This may be because different fuels are not form- concentration TPO blends, which did not break during the
ing the chemically suitable air to fuel mixture at different combustion process (Murugan et al. 2008). Ilkiliç and Aydin
engine speeds. Likewise, DT70 shows high ­CO2 values at (2011) further added that the lower cetane number of higher

Fig. 7  Percentage of C
­ O2 produced for different fuel blends compared Fig. 8  HC emissions obtained for different diesel and TPO blends
at varying rpm compared at varying rpm

13
Performance and emissions characteristics of tire pyrolysis oil in diesel engine: an…

concentration TPO blends results in higher ignition delay, ­NOx formation in DT10 implies that a higher cetane number
which leads to high HC emissions. than other TPO blends leads to a shorter ignition delay; as
a result, lower N
­ Ox formation (Qi et al. 2010). On the other
Nitrogen oxides ­(NOx) emission hand, a lower cetane number of TPO (100) results in delayed
combustion and increased heat of vaporization, resulting in
NOx emissions are harmful exhaust emissions that cause lesser combustion temperature and, ultimately, lower N ­ Ox
increased pollution in the atmosphere and acid rains, so it is generation (Verma et al. 2018).
critical to eliminate or reduce N­ Ox emissions from engines
(Uyumaz et al. 2019). Figure 9 studies the comparison of
Nitrogen Oxide ­(NOx) emissions of various TPO blends Conclusion
with DF at varying engine speeds. ­NOx formations are high
at moderate rpm. This is due to higher combustion tem- The performance characteristics and exhaust emissions of
peratures combined with enhanced combustion at moderate diesel fuel, Diesel–TPO blends, and TPO fuel are com-
engine speeds (Ilkiliç and Aydin 2011). Verma et al. (2018) pared in this study using a four-stroke 265 cc single-cylinder
discovered that ­NOx forms in diesel engines are caused by compression ignition engine. The testing is performed at
three primary factors: heat, prompt, and fuel-bound nitro- a constant 30% load and varying rpm by 500 from 1500
gen. The paper also mentioned thermal N ­ Ox formations, to 3500 rpm. The concluding points from the study are as
which are ­NOx produced due to high-temperature oxida- follows.
tion of N­ 2 inside the cylinder. Furthermore, DT10 has the
lowest ­NOx generation practically at all rpm; whereas, DF • The engine’s torque increases for lower rpms and
has the highest ­NOx emissions at lower engine speeds. As decreases at higher rpms due to increased friction
TPO concentration in the fuel blends increases, ­NOx emis- between the engine parts. The DT10 has the highest
sions also increase at practically all engine speeds except value of torque of 9.85 Nm at 3000 rpm. The DT10 offers
for TPO (100). This could be related to increased ignition a 1.3% higher value for the same load and rpm than diesel
delay as TPO surges in the blends; thus, decreasing cetane fuel.
number leads to higher ignition delay (Ilkiliç and Aydin • The DT10 has 1% and 7.2% higher brake power values at
2011; Kalargaris et al. 2017). The other source for increased 3500 rpm when compared to DF and TPO. Because of its
­NOx emissions as TPO surges could be the fuel’s chemi- higher density, it has more energy by volume compared
cal composition. High density and aromatic content in TPO to diesel fuel.
increase ­NOx formation (Doğan et al. 2012). Studies have • DT10 has the lowest BSFC value among other Diesel–
shown that ­NOx emissions in diesel engines are affected by TPO blends due to its lower viscosity, higher density and
a few key parameters; in-cylinder temperature, air/fuel ratio, heating value. The TPO offers the highest value of 319 g/
oxygen concentration, and residence time for the reaction to kWh at 1500 rpm among all other tested fuels in this
occur (Wamankar and Murugan 2014). However, the lowest study.
• The TPO has the lowest CO emissions at higher rpms
due to the high amount of oxygen it supplies, and at high
inside temperatures, the CO produced converts into ­CO2.
• At lower rpms, the DT10 shows the lowest C ­ O2, and for
both higher and lower rpms, DT50 offers the lowest ­CO2
emissions. The TPO shows the lowest ­CO2 emission
only at 2500 rpm. This non-uniformity in C ­ O2 emissions
results from the unsuitable air–fuel mixture at various
rpms.
• DT20 has the lowest HC emissions at all the rpms com-
pared to other tested fuels, specifically when compared
to other TPO-Diesel blends with higher TPO concen-
trations. They have high density, poor atomization, and
unsaturated hydrocarbons, leading to higher HC emis-
sions at the exhaust.
• DT10 has the lowest emission of NOx when compared
to all other tested at all varied rpms. The cetane number
Fig. 9  NOx emissions obtained for different diesel and TPO blends of DT10 is highest among different TPO blends, which
compared at varying rpm decreases as the concentration of TPO increases in com-

13
 H. Yaqoob et al.

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