1

Simple Stresses and Strains

12.1. Classification of loads. 12.2. Stress. 12.3. Simple stress. 12.4. Strain—Tensile strain—
Compressive strain—Shear strain—Volumetric strain. 12.5. Hooke’s Law. 12.6. Mechanical
Properties of metals 12.7. Tensile test. 12.8. Strain hardening (or work hardening). 12.9. Poisson’s
ratio. 12.10. Relations between the elastic modulii—Relation between E and C—Relation between
E and K. 12.11. Stresses induced in compound ties or struts. 12.12. Thermal stresses and strains—
Highlights—Objective Type Questions—Theoretical Questions—Unsolved Examples.

12.1. CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS

A load may be defined as the combined effect of external forces acting on a body. The loads
may be classified as : (i) dead loads, (ii) live or fluctuating loads, (iii) inertia loads or forces and
(iv) centrifugal loads or forces.
The other way of classification is (i) tensile loads, (ii) compressive loads, (iii) torsional or
twisting loads, (iv) bending loads and (v) shearing loads.
The load may be a ‘point’ (or concentrated) or ‘distributed’.
Point load. A point load or concentrated load is one which is considered to act at a point. In
actual practical, the load has to be distributed over a small area, because, such small knife-edge
contacts are generally neither possible, nor desirable.
Distributed load. A distributed load is one which is distributed or spread in some manner
over the length of the beam. If the spread is uniform, (i.e., at the uniform rate, say w kN or N/metre
run) it is said to be uniformly distributed load and is abbreviated as u.d.l. If the spread is not at
uniform rate, it is said to be non-uniformly distributed load. Triangulary and trapezoidally distributed
loads fall under this category.

12.2. STRESS
When a body is acted upon by some load or external force, it undergoes deformation (i.e.,
change in shape or dimensions) which increases gradually. During deformation, the material of the
body resists the tendency of the load to deform the body and when the load influence is taken over by
the internal resistance of the material of the body, it becomes stable. This internal resistance which
the body offers to meet with the load is called stress.
Stress can be considered either as total stress or unit stress. Total stress represents the total
resistance to an external effect and is expressed in N, kN or MN. Unit stress represents the resistance
developed by a unit area of cross-section and is expressed in kN/m2 or MN/m2 or N/mm2. For the
remainder of this text, the word stress will be used to signify unit stress.
 The various types of stresses may be classified as :
1. Simple or direct stress
(i) Tension (ii) Compression (iii) Shear.
2. Indirect stress
(i) Bending (ii) Torsion.
3. Combined stress. Any possible combination of types 1 and 2.
This chapter deals with simple stresses only.

12.3. SIMPLE STRESS

Simple stress is often called direct stress because it develops under direct loading conditions.
That is, simple tension and simple compression occurs when the applied force, called load is in line
with the axis of the member (axial loading) (Figs. 12.1 and 12.2) and simple shear occurs, when equal,
parallel and opposite forces tend to cause a surface to slide relative to the adjacent surface (Fig. 12.3).
W W

Fig. 12.1. Tensile stress

W W

Fig. 12.2. Compressive stress

W
W

(a) Rivet resisting shear

W
W

(b) Rivet failure due to shear

Fig. 12.3
In certain loading situations, the stresses that develop are not simple stresses. For example,
referring to Fig. 12.4, the member is subjected to a load which is perpendicular to the axis of the
member (transverse loadings) (Fig. 12.5). This will cause the member to bend, resulting in deformation
of the material and stresses being developed internally to resist the deformation. All three types of
stresses—tension, compression and shear will develop, but they will not be simple stresses, since
they were not caused by direct loading.

Punch
Plate Slug
Die Die

(a) Punch approaching plate (b) Punch shearing plate (c) Slug showing sheared area
Fig. 12.4
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

Simply supported beam

(Transverse loading)
Fig. 12.5

When any type of simple stress develops, we can calculate the magnitude of the stress by,
W
f= ...(12.1)
A
where f = stress, N/cm2 or kgf/cm2

W = load LMexternal force causing O

Nstress to develop PQ , N or kgf
A = area over which stress develops, cm2.
It may be noted that in cases of either simple tension or simple compression, the areas which
resist the load are perpendicular to the direction of forces. When a member is subjected to simple
shear, the resisting area is parallel to the direction of the force. Common situations causing shear
stresses are shown in Figs. 12.3 and 12.4.

12.4. STRAIN
Any element in a material subjected to stress is said to be strained. The strain (e) is the
deformation produced by stress. The various types of strains are explained below :
12.4.1. Tensile Strain
A piece of material, with uniform cross-section, subject to a uniform axial tensile stress, will
increase its length from l to (l + δl) (Fig. 12.6) and the increment of length δl is the actual deformation
of the material. The fractional deformation or the tensile strain is given by
δl
et = ...(12.2)
l
W W

l dl
Fig. 12.6

12.4.2. Compressive Strain

Under compressive forces, a similar piece of material would be reduced in length (Fig. 12.7)
from l to (l – δl).
W W

dl
l
Fig. 12.7

The fractional deformation again gives the strain e,

δl
where e= ...(12.2 a)
l
 APPLIED MECHANICS

12.4.3. Shear Strain

In case of a shearing load, a shear strain will be produced which is measured by the angle
through which the body distorts.
In Fig. 12.8 is shown a rectangular block LMNP fixed at one face and subjected to force F.
After application of force, it distorts through an angle φ and occupies new position LM′N′P. The
shear strain (es) is given by
NN ′
es == tan φ = φ (radians) ...... (since φ is very small)
NP
The above result has been obtained by assuming NN′ equal to arc (as NN′ is very small)
drawn with centre P and radius PN.
M M¢ N N¢
F

f f

L P

Fig. 12.8

12.4.4. Volumetric Strain

It is defined as the ratio between change in volume and original volume of the body, and is
denoted by ev.
Change in volume δV
∴ ev = = ...(12.3)
Original volume V
The strains which disappear with the removal of load are termed as elastic strains and the
body which regains its original position on the removal of force is called an elastic body. The body is
said to be plastic if the strains exist even after the removal of external force. There is always a limiting
value of load upto which the strain totally disappears on the removal of load, the stress corresponding
to this load is called elastic limit.

12.5. HOOKE’S LAW

Robert Hooke discovered experimentally that within elastic limit, stress varies directly as
strain
Stress ∝ Strain
Stress
i.e., or = a constant
Strain
This constant is termed as Modulus of Elasticity.
(i) Young’s modulus. It is the ratio between tensile stress and tensile strain or compressive
stress and compressive strain. It is denoted by E. It is the same as modulus of elasticity
f
or E= ...(12.4)
e
(ii) Modulus of rigidity. It is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain and is denoted
by C, N or G. It is also called shear modulus of elasticity.
fs
or = C, N or G ...(12.5)
es
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

(iii) Bulk or volume modulus of elasticity. It may be defined as the ratio of normal stress
(on each face of a solid cube) to volumetric strain and is denoted by the letter k.
fn
or =K ...(12.6)
ev

12.6. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

Some important mechanical properties of metals are discussed below :
1. Strength. The strength of a metal is its ability to withstand various forces to which it is
subjected during a test or in service. It is usually defined as tensile strength, compressive strength,
proof stress, shear strength, etc. Strength of materials is general expression for the measure of capacity
of resistance possessed by solid masses or pieces of various kinds to any causes tending to produce in
them a permanent and disabling change of form or positive fracture. Materials of all kinds owe their
strength to the action of the forces residing in and about the molecules of the bodies (the molecular
forces) but mainly to that ones of these known as cohesion; certain modified results of cohesion as
toughness or tenacity, hardness, stiffness and elasticity are also important elements and strength is
in relation of the toughness and stiffness combined.
2. Elasticity. A material is said to be perfectly elastic if the whole strains produced by a load
disappears completely on the removal of the load. The modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus (E)
is the proportionally constant between stress and strain for eastic materials. Young’s modulus is
indicative of the property elastic materials. Young’s modulus is indicative of the property called
stiffness ; small values of E indicate flexible materials and large value of E reflects stiffness and
rigidity. The property of spring back is a function of modulus of elasticity and refers to the extent to
which metal springs back when an elastic deforming load is removed. In metal cutting, modulus of
elasticity of the work-piece affects its rigidity, and modulus of elasticity of the cutting tools and tool-
holder affect their rigidity.
3. Plasticity. Plasticity is the property that enables the formation of a permanent deformation
in a material. It is the reverse of elasticity: a plastic material will retain exactly the shape it takes
under load, even after the load is removed. Gold and lead are highly plastic materials. Plasticity is
made use of in stamping images on coins and ornamental works.
During plastic deformation there is the displacement of atoms within the metallic grains and
consequently the shapes of metallic components change.
It is because of this property that certain synthetic materials are given the name ‘plastics’.
These materials can be changed into required shape easily.
4. Ductility. It is the ability of a metal to withstand elongation or bending. Due to this property,
wires are made by drawing out through a hole. The material shows a considerable amount of plasticity
during the ductile extension. This is a valuable property in chains, ropes etc., because they do not
snap off, while in service, without giving sufficient warning by elongation.
Note. The elongation of a test piece of metal which occurs when it is subjected to a sufficiently high
tensile stress is a measure of the ductility of the material. The elongation is measured accurately by an
extensometer etc. The value of this test as a measure of ductility has often been questioned however. The actual
property measured is the ability of the metal to distort or ‘flow’ without breaking, this is the same as ductility,
but there is no universal agreement regarding the value of the test to the engineer. For sheet strip and wire
material, a bend test used as a substitute for elongation test. A simple bend test consists of bending the material
through 180°; the radius of the bend depending on the gauge and composition of the material under test. The
sample must withstand this test without cracking. If the reverse-bend test as its name suggests the test piece is
bent through 90° and then back again; if necessary, this reversal is repeated a specified number of times, or
until the sample breaks. This test is considerably more searching than the elongation test and reveals defects
which the elongation test may not show up. For tube material, a bend test is carried out on a test strip cut from
the wall of the tube while a length of the tube itself is usually flattened between two plates until its internal
walls are a specified distance apart.
 APPLIED MECHANICS

5. Malleability. This is the property by virtue of which a material may be hammered or rolled
into thin sheets without rupture. This property generally increases with the increase of temperature.
The common metals in order of their ductility and malleability (at room temperature) are
given below:
Ductility Malleability
Gold Gold
Silver Silver
Platinum Copper
Iron Aluminium
Nickel Tin
Copper Platinum
Aluminium Lead
Zinc Zinc
Tin Iron
Lead Nickel
6. Tenacity or toughness. Tenacity or toughness is the strength with which the material
opposes rupture. It is due to the attraction which the molecules have for each other ; giving them
power to resist tearing apart.
The area under the stress-strain curve indicates the toughness (i.e., energy which can be
absorbed by the material upto the point of rupture). Although the engineering stress-strain curve is
often used for this computation, a more realistic result is obtained from the true stress-true strain
curve. Toughness is expressed as energy absorbed Nm per unit of volume of material participating
in absorption (m3), or Nm/m3. This result is obtained by multiplying the ordinate by the abscissa (in
appropriate units) of stress-strain plot.
7. Brittleness. Lack of ductility is brittleness. When a body breaks easily when subjected to
shocks it is said to be brittle.
8. Hardness. Hardness is usually defined as resistance of a material to penetration. Hard
materials resist scratches or being worn out by friction with another body.
Hardness is primarily a function of the elastic limit (i.e., yield strength) of the material and to
a lesser extent a function of the work hardening coefficient. The modulus of elasticity also exerts a
slight effect on hardness.
In the most generally accepted tests, an indenter is pressed into the surface of the material
by a slowly applied known load, and the extent of the resulting impression is measured mechanically
or optically. A large impression for a given load and indenter indicates a soft material, and the
opposite is true for a small impression.
The converse of hardness is known as softness.

12.7. TENSILE TEST

The tensile test is one of the most widely used of the mechanical tests. There are many
variations of this test to accommodate the widely differing character of materials such as metals,
elastomers, plastic and glass. The tensile test on a mild steel test piece is described below:
Fig. 12.9 (a, b, c) shows different types of tensile test pieces used for the test.
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

(a )

(b)

(c)
Fig. 12.9. Tensile test specimens.

The tensile test is carried out on a bar of uniform cross-section throughout the gauge length.
The specimen is mounted in the jaw of a testing machine with which a gradually increasing load can
be applied. The extension or elongation of the gauge length is recorded continuously and finally a
graph is drawn between the load and extension or between stress and strain ; which is of the type
shown in Fig. 12.10 (a).

R
Plastic stage
N
P
M S
Q
Stress

ge
ic sta
Elast

Strain
Fig. 12.10. (a) Stress-strain curve.

Upto point M Hookes’ law holds good and this point is known as limit of proportionality.
Beyond the point M Hooke’s law is not obeyed although the material remains elastic i.e., strain
completely disappears after the removal of load. At the point N elastic limit is reached. If the material
is loaded or stressed upto this point the material will regain its original shape on the removal of the
load. Upto the point P strain increases more quickly than stress ; at this point the metal yields. In
the mild steel yielding commences immediately and two points P and Q, the upper and lower yield
 APPLIED MECHANICS

points respectively are obtained. On further increasing the load slightly, the strain increases rapidly
till R when neck or waist is formed. When this point (R) is reached the deformation or extension
continues even with lesser load and ultimately fracture occurs.
The various properties connected with this test are given more elaborately in the following
paragraphs:
(i) Proportional limit. It is the maximum stress at which stress remains directly proportional
to strain. The proportional limit is determined from the stress-strain curve by drawing a straight
line tangent at the origin and noting the first deviation of the plot from the line.
The proportional limit has limited engineering significance because of its great dependence
upon the precision available for its determination.
(ii) Elastic limit. The elastic limit is the maximum stress which the material can withstand
without causing permanent deformation which remains after retnoval of stress.
For engineering usage the elastic limit has little significance.
(iii) Yield strength. The yield strength is the stress at which a material exhibits a specified
limiting permanent set.
The yield strength of a metal is a property of considerable significance. The tensile yield
strength indicates resistance to permanent deformation produced by tensile loads. It is related to
resistance to permanent deformation by shearing, bending, compressive and complex combination
of forces. Because of this and the ease of its measurement the tensile yield strength is used widely as
a factor of design ; it is preferable in most instances to the use of tensile strength. The yield strength
also is indicative of the ease of forming or shaping metals by mechanical stress.
(iv) Yield point. The yield paint is the stress at which there first occurs a marked increase in
strain without an increase in stress. The yield point can be determined by noting the first load at
which there is visible increase in the distance between two gauge marks on a tensile specimen. This
is conveniently accomplished by checking the length with a pair of dividers. If an extensometer is
used, the length can be observed to increase rapidly without an increase in load. Still a third method
is to coat the specimen with a brittle lacquer which cracks when the yield point is reached. The yield
point most commonly is observed in mild steels, although it has been detected in a few other alloys.
(v) Tensile strength (ultimate or maximum strength). It is calculated by dividing the
maximum load carried by the specimen during a tension test by the original cross-sectional area of
the specimen.
Tensile strength is widely used design factor, although there is more justification for yield
strength.
(vi) Rupture strength. It is determined by dividing the load at the time of fracture by the
original cross-sectional area. If the rupture load is divided by the actual cross-section at the time of
fracture, the time rupture strength is obtained.
The rupture strength is of indirect and limited interest to engineers. It provide the terminal
point of the stress-strain curve and makes possible a computation of static toughness.
(vii) Elongation. Elongation of a specimen after fracture may be determined by placing the
parts of the broken specimen closely together and holding them to place by a vice. The distance
between gauge marks may be measured by means of dividers.
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

Final length − Original length

Percentage elongation = × 100
Original length

Elongation has considerable engineering significance because it indicates ductility, or the

ability to deform appreciably without rupture. Ductility is essential in forming operations for metals,
where it is desirable to achieve as much deformation as possible in one operation without danger of
calling rupture. Ductility is also essential to avoid local failures leading to overall failures in metal
members which are locally highly stressed as a result of design or fabricating techniques.
(viii) Reduction of area. After the metal has fractured the percentage reduction in area is
calculated by measuring the test piece diameter at the point of fracture, calculating the cross-sectional
area at this point, and expressing it as a percentage of original area.

Original area − Area at fracture

Percentage reduction of area = × 100
Original area

(ix) Proof stress is the stress at which the stress strain curve departs from a straight line by
not more than 0.1 per cent of length of the test piece. The material is said to have passed the proof
stress test if application of certain load for 15 seconds does not produce more than 0.1 per cent
elongation.
(x) Ultimate stress. The maximum load to which a bar is subjected to in a test divided by the
original cross-sectional area, gives a nominal stress which is known as ultimate or maximum stress.
A tensile ultimate stress is called “Tenacity”.
(xi) Working stress. The maximum (or greatest) calculated stress to which a part of machine
or structure is ever subjected to is called the working stress. It should be well below the elastic limit.
(xii) Factor of safety (F.O.S). The ratio of ultimate stress to working stress is called factor
of safety. It is also known as factor ignorance. In America it is sometimes called as he factor of
stropidity. It depends upon the following factors:
(i) nature of loading,
(ii) frequency of variation of load,
(iii) degree of reliability required, and
(iv) decrease of section by corrosion etc.
Factor of safety is decided by experience.
Stress-strain curve for ‘brittle materials’. Structural steel is the only material that exhibits
a marked yield point. Most of the other materials show a gradual change from linear to the non-
linear range. Brittle materials have a very low proportional point and do not show the yield point.
Fig. 12.10 (b) shows a typical stress-strain curve for cast iron.
Note. The stress-strains curves for compression can similarly be plotted to determine the characteristic
stresses such as proportional stress, yield stress and the ultimate stress. In case of steel these stresses are the
same both in tension and in compression.
 APPLIED MECHANICS

Yield stress

Stress

Specified strain

Strain

Fig. 12.10 (b)

12.8. STRAIN HARDENING (OR WORK HARDENING)

When a material is subjected to plastic deformation, a certain amount of work done on it is
stored internally as strain energy. This additional energy in a crystal results in strengthening or
work hardening of solids. Thus work hardening or strain hardening may be defined as increased
hardness accompanying plastic deformation. This increase in hardness is accompanied by an increase
in both tensile and yield strength. Work hardening reduces ductility.
Strain hardening is used in many manufacturing processes such as rolling of bars and drawing
the tubes. It is also used to improve the elastic strength in the manufacture of many parts such as :
(i) Pre-stretching of hoisting chains and cables, (ii) Initial pressurisation of pressure vessel, cylinders
of hydraulic press and guns.

12.9. POISSON’S RATIO

If a body is subjected to a load its length changes ; ratio of this change in length to the
original length is known as linear or primary strain. Due to this load, the dimensions of the body in
all directions at right angles to its line of applications change ; the strains thus produced are called
lateral or secondary or transverse strains and are of nature opposite to that of primary strains. For
example, if the load is tensile, there will be an increase in length and a corresponding decrease in
cross-sectional area of the body (Fig. 12.11). In this case, linear or primary strain will be tensile and
secondary or lateral or transverse strain compressive.
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

Initial transverse
dimension

Final transverse
dimension

Longitudinal
elongation

Fig. 12.11

The ratio of lateral strain to linear strain is known as Poisson’s ratio.

lateral strain or transverse strain 1

i.e., Poisson’s ratio, µ= =
linear or primary strain m
where m is a constant and its value varies between 3 and 4 for different materials.
Table 12.1 gives the average values of Poisson’s ratio for common materials.

Table 12.1. Poisson’s Ratio for Some of the Common Materials

S. No. Material Poisson’s ratio

1 Aluminium 0.330
2 Brass 0.340
3 Bronze 0.350
4 Cast iron 0.270
5 Concrete 0.200
6 Copper 0.355
7 Mone 0.315
8 Steel 0.288
9 Stainless steel 0.305
10 Wrough iron 0.278

12.10. RELATIONS BETWEEN THE ELASTIC MODULII

Relations exist between the elastic constants for any specific materials and these relations
hold good for all materials within the elastic range. The relations result from the fact that the
application of any particular type of stress necessarily produces other types of stress on other places
in the material. Further, each of the stresses produces its corresponding strain and all the strains
produced must be consistent.
 APPLIED MECHANICS

12.10.1. Relation between E and C

Refer to Fig. 12.12. LMST is a solid cube subjected to a shearing force F. Let fs be the shear
stress produced in the faces MS and LT due to this shearing force. The complementary shear stress
consequently produced in the faces ML and ST is also fs. Due to the shearing load the cube is distorted
to LM′S′ T, and as such, the edge M moves to M′, S to S′ and the diagonal LS to L′S′.

fs
F M M¢ S S¢
45°
Co
mp s N
es
res
siv str
fs e

f str f fs
s ile es
Ten s

L T
fs

Fig. 12.12

SS′
Shear strain = φ =
ST
fs
Also shear strain =
C
SS′ fs
∴ = ...(i)
ST C
On the diagonal LS′, draw a perpendicular SN to S.
NS ′ NS′
Now diagonal strain = = ...(ii)
LN LS
SS′
NS′ = SS′ cos 45° =
2
[∠LS′T′ is assumed to be equal to ∠LST since SS′ is very small]
and LS = ST × 2
Putting the value of LS in (ii), we get
SS ′ SS ′
Diagonal strain = =
2ST × 2 2ST

SS′ fs
But =
ST C
fs f
∴ Diagonal strain = n
= ...(iii)
2C 2C
where fn is the normal stress due to shear stress fs. The net strain in the direction of diagonal LS
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

=
fn f
+ n
LMSince the diagonals LS and MT have normal OP
E mE Ntensile and compressive stress f respectively.Q n

fn
= 1+
1FG IJ ...(iv)
E m H K
Comparing (iii) and (iv), we get
fn f
= n 1+
FG
1 IJ i.e., E = 2C 1 +
FG 1 IJ ...(12.7)
2C m mH K H m K
12.10.2. Relation between E and K
If the solid cube in question is subjected to fn (normal compressive stress) on all the faces, the
fn f
direct strain in each axis = (compressive) and lateral strain in other axis = n (tensile).
mE mE
∴ Net compressive strain in each axis
fn
=
f f f
− n − n = n 1−
2 FG IJ
E mE mE E m H K
Volumetric strain (ev) in this case will be,

ev = 3 × linear strain = 3 ×
fn
1−
FG
2 IJ
E H
m K
fn
But ev =
K

∴
fn 3 fn
= 1−
2 FG IJ
or E = 3K 1 −
2 FG IJ
...(12.8)
K E m H K m H K
The relation between E, C and K can be established by eliminating m from the equations
(12.7) and (12.8) as follows :
2C
From equation (12.7), m = .
E − 2C
Putting this value in equation (12.8), we get

LM OP
2 FG E − 2C IJ
E = 3K M1 − or E = 3K 1 −
MM 2C PPP H C K
N E − 2C Q
E C − E + 2C 3C − E E E
or = = or + =3
3K C C 3K C
or EC + 3KE = 9KC
E (3K + C) = 9KC

9 KC
E= ...(12.9)
3K + C
Note. When a square or rectangular block subjected to a shear load is in equilibrium, the shear stress in
one plane is always associated with a complementary shear stress (of equal value) in the other plane at right
angles to it.
 APPLIED MECHANICS

12.11. STRESSES INDUCED IN COMPOUND TIES OR STRUTS

Frequently ties consist of two materials, rigidly fastened together
to prevent uneven straining of the two materials. In these cases, it is
interesting to calculate the distribution of the load between the materials. Rod Tube
It will be assumed that the two materials are symmetrically distributed (1) (2)
about the axis of the bar, as with a cylindrical rod encased in a tube
(Fig. 12.13). If then an axial load W is applied to the bar
W = f1A1 + f2 A2 ...(12.10)
where f1 and f2 are the stresses induced and A1 and A2 are the cross
sectional areas of the materials.
The strains produced, e1 and e2 are equal.
∴ e1 = e2
f1 f f1 E1
∴ = 2 ∴ = ...[12.10 (a)] W
E1 E2 f2 E2 Fig. 12.13

Hence the stresses are in the ratio of the elastic modulii.

12.12. THERMAL STRESSES AND STRAINS

If the temperature of a body is lowered or raised ; its dimensions will decrease or increase
correspondingly. If these changes, however, are checked; the stresses thus developed in the body are
called temperature stresses and corresponding strains are called temperature strains.
Let l = length of a bar of uniform cross-section
t1 = initial temperature of the bar
t2 = final temperature of the bar
α = co-efficient of linear expansion.
The extension in the bar due to rise in temperature will be = α (t2 – t1) l.
If this elongation in bar is prevented by some external force or by fixing bar ends, temperature
strain thus produced will be given by
α(t2 − t1)l
Temperature strain = = α (t2 – t1) (compressive) ...(12.11)
l
∴ Temperature stress developed = α (t2 – t1)E (compressive) ...(12.12)
If, however, the temperature of the bar is lowered, the temperature strain and stress will be
tensile in nature.

STRESS-STRAIN AND YOUNG’S MODULUS

Example 12.1. A square steel rod 20 mm × 20 mm in section is to carry an axial load

(compressive) of 100 kN. Calculate the shortening in a length of 50 mm. E = 2.14 × 108 kN/m2.
Sol. Area, A = 0.02 × 0.02 = 0.0004 m2 ; Length, l = 50 mm or 0.05 m
Load, P = 100 kN ; E = 2.14 × 108 kN/m2
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

Shortening of the rod, δl :

P
Stress, σ=
A
100
∴ σ= = 250000 kN/m2
0.0004
stress stress 250000
Also E= or Strain = =
strain E 2.14 × 108
δl 250000
or =
l 2.14 × 108
250000 250000
∴ δl = ×l= × 0.05 = 0.0000584 m or 0.0584 mm
2.14 × 108
2.14 × 108
Hence the shortening of the rod = 0.0584 mm. (Ans.)
Example 12.2. A hollow cast-iron cylinder 4 m long, 300 mm outer diameter and thickness of
metal 50 mm is subjected to a central load on the top when standing straight. The stress produced is
75000 kN/m2. Assume Young’s modulus for cast iron as 1.5 × 108 kN/m2 and find (i) magnitude of
the load, (ii) longitudinal strain produced and (iii) total decrease in length.
Sol. Outer diameter, D = 300 mm = 0.3 m
Thickness, t = 50 mm = 0.05 m
Length, l=4m
Stress produced, σ = 75000 kN/m2
E = 1.5 × 108 kN/m2
Here diameter of the cylinder, d = D – 2t = 0.3 – 2 × 0.05 = 0.2 m
(i) Magnitude of the load P :
P
Using the relation, σ=
A
π π
or P = σ × A = 75000 ×
(D2 – d2) = 75000 × (0.32 – 0.22)
4 4
or P = 2945.2 kN. (Ans.)
(ii) Longitudinal strain produced, e :
Using the relation,
stress 75000
Strain, e = = = 0.0005. (Ans.)
E . × 108
15
(iii) Total decrease in length, δl :
Using the relation,
change in length δl
Strain = =
original length l
δl
0.0005 =
4
δl = 0.0005 × 4 m = 0.002 m = 2 mm
Hence decrease in length = 2 mm. (Ans.)
 APPLIED MECHANICS

Example 12.3. The following observations were made during a tensile test on a mild steel
specimen 40 mm in diameter and 200 mm long.
Elongation with 40 kN load (within limit of proportionality), δl = 0.0304 mm
Yield load = 161 kN
Maximum load = 242 kN
Length of specimen at fracture = 249 mm
Determine :
(i) Young’s modulus of elasticy (ii) Yield point stress
(iii) Ultimate stress (iv) Percentage elongation.
Sol. (i) Young’s modulus of elasticity E :
P 40
Stress, σ= = = 3.18 × 104 kN/m2
A π
× (0.04) 2
4
δl 0.0304
Strain, e= = = 0.000152
l 200
stress 3.18 × 104
∴ E= = = 2.09 × 108 kN/m2. (Ans.)
strain 0.000152
(ii) Yield point stress :
yield point load
Yield point stress =
area
161
= = 12.8 × 104 kN/m2. (Ans.)
π
× (0.04) 2
4
(iii) Ultimate stress :
maximum load
Ultimate stress =
area
242
= = 19.2 × 104 kN/m2. (Ans.)
π
× (0.04)2
4
(iv) Percentage elongation :
length of specimen at fracture − original length
Percentage elongation =
original length

249 − 200
= = 0.245 = 24.5%. (Ans.)
200
Example 12.4. A steel wire 2 m long and 3 mm in diameter is extended by 0.75 mm when a
weight W is suspended from the wire. If the same weight is suspended from a brass wire, 2.5 m long
and 2 mm in diameter, it is elongated by 4.64 mm. Determine the modulus of elasticity of brass if that
of steel be 2.0 × 105 N/mm2.
Sol. Given : ls = 2 m, ds = 3 mm, δls = 0.75 mm ; Es = 2.0 × 105 N/mm2 ;
lb = 2.5 m ; db = 2 mm ; δlb = 4.64 m.
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

Modulus of elasticity of brass, Eb :

Wl
From Hooke’s law, we know δl =
AE
where, δl = extension, l = length, A = cross-sectional area, and
E = modulus of elasticity.
Case I : For steel wire :
Wls
δls =
As Es
W × (2 × 1000)
or 0.75 =
FG π × 3 IJ × 2.0 × 10 2 5
H4 K
or
Fπ I
W = 0.75 × G × 3 J × 2.0 × 10 3 5 ×
1
...(i)
H4 K 2000
Case II : For brass wire :
Wlb
δlb =
Ab Eb
W × (2.5 × 1000)
4.64 =
π FG IJ
× 22 × Eb
4 H K
or W = 4.64 ×
FG π × 2 IJ × E
2
b ×
1
...(ii)
H4 K 2500
Equating eqns. (i) and (ii), we get

0.75 ×
FG π × 3 IJ × 2.0 × 10
2 5
×
1
= 4.64 ×
π FG
× 22 × Eb ×
1 IJ
H4 K 2000 4 H2500 K
or Eb = 0.909 × 105 N/mm2. (Ans.)
Example 12.5. A steel bar is 900 mm long ; its two ends are 40 mm and 30 mm in diameter
and the length of each rod is 200 mm. The middle portion of the bar is 15 mm in diameter and
500 mm long. If the bar is subjected to an axial tensile load of 15 kN, find its total extension.
Take E = 200 GN/m2 (G stands for giga and 1 G = 109)
Sol. Refer to Fig. 12.14.
15 mm
dia

Load, P = 15 kN
π
× 402
40 mm

30 mm

Area, A1 =
dia

dia

4 2
= 1256.6 mm2 = 0.001256 m2
1
π
Area, A2 = × 152
4 200 mm 500 mm 200 mm
= 176.7 mm2 = 0.0001767 m2
Fig. 12.14
π
Area, A3 = × 302
4
= 706.8 mm2 = 0.0007068 m2
Lengths : l1 = 200 mm = 0.2 m, l2 = 500 mm = 0.5 m and l3 = 200 mm = 0.2 m
 APPLIED MECHANICS

Total extension of the bar :

Let δl1, δl2 and δl3 be the extensions in the parts 1, 2 and 3 of the steel bar respectively.
Pl1 Pl2 Pl3 LM∵ σ P/ A P . l Pl OP
Then, δl1 = , δl2 = , δl3 = E= = = or δl =
A1E A2 E A3 E N e δl / l A.δ AE Q
Total extension of the bar,
δl = δl1 + δl2 + δl3

=
Pl1
+
Pl2
+
Pl3
=
P l1 l l
+ 2 + 3
LM OP
A1 E A2 E A3 E E A1 A2 A3 N Q
15 × 103 LM 0.20 0.50 0.20 OP
= + +
200 × 109 0.001256 0.0001767 0.0007068
N Q
= 0.0002454 m = 0.2454 mm
Hence total extension of the steel bar = 0.2454 mm. (Ans.)
Example 12.6. The bar shown in Fig. 12.15 is subjected to a tensile load of 50 kN. Find the
diameter of the middle portion if the stress is limited to 130 MN/m2. Find also the length of the
middle portion if the total elongation of the bar is 0.15 mm. Take E = 200 GN/m2.
Sol. Magnitude of tensile load, P = 50 kN
Stress in the middle portion, σ = 130 MN/m2
Total elongation of the bar, δl = 0.15 mm = 0.15 × 10–3 m
Modulus of elasticity, E = 200 GN/m2
Diameter of the middle portion, d :
P 50 × 1000
Now, stress in the middle portion, σ = = = 130 × 106
A (π / 4) d2
1/2
∴ d=
LM 50 × 1000 OP = 0.0221 m or 22.1 mm
N π/ 4 × 130 × 10 Q 6

Hence diameter of the middle portion = 22.1 mm. (Ans.)

40 mm 40 mm
d
50 kN dia dia 50 kN

x
250 mm
Fig. 12.15

Length of the middle portion :

Let the length of the middle portion = x metre
50 × 1000
Stress in the end portions, σ′ = 2
= 39.79 × 106 N/m2
π/4 ×
40FG IJ
1000H K
(0.25 − x)
∴ Elongation of the end portion = σ′ ×
E
Relation between and strain. Consider a two dimensional figure ABCD, subjected to two
mutually perpendicular stress 1 and 2

1
Longitudinal strain and will be equal to whereas the strain in
E

1
the direction of y will be lateral strain and will be equal to -  x . ( Lateral strain
E
= - x longitudinal strain)

The above two equations gives the stress and strain relationship for the two
dimensional stress system. In the above equations, tensile stress is taken to be positive
whereas the compressive stress negative.

For Three Dimensional Stress System. Fig. 1.5 (b) shows a three-dimensional body
subjected to three orthogonal normal stress 1, 2 , 3 acting in the directions of x, y and z
respectively.

Consider the strains produced by each stress separately

2
Similarly the stress 2 will produced strain in the direction of y and strain of - 
E
2
in the direction of x and y each.
E

3 
Also the stress 2 will produce strain in the direction of z and strain of -  x 3 in
E E
the direction of x and y.

1 2 3
e1    ... [1.7 (H)]
E E E
3 2 1
e2    ... [1.7 (J)]
E E E
3 1 2
e3    ... [1.7 (J)]
E E E

and The above three equations giver the stress and strain relationship for the three orthogonal
normal stress system.

Problem 1.1 A rod 150cm long and of diameter 2.0cm is subjected to an axial pull of 20 kN.
If the modulus of elasticity of the material of the rod is 2 x 10 5 N/mm2, determine:

(i) the stress

(ii) the strain, and
(iii) the elongation of the rods.

Sol. Given : Length the rod, L = 150 cm

Diameter of rod, D= 2.0 cm = 20mm
 π
 Area, A= (20) 2  100π mm 2
4
Axial pull, P = 20 kN = 20,000N

Modulus of elasticity E = 2.0 x 105 N/mm2

(i) The stress () is given equation (1.1) as

P 2000
=  - 63.662 N/mm2, Ans.
A 100
(ii) Using equation (1.5) the strain is obtained as

E
e

 63.662
Strain, e = E = = 0.000318. Ans.
E 2 x 106

(iii) Elongation is obtained by using equation (1.2) as

dL
e
L
 Elongation, dL = e x L
= 0.000318 x 150 = 0.0477cm. Ans

Problem 1.2. Find the minimum diameter of a steel wire, which is used to raise  load of
4000 N if the stress in the rod is not to exceed 95MN/m2.

Sol. Given : Load, P = 4000N

Stress,  = 95MN/m2 = 95 x 106 N/m2 ( M=Mega=106)
= 95N/mm2 ( 106 N/m2 = 1N/mm2)
Let D = Diameter of wire in mm

 Area, A= D2
4
Load P
Now Stress = 
Area A

4000 4000 x 4 4000 x 4

95 = or D2 = = 53.61
π 2
D D 2 π x 95
4
D = 7.32mm Ans.

Problem 1.3. A tensile test was conducted on a mild steel bar. The following data was
obtained from the test:

(i) Diameter of the steel bar = 3cm

(ii) Gauge length of the bar = 20cm
(iii) Load at elastic limit = 250 kN
(iv) Extension at a load of 150 kN = 0.21mm
(v) Maximum load = 380 kN
(vi) Total extension = 60mm
(vii) Diameter of the rod at the failure = 2.25cm
 Determine : (a) the Young's Modulus, (b) the stress elastic limit
(c) the percentage elongation, and (d) the percentage decrease in area.

π 2 π 2 2
Sol. Area of rod, A = D  (3) cm
4 4

  1  
2

= 7.06835 cm2 = 7.0685 x 10-4 m2  cm 2   m 

  100  

(a) To find Young's modulus, first calculate the value of stress and strain within elastic limit.
The load at elastic limit it given but the extension corresponding to the load of elastic limit is
not given. But a load 150 kN (which is within elastic limit) and corresponding extension of
0.21mm are given. Hence these values are used for stress and strain within elastic limit

Load 150 x 1000

Stress   N/m2
Area 7.0685 x 10- 4
( 1 kN = 1000 N)

= 21220.9 x 104 N/m2

Increase in length (or Extension)

and Strain 
Original Length (or Guage length)

0.21mm
  0.00105
20 x 10mm

 Young's Modolus

Stress 21220.9x10 4
E x  20209523 x 104 N/m2
Strain 0.00105

= 202.095 x 109 N/m2 ( 109 = Giga = G)

= 202.095 x GN/m2 Ans.

(b) The stress at the elastic limit is given by

Stress  Load at elastic limit 250x1000


Area 7.0685x10  4

= 35368 x 104 N/m2

= 353.68 x 106 N/m2 ( 106 = Mega = M)
= 353.68 MN/m2. Ans.

(c) The percentage decrease is obtained as,

percentage elongation
 Total Increase in length
 x 100
Original length (or guage length)

60mm
 x 100  30% Ans.
20 x 10mm

(d) The percentage decrease in area is obtained as

percentage decrease in area.

(Original area - Area at the failure)

 x 100
Original area

π π 2
 x 3  x 2.25 
2

=   x 100
4 4
π
x 32
4

 32  2.25 2  (9 - 5.0625)
=   x 100  x 100  43.75% Ans.
 32  9

ANALYSISZS OF BARS OF VARYING SECTIONS

A bar of different lengths and of different diameters (and hence of different cross-sectional
areas) is shown in Fig.1.4 (). Let this bar is subjected to an axial load P.

Fig. 1.5 Bar with varied cross sections and Axial load

Though each section is subjected to the same axial load P, yet the stresses, strains and change
in length will be different. The total change in length will be obtained by adding the changes
in length of individual section

Let P = Axial load acting on the bar,

L1 = Length of section 1,
A1 = Cross-Sectional area of section 1,
L2, A2 = Length and cross-sectional areas of section 2,
L3, A3 = Length and cross-sectional areas of section 3, and
E = Young's modulus for the bar.

Problem 1.4. An axial pull of 35000 N is acting on a bar consisting of three lengths as shown
in Fig.1.6 (b). If the Young's modulus = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2, determine.

(i) Stresses in each section and

(ii) total extension of the bar