IMMUNOLOGY
By Dr. Reem Alariqi
Amran University
Immunology
Immunology is a science investigating immunity
Immunity is a great set of reactions between immune system and
particular specific active substances (antigens).
the ability of an organism to resist disease
According to the mechanism of the development the immunity is
divided into two main types: innate and acquired (or adaptive).
Immunology
Immune system
Innate Acquired/adaptive/
immunity/inborn/genetic
/heritable Nonspecific specific
Internal defense
External defense
Second line of Active immune Passive immune
First line of defense
defense
Organs of immune system
Organs of immune system
Organs concerned with immune reactions are called lymphoid organs. They
contain lymphoid cells. Lymphoid organs are of 2 types.
1. Primary lymphoid organs
A. Bone marrow (site of B cell maturation in human)
It is the main lymphoid organ, where all the lymphocytes and all the body
cells are produced and T-lymphocytes are developed.
Organs of immune system
B. Thymus (site of T-cell maturation in human)
The thymus is located in the upper front part of the chest, in the anterior superior
mediastinum, behind the sternum, and in front of the heart. It is made up of two lobes,
each consisting of a central medulla and an outer cortex, surrounded by a capsule. It is
large at the time of birth but with age, the size keep on reducing and becomes very small
by attaining puberty.
Organs of immune system
2. Secondary lymphoid organs
The secondary lymphoid organs may be encapsulated to have a specific shape or may be
in the form of diffused tissues.
Spleen :
It is a large bean-shaped organ containing lymphocytes and phagocytes. It filters the blood
by trapping the pathogens in it.
Organs of immune system
lymph nodes
These are small solid structures located at different points along the lymphatic system. Their
function is to trap the microorganisms or other antigens, that enter the lymph and tissue fluid.
Therefore, the antigens trapped in the lymph nodes are responsible for the activation of
lymphocytes present there and cause the immune response
Organs of immune system
Adenoids
Adenoids also called the pharyngeal tonsil, are two small pads of tissues high in the
back of the nose believed to play a role in immune system activity. Adenoids are part
of the immune system, which helps fight infection and protects the body from
bacteria and viruses.
Organs of immune system
Tonsils
The tonsils are a set of lymphoid organs facing into the aerodigestive tract
The tonsils prevent foreign objects from slipping into the lungs. They also filter bacteria
and viruses
Organs of immune system
The tonsils have on their surface specialized antigen capture cells called
Microfold cell (M cells) that allow for the uptake of antigens produced by
pathogens. These M cells then alert the B cells and T cells in the tonsil
that a pathogen is present and an immune response is stimulated
Organs of immune system
Mucosal associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT)
is a diffuse system of small concentrations of lymphoid tissue found in various
submucosal membrane sites of the body, such as the gastrointestinal tract, nasopharynx,
thyroid, breast, lung, salivary glands, eye, and skin.
Organs of immune system
The mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) initiates immune
responses to specific antigens encountered along all mucosal surfaces.
MALT inductive sites are secondary immune tissues where antigen
sampling occurs and immune responses are initiated
Organs of immune system
Peyer’s patches of small intestine and appendix are also some of the secondary lymphoid
organs
They are small masses of lymphatic tissue found throughout the ileum region of the small
intestine.
Also known as aggregated lymphoid nodules, they form an important part of the immune
system by monitoring intestinal bacteria populations and preventing the growth of
pathogenic bacteria in the intestines
Innate immunity
The innate immune system is the first part of the body to detect invaders such
as viruses, bacteria, parasites and toxins, or to sense wounds or trauma. Upon
detection of these agents or events, the innate immune system activates cells to
attack and destroy the outsider, or to initiate repair, while also informing and
modulating the adaptive immune response that follows this first line of defense
Innate immunity
Factors influencing innate immunity
The factors that may influence innate immunity of the host Include
Age
This is explained in part by the immature immune system in very young
children and waning immunity in older individuals.
Innate immunity
Nutritional status
Both humoral and cell mediated immunities are lowered in malnutrition. Examples are:
Neutrophil activity is reduced, interferon response is decreased, and C3 and factor B of the
complement are decreased in protein–calorie malnutrition.
Deficiency of vitamin A, vitamin C, and folic acid makes an individual highly susceptible
to infection by many microbial pathogens.
Innate immunity
Vitamin C supports epithelial barrier function against pathogens and promotes the
oxidant scavenging activity of the skin, thereby potentially protecting against
environmental oxidative stress. Vitamin C accumulates in phagocytic cells, such as
neutrophils, and can enhance chemotaxis, phagocytosis, generation of reactive oxygen
species, and ultimately microbial killing.
Innate immunity
Hormonal levels:
Individuals with certain hormonal disorders become increasingly susceptible to infection.
For example, individuals suffering from diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, and adrenal
dysfunction are increasingly susceptible to staphylococcal infection, streptococcal infection,
candidiasis, aspergillosis, zygomycosis and many other microbial infections.
Innate immunity
Similarly, pregnant women are more susceptible to many infections due to
higher levels of steroids during pregnancy.
For example, steroid hormones drive modifications occurring in the
uterine microenvironment throughout gestation and at term, leading to an
increase in uterine size and successful development of the placenta
Innate immunity
Steroids affect metabolism and distribution of T and B lymphocytes,
Steroids profoundly affect the inflammatory response by way of
vasoconstriction, decreased chemotaxis, and interference with
macrophages.
Innate immunity
The innate immunity is primarily dependent on four types of defensive barriers:
(a) anatomic barriers
(b) physiologic barriers
(c) phagocytosis
(d) inflammatory responses
Innate immunity
Anatomic barriers:
Anatomic barriers include skin and mucous membranes.
Skin secretes sebum, which prevents the growth of many microorganisms. The sebum
consists of lactic acid and fatty acids that maintain the pH of the skin between 3 and 5, and
this pH inhibits the growth of most microorganisms
Innate immunity
Mucous membranes form a large part of outer covering of gastrointestinal,
respiratory, genitourinary, and many other tracts of human host.
Saliva, tears, and mucous secretions tend to wash away potential invading
microorganisms, thereby preventing their attachment to the initial site of
infections
Innate immunity
In lower respiratory tract, mucous membrane is covered by cilia, the hair-like protrusions of
the epithelial cell membranes.
The synchronous movement of cilia propels mucus entrapped microorganisms from these
tracts
Innate immunity
Physiologic barriers:
The physiologic barriers that contribute to innate immunity include the following
Gastric acidity : very few ingested microorganisms can survive the low pH of stomach
contents
Lysozyme has antibacterial effect due to its action on the bacterial cell wall.
Innate immunity
Lysozyme is produced in human neutrophils and macrophages, as
well as at mucosal surfaces, particularly in alveolar type II epithelial
cells in the lungs and Paneth cells in the small intestine.
Innate immunity
Interferons are secreted by cells. These substances have a general antiviral effect by
preventing the synthesis of viral structural proteins
Complement is a group of serum-soluble substances that when activated damage the cell
membrane
