Journal of Ecological Engineering

Journal of Ecological Engineering 2021, 22(7), 163–178 Received: 2021.05.15

https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/139068 Accepted: 2021.06.15
ISSN 2299–8993, License CC-BY 4.0 Published: 2021.07.01

Hydroelectric Power Plants and River Morphodynamic Processes

Marta Kiraga1*
1
Department of Hydrotechnics, Technology and Management, Faculty of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Institute of Civil Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Sciences WULS – SGGW, Poland
*
Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Hydropower is one of the renewable energy sources. Hydropower plants generate electricity using the kinetic en-
ergy of flowing water. Although hydroelectric power plants are not as prominent as solar or wind farms, it should
be noted that they generate the most significant amount of the power. They are also the most technically advanced
projects. Power plants are built with different technical parameters of turbines, different sizes of dams or weirs and
different ways of exploiting the energy of flowing water. A common feature, however, is the significant impact of
hydroelectric power plants on the functioning of adjacent regions. The paper divides this impact into economic
and local development, landscape, and ecological functions, emphasizing the interaction of these influences. The
paper discusses the hydromorphological changes taking place in the immediate vicinity of the structure, as a con-
sequence of channel development. The processes of aggradation and degradation of the channel are the answer
to hydrodynamic equilibrium loss. These hydrodynamic processes are associated with the subsequent ecological
response of the habitat. The most important of these include the dynamic equilibrium loss by the river and the sub-
sequent morphological parameters striving to restore it according to Lane’s relation, known as the most important
principle in the fluvial morphology science. The impact of the hydropower plant on the fluvial environment results,
first of all, from a significant environmental impact of the damming of the river itself. If the structure is correctly
designed, maintained, and operated, it allows controlling the water conditions upstream and downstream with
simultaneous energy production. Due to several geometric, hydraulic, and granulometric changes, and further, the
resultant economic, landscape, and natural changes that significantly affect the operation of a region, these should
be considered as early as the design stage and should be an integral part of any hydroelectric project.

Keywords: hydromorphology, river morphology, hydropower, energy, river, sediment, erosion

INTRODUCTION al. 2011; Mishra et al. 2012; Askari et al. 2015;

Tkáč 2018) and highlighted by practitioners, it is
Hydroelectric power plants are an alternative a technology that is not only proven, mature and
to fossil fuels, but appropriate natural conditions predictable but usually competitively priced.
are necessary for their development. Hydroelec- Hydropower has one of the highest conver-
tric plants are set on concrete dams or smaller sion efficiencies of any energy source currently
weirs built on rivers to retain and dam up water. available (about 90% efficiency, water to wire)
The water is stored in a reservoir and gradually (Kumar et al. 2011). It has a relatively high ini-
released from it in the case of storage-based pow- tial expenditure, but it has a long life as well as
er plants or the natural water falls are used. In this low operating and maintenance costs. Besides,
way, the water sets in motion turbine blades that hydropower plants are recognized as a technol-
drive a generator to produce electricity. In other ogy with many advantages that popular science
words, hydropower is a renewable energy source sources have called environmentally friendly, but
that uses the energy of water flowing from high- the significant impact it has on the environment
er to lower elevations to generate electricity. As cannot be overlooked. However, the power plant
cited by many sources (Mason 2010; Kumar et turbine itself does not cause several ecological

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changes to the habitat in question. The greatest can be adjusted to meet specific needs and site-
costs, material and environmental, are incurred in specific conditions.
the erection of a hydraulic structure, such a great Aiming to systematize the types of hydro-
dam or smaller weir. electric power plants, different divisions are in-
It should be noted that the water structure it- troduced due to: the way of exploitation during
self, on which the turbine is located, has many a day, the construction of blocks and halls, the
requirements concerning its foundation. More- type of turbine sets, the size of power, the size
over, the topographical, geological and hydro- of a slope, the cooperation between hydroelec-
logical conditions determine the type of the hy- tric power plants, water pressure load, the way
draulic structure to a much greater extent than in of obtaining a water fall. The major hydropower
land-based structures, which translates into the project types are: run-of-the-river, storage- (res-
uniqueness of the situation and construction solu- ervoir) based, pumped storage, and tidal tech-
tions. As the topography, geology, and hydrology nologies. The run-of-the-river power plants
are rarely the same in two different places, the may have no reservoir upstream at all or a lim-
possibility of the wide use of typical structures ited amount of storage facility (Fig. 1, 2). Such
in hydraulic engineering cannot be expected. In power plants may use existing dams, they may
order to adapt the power plant design to the exist- replicate historic structures (small hydropower
ing conditions and electricity demand, the design plants built in an old mills location – Fig. 3 a,
solutions that vary by design type, system, head, b), causing the water level gradient, or the wa-
or purpose, are used. A hydropower plant design ter dam is built as the first stage of the project.

Figure 1. Dębe hydropower plant in Central Poland as an example of run-of-the-river project (Author of
photography: Marta Kiraga, 2020); a) the view from downstream location; b) the valley topography

Figure 2. A photograph of the dam in Wloclawek, the largest run-of-the-river hydropower

plant in Poland (Author of photography: HaskoningDHV Poland Ltd.)

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When the existing dams are used, it can be said but are mostly intended for seasonal storage to
that the greatest environmental and material cost provide water during dry seasons. Storage hy-
has already been incurred in the past. In the sec- dropower plants can be run to deliver baseload
ond step, the dam is equipped with hydropower power, as well as peak load by their capacity to
sections. Their power is limited by the natural shut down and re-start on short notice; therefore,
water hydrological regime. Here, in turn, an in- they are recognized as more flexible than run-of-
dispensable advantage of this type of construc- the-river hydropower plants. Due to the ability
tion should be emphasized: water is a domestic to manage water levels, water storage reservoirs
resource which, contrary to fuel or natural gas, are also designed as multipurpose structures, of-
is not subject to market fluctuations. During the fering added benefits such as flood control, wa-
times of low energy demand, water flows freely ter supply, drainage, navigation, and recreation
through such a power plant, therefore run-of- (Killingtveit 2019).
the-river power plants operate most efficiently if Pumped storage hydropower plants are used
they are built where natural water surface fall to adjust the energy production to temporary de-
could be met. Because the source of electricity is mand. At times of low demand, excess energy is
the potential energy of water, the amount of this used to pump water into a reservoir at high eleva-
energy is proportional to the elevation the water tion. At times of high demand, water is released
loses within the plant. and its potential energy is converted back into
In the case of storage-based plants, an in- electricity.
crease in this energy will be achieved by erect- Tidal power plants take advantage of the reg-
ing high dams to accumulate the water. The ularly recurring rise and fall of water levels in the
construction of dams is accompanied by the ocean. Electricity in tidal power plants is generat-
development of a storage reservoir upstream, ed by the ebb and flow of sea and ocean water due
for drainage purposes, shipping, or for supply- to the tides created by the gravitational forces of
ing water to cities, settlements, and industrial the Moon and Sun. Tides are also caused by cen-
units, as well as for energy purposes. However, trifugal force due to the Earth’s rotation around its
it should be noted that obtaining energy from center of gravity.
flowing water, in this case, is not the only benefit There is no global consensus on classifying
of the erected structure. projects by size due to varying development pol-
Storage (reservoir) hydropower plants in- icies across countries (Kumar et al. 2011). Clas-
clude a dam often of significant size and a water sification by size, while common and administra-
reservoir upstream. The cumulated water vol- tively simple, is to some extent arbitrary: terms
ume is retained and released later as required. such as “small” or “large” hydropower plants
The reservoir creation offers the flexibility to are not technically or scientifically rigorous in-
produce electricity on demand and eliminates dicators of impact, economics, or characteris-
the dependency on inflow fluctuations. Large tics. The classification of hydropower plants can
reservoirs can hold inflows for months or years, be based on the criteria of damming height and

a) b)

Figure 3. Small hydropower plants in old mill location a) in Wolica; b) in Morawica,

Poland (Author: Marta Kiraga)

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reservoir capacity, and therefore on the type of THE HYDROPOWER PLANT

retention induced by the erection of a water dam. IMPACT ON THE REGION
For instance, the limiting value of the capacity
of small retention reservoirs adopted in Poland There is a strong and evident relationship be-
is 5 million m3. This value was established in tween water management and the environment, as
the Polish legislation in 1995. If the capacity of well as between water management and develop-
the reservoir is larger than 5 million m3, then ment, both with opposing goals. While the need
the retention could be acknowledged as large. A to develop and expand the hydrological infra-
classification of the various forms of finer reser- structure does tend to boost the economy and thus
voirs is presented in Figure 4, including all the urbanization, the environmental considerations
micro and small reservoirs, which usually have aim to steer the designer towards sustainable so-
a positive or minimal negative impact on the en- lutions and often to abandon the project (Koski-
vironment (Mioduszewski 2003; Szczykowska nen et al. 2008; Rasekh et al. 2010). Hydraulic
et al. 2015), while having no or little impact on structures have a diverse range of impacts, given
the amount of power produced by an existing or at least their size, and can therefore provide vary-
planned hydroelectric plant. ing degrees of both benefits and greater or lesser
Worldwide, hydropower accounts for about risks of failure. Therefore, it is important to note
16% of the electricity production (Anderson et that when discussing the failure of a hydraulic
al. 2014), which is more than in the case of any structure, or undesirable phenomena associated
other renewable source. Recent factors for the with hydraulic structure development, it does not
growth of renewable energy generation, such as apply only to large dams; small structures such as
the European Union (EU) regulation targeting weirs and levees are also potential sources of di-
20% of renewable energy generation by 2020, saster, affecting the life and economy of a region
have raised the interest in hydropower. In Poland, (Lopardo & Seoane 2004; Maddison 2012).
professional hydroelectric power plants generate Considering the rapid development of hydro-
about 2% of the nation’s electricity production power in European Union countries (Kucukali &
(Statistical Review of World Energy 2020). For Baris 2009), resulting, among other things, from
comparison, as reported by U.S. Energy Informa- receiving financial and national subsidies, there
tion Administration (2020) in the United States in is an urgent need to review the current state of
2019, the hydroelectric power produced 38% of knowledge on the impact of such schemes, espe-
the total renewable electricity, and 6.6% of the to- cially given the environmental impact of hydro-
tal U.S. electricity, meanwhile in 2018 the hydro- power plants. The erection of hydroelectric plants
power plants generated up to 18% of China’s to- may contribute to a significant interference with
tal electricity generation (IRENA 2018). the hydromorphological status of the river, which

Figure 4. The classification of water reservoirs as the basis for hydropower

plant classification (own elaboration Mioduszewski 2003).

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may directly translate into a failure to meet the hydropower through the construction of a storage
requirements of the Water Framework Direc- reservoir include improved hydrological balance
tive to achieve ‘good ecological status’ for all and better conditions for navigation (Von Sper-
waterbodies. ling 2012; Bajkowski & Górnikowska 2013; An-
The development of hydropower on the na- derson et al. 2014; Zeleňáková et al. 2018; Li et
tional scale is important from the point of view of al. 2020); however, it should be highlighted that
increasing the share of renewable sources in elec- they could negatively affect the ecosystem alter-
tricity production, but also because of the use of ing the natural hydrologic regime and the water
damming for economic, landscape, or ecological quality, as well as the fish passage (Valero 2012).
purposes. The erection of the damming structure On the other hand, there are conditions of
itself has the environmental effects which are well high oxygenation in the reservoir, though both su-
documented in the literature, so the impact of the persaturation and anoxic conditions are observed
hydroelectric plant on the region will come from seasonally (Koszelnik & Bartoszek 2018). The
the influence of the reservoir and the operation of construction of hydropower plants also helps to
the power plant itself (Fig. 5). The advantages of regulate rivers and equalize flows, thus reducing

Figure 5. The hydropower plant impact on the region (own elaboration based on Bogen & Bønsnes
2001; Radoane & Radoane 2005; Aggidis et al. 2010; Killingtveit & Liu 2012; Rodriguez 2012;
Valero 2012; Von Sperling 2012; Bajkowski & Górnikowska 2013; Kline and Moretti 2013; Anderson
et al. 2014; Lopes et al. 2014;; Jaskuła et al. 2015; VanCleef 2016; Çelikdemir et al. 2017; De Faria
et al. 2017; Feyrer et al. 2017; Zeng et al. 2017; Koszelnik & Bartoszek 2018; Zeleňáková et al.
2018; Fu & Li 2019; Jachniak et al. 2019; Kumar et al. 2020; Li et al. 2020; Terêncio 2020).

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the risk of flooding (Zeng et al. 2017). Besides, lay their eggs, which will not be able to resist the
hydropower plants provide jobs, which has a force of the flowing water (Basson 2004).
positive impact on the local economy (Kline and
Moretti 2013; Feyrer et al. 2015; De Faria et al.
2017). The disadvantages of hydroelectric power HYDRODYNAMIC PROCESSES RELATED
plants are mainly the high cost of their construc- TO POWER PLANT DEVELOPMENT
tion (Aggidis et al. 2010; Kumar et al. 2020) and
the significant interference with the environment. Streambed processes, understood as the
While the initial costs of the plant installation are changes of the riverbed under the influence of
significant, further operating and maintenance flowing waters, are considered to be one of the
costs are lower, which translates into a large most dynamic phenomena transforming the
overall budget part participation in the initial, Earth’s surface. The fluvial environment is char-
development stage of the project (Aggidis et al. acterized by both erosion and sedimentation pro-
2010; Çelikdemir et al. 2017). The most common cesses connected with sediment transport. Water
negative effects are silting of rivers and reservoirs discharge and the resulting transport of river sedi-
(Radoane & Radoane 2005; Jaskuła et al. 2015; ment, i.e. the fluvial processes shaping the mor-
Terêncio 2020), as well as increased morphody- phology of river channels, follow the feedback
namic processes such as erosion and accumula- principle. It means that the hydraulic conditions
tion, invoked by the stream velocity pattern in the of water discharge and the morphology of the riv-
region of the dam (Bogen & Bønsnes 2001). The er bed shaped by them are mutually adjusted so
construction of hydroelectric power plants also in- that the river remains in a state of dynamic equi-
volves significant landscape transformation (Ro- librium (stability) between the current water flow
rate and the intensity of sediment transport (Lane
driguez 2012; Lopes et al. 2014; Fu & Li 2019)
1955; Kiraga & Miszkowska 2020).
and displacement of people (Van Cleef 2016).
The dynamic equilibrium conditions of a riv-
The changes in the hydrological regime will
er channel were described by Lane (1955) in the
affect the whole river ecosystem. Prediction
form of a cause and effect relationship:
of those potential changes and managing them
should be the crucial part of the hydrotechnic de-
velopment of watercourses. Large dams are de- 𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 ∙ 𝑑𝑑~𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤 ∙ 𝐽𝐽𝑏𝑏 (1)
signed to manipulate river discharges; therefore,
they impact the downstream river ecosystem by where: Qs – sediment transport capacity, [m3s-1];
potentially affecting every part of the flow, sedi- d – effective (medium) sediment grain
ment, thermal and water-quality regimes could be size, [m];
noticed. Dams could store lower discharges, de- Qw – water discharge (bankfull water dis-
scribing the basic seasonality of the river, during charge, Qw = Qbank), [m3s-1];
the wet season. Then, they release the discharges Jb – stream slope, [-].
downstream in dry seasons. Lane’s concept describes the mutual adjust-
Such dam operation influences the seasonal ment of the “restraining forces” of the sediment
pattern of low discharges, reversing them totally transport process with the “mobilizing forces”
or partially, which has a significant impact on the of this movement. It is often presented in the lit-
life cycle of aquatic organisms (Power et al. 1996; erature in the form of a pan balance, the equilib-
Arthington 2012). For instance, aquatic plants, rium of which can be achieved with a practically
such as Limnobium laevigatum, Nymphaea alba, unlimited number of variants of the load size of
or Calla palustris need to expand their flowers both pans, while appropriately locating the sus-
above the water surface during the dry season. pension point of the pans on the arms of the bal-
This process could be disrupted by the occurrence ance (Fig. 6). The sediments carried by the river
of high flows during the normally dry period in will therefore either be sedimented and accumu-
the dam area. This has further environmental lated, leading to aggradation of the riverbed, or
consequences, namely, it prevents pollination of as a result of the significant contribution of grain
plants by wind and by animals. High flows, with moving forces, erosion processes will dominate
simultaneous significant flow velocity especially causing the river to cut further into the valley (in-
in the streamline, may not allow aquatic insects to cision process).

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Figure 6. Lane’s relation schematic (own elaboration based on Lane 1955).

The process of channel parameters adjust- 2020). According to Schumm (1969), in the pro-
ment caused by the changes in water and/or sedi- cess of recovering the lost dynamic equilibrium
ment outflow from the catchment in natural rivers of the river, the individual morphological param-
usually takes place over a longer period, i.e. sev- eters of the channel are changed – their extent and
eral decades. If, for example, a greater sediment directions are shown in Table 1.
load flows into the river from a catchment area, The rivers in dynamic equilibrium are charac-
the bed will reach equilibrium again if the water terized by long-term invariability of basic chan-
flow rate is increased. It is also possible to reach nel parameters (width, depth, even bed slope).
dynamic equilibrium without increasing the wa- The state of dynamic equilibrium does not ex-
ter flow rate, provided that the grain size of the clude the possibility of short-term morphological
channel material decreases and/or the longitudi- changes in the river bed resulting from the natural
nal gradient of the river increases. Lane’s relation hydrological cycle, i.e. seasonal variability of wa-
can only be used in the analyses of a qualitative ter and sediment outflow from the catchment. The
nature, to predict the morphological response of changes of the morphological parameters of the
a river to the changes in the hydrologic regime river bed in such case are usually small and oscil-
and/or sediment transport conditions as a result of late around the multi-year average values.
natural and anthropogenic factors, including the During the channel aggradation and degrada-
introduction of hydraulic development; however, tion processes the ecosystem changes, because
in recent years, there has been research focused various types of vegetation and animal species
on transforming it for engineering application live in different types of substrates. For instance,
(Kiraga & Popek 2016; Kiraga & Miszkowska stones appearing on banks and within the channel

Table 1. Adjustment of morphological parameters of a river channel due to changes in flow and / or supply of
sediment under dynamic equilibrium conditions (own elaboration according to Schumm 1969)
Sediment River
Water Meander Width-to-
transport Channel width Water depth Stream slope sinuosity
discharge length depth ratio
capacity coefficient
Qw Qs W h Lm Jb S W/h
+ c + + + – na na
– c – – – + na na
c + + – + + – na
c – – + – – + na
+ + + ± + ± – +
– – – ± – ± + –
+ – ± + ± – + –
– + ± – ± + – +
where: “+” means increment; “–” decrement; “±” possible increment and decrement; “na” no impact or no
recognized impact; “c” – constant

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during the process of channel degradation will therefore the water flow velocity and sediment
provide good feeding and hiding places for ani- transport capacity. The return to equilibrium river
mals; however, they are not a convenient site for sediment transport conditions is accomplished
trees. Accumulation of sandy sediments, on the by gradual sediment accumulation, which af-
other hand, will be conducive to the development fects the lifetime of the reservoir (A in Figure 7)
of reed beds (Basson 2004). as well as its ongoing operation (Schleiss et al.
Significantly larger morphological changes of 2016; Oladosu et al. 2019). The development of a
the riverbed are most often the result of extreme river channel usually results in a narrowing of its
flood events, after which new conditions of dy- cross-section and changes in the flow conditions,
namic equilibrium are directly created. If the hy- which are particularly visible during catastrophic
drological regime of the river is not significantly floods, when the basic hydrodynamic parameters
altered, then the river will regain its previous sta- of a stream are increased many times. As a re-
ble channel parameters after some time. In con- sult, the flow velocity is differentiated and water
trast, modern permanent changes in morphologi- is dammed up upstream the construction.
cal parameters of river channels are mainly influ- The sediment-free stream leaving the dam-
enced by anthropogenic factors, such as (Clark & ming structure, further characterized by increased
Wilcock 2000; Howard et al. 2016): kinetic energy and increased turbulence, has a
• climate change; high eroding capacity. After leaving the area
• changes in the management of river catch- where the hydraulic jump occurred (often in the
ments as a result of which the hydrological bed region), the velocity pattern is transformed in
regime of the river is altered i.e. the character- such a way that the highest velocities occur near
istics of water outflow and sediment transport the bottom, i.e. in the least desirable place (B in
from the catchment change; Figure 7). Then, the velocity equalizes at some
• river regulation; distance downstream of the hydraulic jump area
• introduction of flood banks in river valleys; (C in Figure 7). These flow characteristics enable
• hydrotechnical development of rivers (reten- the particles of bottom material to be easily moved
tion reservoirs, damming structures, hydro- and detached from the bed, then absorbed by the
power plants), as a result of which the dynam- stream and carried downstream. This results in
ic stability of the riverbed is lost as the local the formation and propagation of local bed scour
conditions of water flow and transport of sedi- (D in Figure 7), bank erosion, and increased ac-
ment are changed. cumulation of bedload further downstream. The
scour hole can threaten the stability of the struc-
The issue of changes in river channel mor- ture if it develops excessively, especially during
phology is important from the point of view of significant flow events. Therefore, in the outlet of
hydraulic engineering, water management, flood the power plant, bank, and bottom reinforcement
control, and environmental protection. Increased is used, which, in addition to preventing local
accumulation processes have a significant impact scouring, reduces the energy gradient loss by de-
on the water balance; they can lead to a decrease creasing the natural roughness, seals the channel
in channel capacity, also within sewer systems, and protects it against excessive filtration.
a rise in bed level, which further results in a rise The difference in the water surface elevation
in the water surface within the channel and in upstream and downstream creates a natural incli-
the ground (Brandt 2000; Regueiro-Picallo et al. nation, and the energy of the water fall is used to
2017). Uncontrolled increased water damming generate electricity. The potential energy of the
can have disastrous consequences during the pas- stored water is converted into kinetic energy by
sage of a flood wave and can lead to flooding of damming up the water with a weir or dam and
adjacent areas. The knowledge about the topog- flowing towards the lower level to drive a turbine.
raphy of the erosion and accumulation processes When the turbine is set in motion, it drives a gen-
taking place within the channel is of paramount erator that produces electricity, which is then fed
importance for a hydraulic engineer (Graf 1998; into the power grid.
Kiraga 2020) Bank erosion, which causes a change in the
The hydrotechnical development disturbs position of the bank line, could be recognized as
the equilibrium state of the river channel by al- a negative phenomenon by hindering the water
tering the water surface gradient and depth, and intake for the economic or municipal purposes.

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Figure 7. Diagram of hydraulic conditions accompanying the introduction of damming

structures, where Qw – water discharge, [m3s-1]; h1, h2 – water depth, [m]; v1, v2 – stream
velocity, ms-1; A – accumulation region; B – the unfavorable velocity pattern downstream
the dam; C – the equalized velocity pattern; D – the local scour deepening region.

According to Lane’s relation, the following as- toxins (PBTs), such as pesticides and methyl mer-
pects of river development by the hydropower cury (Birkett & Lester 2005; Katagi 2006; Lino
plant may be the factors increasing bank erosion: et al. 2019). Moreover, the phenomenon of ad-
diminished sediment load leading to the activa- ditional flow contraction caused by ice phenom-
tion of bed and bank material into the transport ena carried by the river in the form of frazil ice
process, leading to channel incision; a decrease (Fig. 8), stopping at upstream of damming struc-
of sediment load delivered by the river and then tures, hindering or even preventing the power
stored on or near banks; constant wetting of lower plant turbine operation, has to be mentioned. Riv-
bank surfaces through daily water discharge fluc- er-driven frazil ice has a crystal structure and it
tuations connected with power generation, which tends to concentrate and settle on hydraulic struc-
promotes greater erodibility; channel degrada- ture elements, especially on steel structures, pos-
tion, allowing flow to be impacted low on the ing a high hazard to proper power plant function-
banks, which can remove stabilizing slopes and ing (Gosink & Osterkamp 1983). It can lead to
woody vegetation (Hupp et al. 2009). Clearing temporary power plant operation stagnation until
bank vegetation can prompt bank collapse, in- a permanent ice cover forms on the river or even
creased sediment loads in the waterway, and even damage to its equipment.
environmental damages, affecting living organ- In the case of reservoir power plants, stored
isms, resulting in, e.g. clogged fish gills and silt- water flow velocities are low, and in engineering
ing of spawning grounds, as well as reduced life practice sometimes approximated to zero. Turbu-
of downstream reservoirs. Management of rivers lence intensity and pulsation velocities are also
and their flows should thus involve consideration reduced, leading to lentic environment creation
of all likely responses of the river to a planned (Csiki & Rhoads 2010), which could extend for
disturbance. several kilometers. Such conditions exhibit lower
It should also be remembered that the trans- biodiversity and cause fauna and flora diversity
ported river material carries large amounts of pol- within its region. Various populations of benthic
lution (Wu 2007), including plant debris or much algae, macrophytes, macroinvertebrates, riparian
more dangerous toxic or hazardous contamina- vegetation and fish could be met, relative to un-
tions. This has a huge impact on ecosystems not impounded river reach (Mueller et al. 2011; An-
only in the lower and middle reaches of the river derson et al. 2014).
but also at the estuary. As follows directly from Lane’s relation, a
As foreign substances do not degrade the riv- decrease of the stream slope along the river chan-
er, they can be a source of ecological issues for nel concerning the state before damming is con-
an extensive period, regardless of whether they nected with the process of silting of the reservoir.
are resuspended for long or short time. The most This phenomenon is recognized as one of the main
dangerous foreign substances in both bedload and factors limiting the proper exploitation of water
suspended load are metals and bioaccumulative reservoirs (Morris & Fan 1998; Madeyski et al.

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significant impact on discharges variability down-

stream. Discharges reduction will have the effect
of river channel narrowing tendency. Therefore, if
major tributaries do not supply the flow, then the
main river tends to fill its channel with deposits
and finally to narrow its cross-sections. Reservoir
sedimentation occurs worldwide at an estimated
rate of 0.3 % year, giving an expected average
reservoir life of about 300 years (Basson 2004).
Smaller reservoirs are especially prone to a
rapid loss of water capacity to accumulated de-
bris in their basins, as they are usually located
in the upper parts of the catchment and act as
sediment traps that intercept a large part of the
debris transported by the watercourse. Small
water reservoirs are silted up mainly with fine-
grained mineral material. The areas of high ero-
sivity should be reforested, especially in the up-
Figure 8. Ice cover retained upstream the per parts of the catchment, while the areas used
hydraulic structure on the weir (Radomka for agricultural purposes should be transformed.
river in Central Poland at river kilometer 44 +
In the areas where it is difficult to reduce the
000 – winter 2021, author: Marta Kiraga).
amount of arable land, a strip of trees or bushes
should be introduced. In high parts of catchment
2008). As illustrated in Figure 9, sedimentation areas, forest strips running along the contours
of differentiated fractions, also including vegeta- allow reducing soil displacement, accumulat-
ble debris, takes a form with progressively finer ing precipitation and decreasing surface runoff,
materials being deposited as the flows approach thus inhibiting soil erosion. The second group
the dam. The sediment load entering a river chan- of solutions limiting the amount of sediment in-
nel together with surface runoff depends on many flow into a reservoir associated with a storage
factors, among which the most important are: cli- hydropower plant involves technical solutions.
matic conditions, geological structure and type of The places of landslides need to be secured. It
soils, landform and slopes of the catchment, land is also advisable to stabilize the riverbed banks
use, degree of ground cover, and type of vegeta- and bottom. Another approach is the construc-
tion (Książek et al. 2008). tion of a bypass connecting the backwater of the
Besides trapping the sediment upstream the reservoir with its downstream part (Scheuerlein
dam, also flood attenuation is observed, having a 1999; Madeyski et al. 2008). The use of such a

Figure 9. Typical sediment profile in the region of storage hydropower plant, where: Qw – water
discharge, [m3s-1]; h0, h1 – water depth, [m]; v0, v1 – stream velocity, ms-1; d0, d1 – effective (medium)
sediment grain size, [m]; A – higher velocity region; B – lower velocity region; C – the live storage
area; D – the dead storage area; E – muddy lake deposits (fine); F – delta deposits (coarse).

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 Journal of Ecological Engineering 2021, 22(7), 163–178

solution consists of three phases: interception Long downtime, production losses, and eroded
of sediment by the intakes located at separa- part replacement can be costly, whereas welding
tion barriers, conducting high concentration of causes the health and safety hazards. In response
flow around the reservoir bypass with outflow to the problem of component deterioration, the
in the downstream direction. Properly designed key role of a high execution regime, the use of the
bypasses are acknowledged as an effective solu- best quality hydrotechnical concretes, and the use
tion to the problem of excessive clastic material of durable composites for the reconstruction of
entering the reservoir (Madeyski et al. 2008). worn-out power plant components is highlighted.
A significant problem of transport of fine In order to avoid excessive cavitation phenom-
fractions of sediment, deposits, which pose a di- ena, the solutions based on polyurethane coatings
rect threat to the power plant operating systems, are used to achieve a durable, flexible fluid-metal
is also emphasized (Jain 2000). The water con- barrier, which is resistant to the implosion of air
veying elements, i.e. pipelines, adits, and storage cells causing cavitation and protects equipment
chambers must be designed in such a manner as to against it. Hydrophobic epoxy coatings are rec-
avoid their accumulation sites. Hoisting mecha- ommended as a complementary solution.
nisms, stairs, and other elements on which depos- The introduction of damming structure
ited sediments may accumulate, must be main- could lead to the periodical disappearance of
tained and cleaned systematically. Hydropower low discharges downstream, resulting in fish
plant equipment, such as inlet piping, steering species biodiversity depletion or even demise.
gear blades, vanes and turbines, is highly vulner- Mutual interconnection was described in 2004
able to the damage from corrosion, erosion, and by Basson, pointing at the significant impact of
cavitation, which can reduce its efficiency as well inversed hydrological regime on environmental
as cause long and costly downtime. Repairs can processes taking place in the dam region (Fig. 10
involve lengthy downtime and usually need to be a, b). The banks overgrown with vegetation are
repeated. Fine particles entering the hydropower less susceptible to erosion. Roots stabilize banks,
plant body cause erosion and deterioration of controlling the sediment delivery into the chan-
plant equipment, as well as associated infrastruc- nel, and hence protecting gills, eggs, spawning,
ture such as influent piping and spiral elements. and feeding grounds. Falling trees constitute the

Figure 10. The impact of inversed hydrological regime on environmental processes in the dam
region: a) bank-derived sediment runoff into the channel; b) bank erosion retained.

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Journal of Ecological Engineering 2021, 22(7), 163–178

food for insects, whose life cycle is related to the environmental impact of the damming of the
hydrological regime. Insects can be eaten later river itself. If the structure is correctly designed,
by fish. Besides, the ability to retain water in the maintained, and operated, it allows controlling
reservoir upstream the structure and, thus, regu- the water conditions upstream and downstream
late the water conditions downstream, translates with simultaneous energy production. Even a
into the ability to control the spawning period small hydropower plant has an impact on the
for fish. The reduction of habitat limits biota and adjacent catchment area, on sediment transport
could increase the competition for space and pattern and further hydrodynamic phenomena
food (Davey et al. 2006). occurring due to channel development.
The loss of river continuum invoked by hy- The water structure introduction by narrow-
draulic structures hinders not only the natural ing the flow area alters the hydraulic conditions
downstream sediment transport but also organ- of the channel. Therefore, it contributes to the
ic matter, aquatic species, nutrients and, plant channel shaping processes acceleration and
propagules, which is especially important in the causes significant morphological changes in the
case of the smaller, low-head in-river hydro- riverbed, which in turn may lead to the deterio-
power plants (Arle 2002; Csiki & Rhoads 2010; ration of not only the natural features but also
Anderson et al. 2014). These types of power may adversely affect the aspect of economic
plants are often constructed in the habitats with use of the river. Accumulation of a part of the
a significant degree of habitat naturalness, which debris in the upper stand causes disturbance of
translates into highly visible and noticeable en- the dynamic equilibrium between water flow
vironmental effects associated with river devel- and sediment transport, which, together with
opment. By interrupting the flow, the migration the increase of the stream energy caused by
of fish, those migrating between the sea and the water damming, generates local erosion of the
river, or just within the river is also disrupted. channel downstream the hydraulic structure.
Although most of the researchers demonstrate The damming structure causes the variabil-
that the hydropower structure itself impedes fish ity of the hydrodynamic conditions along the
migration (Lucas et al. 2009; Dugan et al. 2010; river – average water depths and flow velocities
Ferguson et al. 2010 a,b; Gauld et al. 2013). San- change at successive cross-sections. Besides,
tos et al. (2006) found no significant differences downstream the damming structure, as a result of
in fish species, abundance, or diversity upstream a significant increase in stream turbulence mani-
or downstream of hydropower facilities. Imped- fested by intensive pulsation of point velocities,
ed migration may be due to a physical barrier, the curvature of the streamline and the occur-
an increased presence of unsuitable habitat as a rence of transverse water motion occur. These
result of altered physical conditions, or due to processes influence the variation of depths and
lethal and sublethal passage through a turbine longitudinal velocities in the cross-section of the
or poorly designed mitigate solutions such as channel as a result of variable conditions of bed-
protective screens (Anderson et al. 2014) or fish load grain motion.
ladders (Silva et al. 2012). Due to several geometric, hydraulic, and
granulometric changes, and further, the resultant
economic, landscape, and natural changes that
CONCLUSIONS significantly affect the operation of a region, these
should be considered as early as the design stage
The impact of a hydropower plant induces and should be an integral part of any hydroelec-
several hydrodynamic processes that are asso- tric project. The main elements that impact the
ciated with the subsequent ecological response fluvial morphology of the habitat could be sum-
of the habitat. The most important of these in- marized as follows:
clude the dynamic equilibrium loss by the river • impeding the sediment load upstream the
and the subsequent morphological parameters structure, with simultaneous scouring the low-
striving to restore it according to Lane’s rela- er stand;
tion, known as the most important principle • flood attenuation with simultaneous inver-
in the fluvial morphology science. The impact sion of the flow characteristic downstream the
of the hydropower plant on the fluvial envi- dam, translating into ecological changes, such
ronment results, first of all, from a significant as life cycle of the organisms;

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 Journal of Ecological Engineering 2021, 22(7), 163–178

• bed degradation downstream the hydropower 10. Brandt S. A. 2000. Classification of geomorphologi-
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Acknowledgement terial swarm optimization. International Journal of
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