Earth as a system Earth and the other planets still do – but were struck at some point

by massive objects (perhaps other planets) that sent them spinning

-sun -mercury -venus -earth -mars -jupter -saturn -uranus
in different directions.
-neptune
Inner terrestrial planets – made of materials with high melting
points such as silicates, iron, and nickel.

Large Scale features of the Solar System Gas Giants - The outer four planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune are called "gas giants" because of the dominance of gases
The Sun - Much of the mass of the Solar System is concentrated at and their larger size.
the center (Sun) while angular momentum is held by the outer
planets. Dwarf planets - Inner Solar System Dwarf Planets – Makemake,
Haumea, Ceres, Eris & Pluto. These are massive, round, and orbit
Elliptical Orbits - Orbits of the planets are elliptical and are on the the Sun, but haven't cleared their orbital path.
same plane.

Revolution Periods - The periods of revolution of the planets

increase with increasing distance from the Sun; the innermost The origin of the solar system
planet moves fastest, the outermost, the slowest.
Nebular Hypothesis - A rotating gaseous cloud that cools and
contracts in the middle to form the sun and the rest into a disc that
become the planets.
Small Scale features of the Solar System
Collision/Encounter Hypothesis - The Sun was formed before the
Planets - A celestial body distinguished from the fixed stars by planets. The gravitational attraction of a closely passing star or the
having an apparent motion of its own (including the moon and sun), blast of a nearby supernova explosion drew out a filament of solar
especially with reference to its supposed influence on people and material that condensed to form the planets. Two major problems;
events. One is that hot gas expands, not contracts. lumps of hot gas would
Rotation of planets – Most planets rotate prograde. not form planets; second is that encounters between stars are
extremely rare, so rare as to be improbable in the lifetime of the
▪ Prograde rotation indicates that the motion is in the same Universe (15 billion years).
direction as the Sun’s rotation.
Prototype Hypothesis - It incorporates many of the components of
▪ Retrograde rotation is in the opposite direction. (Uranus & Venus the nebular hypothesis but adds some new aspects from modern
rotates retrograde.) One of the most long-standing hypotheses is knowledge of fluids and states of matter.
that Venus and Uranus originally rotated counter-clockwise – like
Comparison of Venus, Earth, and Mars • Escape velocity - minimum speed an object needs to escape a
planet's pull off gravity.

• Surface pressure - atmospheric pressure at a location on the

surface of the planet. It is proportional to the mass of air above the
location

• Temperature if no GHG - this would be the temperature of the

planet without the warming effect of greenhouse gases. Note that
the temperature of the Earth would be ~18°C lower without
greenhouse warming.

• Length of day - a function of rotational speed.

• The Earth's magnetic field is believed to be the consequence of

the presence of a solid metallic inner core and a liquid metallic
outer core. Ability of a planet to retain its internal heat is
proportional to its size. Mars may have lost much of its internal heat
very early in its evolution.

• A planet's temperature is a function of distance from the Sun but

is modified by the amount of greenhouse warming.

Comparison of Terrestrial planets - Venus, Earth, and Mars are part

of the inner terrestrial or "rocky" planets. Their composition and
densities are not too different from each other.

➢ Venus is considered the Earth's twin planet. It has a very

similar size and mass with the Earth. Mars is about half the
Earth's size.
➢ Orbital period and velocity are related to the planet's
distance from the sun. Among the three planet, Venus is the
nearest and Mars is the farthest from the Sun.
 ➢ Rotational speed of Earth and Mars are very similar. underground ice, which might melt to produce water. Europa, has a
Rotational speed of Venus is extremely slow. vast ocean beneath its outer shell if ice.
➢ Abundance of liquid water on Earth, hence the blue color.
Atmosphere - Earth & Venus are the right size to hold a sufficient-
The Earth is a habitable planet.
sized atmosphere. Earth’s atmosphere is about 100 miles thick. It
keeps the surface warm & protects it from radiation & small- to
medium-sized meteorites.
Factor that makes a Planet Habitable
o NOT ENOUGH: Small planets and moons have insufficient gravity
Temperature - Life seems limited to a temperature range of minus
to hold an atmosphere. The gas molecules escape to space, leaving
15°C to 115 ° C. In this range, liquid water can still exist under
the planet or moon without an insulating blanket or a protective
certain conditions. o NOT ENOUGH: Low temp cause chemicals to
shield.
react slowly, which interferes with the reactions necessary for life.
Also, low temp freeze water, making liquid water unavailable. o TOO MUCH: Venus’s atmosphere is 100 times thicker than Earth’s.
It is made almost entirely of greenhouse gasses, making the surface
o TOO MUCH: At about 125°C, protein and carbohydrate molecules
too hot for life. The four giant planets are completely made of gas.
and genetic material (e.g., DNA and RNA) start to break apart. Also,
high temperatures quickly evaporate water. o SOLAR SYSTEM’S SITUATION: Of the solid planets & moons, only
Earth, Venus, & Titan have significant atmospheres. Mars’
o SOLAR SYSTEM’S SITUATION: Surface: Only Earth’s surface is in
atmosphere is about 1/100th that of Earth’s, too small for
this temperature range. Sub-surface: The interior of the solid
significant insulation or shielding.
planets & moons may be in this temperature range.
Energy - With a steady input of either light or chemical energy, cells
Water - Water is regularly available. Life can go dormant between
can run the chemical reactions necessary for life.
wet periods, but, eventually, water needs to be available.
o NOT ENOUGH: When there is too little sunlight or too few of the
o NOT ENOUGH: The chemicals a cell needs for energy & growth are
chemicals that provide energy to cells, such as iron or sulfur,
not dissolved or transported to the cell.
organisms die.
o TOO MUCH: Too much water is not a problem, if is not so toxic
o TOO MUCH: Light energy is a problem if it makes a planet too hot
that it interferes with the chemistry of life.
or if there are too many harmful rays, such as ultraviolet? Too many
o SOLAR SYSTEM’S SITUATION: Surface: Only Earth’s surface has energy-rich chemicals are not a problem.
water, though Mars once had surface water and still has water ice in
its polar ice caps. Saturn’s moon, Titan, seems to be covered with
liquid methane. Sub-surface: Mars & some moons have deposits of
o SOLAR SYSTEM’S SITUATION: Surface: The inner planets get too o One of the most important processes by which the heat on the
much sunlight for life. The outer planets get too little. Sub-surface: Earth's surface is redistributed is through atmospheric circulation.
Most solid planets & moons have energy-rich chemicals.
O constant exchange of heat and moisture between the atmosphere
Nutrients - All solid planets & moons have the same general and hydrosphere through hydrological cycle.
chemical makeup, so nutrients are present. Those with a water cycle
or volcanic activity can transport and replenish the chemicals
required by living organisms. CORE126 – EARTH SCIENCE Layers of the Atmosphere
o NOT ENOUGH: Without chemicals to make proteins & ▪ Troposphere - where all weather occurs. The base of this layer is
carbohydrates, organisms cannot grow. Planets without systems to warmer than its top because the air is heated by the surface of the
deliver nutrients to its organisms (e.g., a water cycle or volcanic Earth, which absorbs the Sun’s energy. About 7-10 km above Earth’s
activity) cannot support life. Also, when nutrients are spread so thin surface and 17-18km near the equator.
that they are hard to obtain, on a gas planet, life cannot exist.
▪ Stratosphere - Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere where
o TOO MUCH: Too many nutrients are not a problem. However, too jet airplanes fly. Temperatures increase with altitude because of
active a circulation system, such as the constant volcanism on increasing amounts of ozone. The ozone layer within the
Jupiter’s moon, Io, or the churning atmospheres of the gas planets, stratosphere absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays of sunlight. About
interferes with an organism’s ability to get enough nutrients. 50km from Troposphere.

▪ Mesosphere - As the mesosphere extends upward above the

stratosphere, temperatures decrease. The coldest parts of our
Earth’s Subsystem
atmosphere are located in this layer and can reach –90°C.
The Earth system is essentially a closed system. It receives energy
▪ Thermosphere - the air is thin, meaning that there are far fewer air
from the sun and returns some of this energy to space.
molecules. The thermosphere is very sensitive to solar activity and
El Niño - El Niño is a climate pattern that describes the unusual can heat up to 1,500°C or higher when the Sun is active making an
warming of surface waters in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. aurora that lights up the night sky. Astronauts orbiting Earth in the
space station or space shuttle spend their time in this layer. About
Atmosphere - The thin gaseous layer that envelopes the lithosphere.
80km above.
o The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21%
▪ Exosphere - The upper layer of our atmosphere, where atoms and
oxygen (O2), 0.9% argon, and trace amount of other gases.
molecules escape into space, is called the exosphere. About 500 km
above.
▪ Karman Line - The Kármán line is the altitude where space begins. ▪ Lithosphere – rigid outer layer of the layer which is made up of the
About 100km above. brittle crust and upper mantle.

▪ Exobase - The level in the atmosphere above which the mean free ▪ Asthenosphere – layer of weak, ductile rock in the mantle; situated
path of particles is longer than a scale height. below the lithosphere.

▪ Ozone Layer – A region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most ▪ Moho – boundary separating the crust and the mantle.
of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation.
Geosphere - Includes the rocks of the crust and mantle, the metallic
• Lithosphere - The lithosphere includes the rocks of the crust and liquid outer core, and the solid metallic inner core.
mantle, the metallic liquid outer core, and the solid metallic inner
Biosphere – The set of all life forms
core. This is also known as the geosphere.
o For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain
o Plate Tectonics as an important process shaping the surface of the
comprises photosynthetic organisms. During photosynthesis, CO2
Earth. The primary driving mechanism is the Earth's internal heat,
\is sequestered from the atmosphere, while oxygen is released as a
such as that in mantle convection.
byproduct. The biosphere is a CO2 sink, and therefore, an important
▪ Seismic wave – an elastic shock wave that travels outward in all part of the carbon cycle.
directions from an earthquake source
o The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is transferred
▪ Convection – transfer of heat by mass movement or circulation of among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms.
a substance.
o Sunlight is not necessary for life. Isolated and complex ecosystems
▪ Plate tectonics – theory which proposes that the earth’s crust and thrive in the deep-sea floor at depths beyond the reach of sunlight.
upper mantle to be composed of several large, thin, and relatively The base of the food chain for such ecosystems is called
rigid plates that move relative to one another. chemosynthetic organisms. Instead of sunlight, these organisms use
energy from hydrothermal vents or methane seeps (methane
o This is also divided into different layers.
seeping through rocks and sediments) to produce simple sugars.
▪ Crust – thin, outermost layer of the Earth; is of two different types:
continental crust and oceanic crust.

▪ Mantle – middle layer of the earth between the crust and the core;
makes up about 83% of Earth’s interior.

▪ Core – innermost layer of the earth; outer core is in a liquid state

whereas inner core is in solid state.
Hydrosphere - About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water the Earth) was Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt.
(hydrosphere) and much of it is in the form of ocean water. He considered the universe as one interacting entity.

o Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of ice, o The term "biosphere" was popularized by Vladimir Vernadsky
and the remaining one-third is present in streams, lakes, and (1863-1945), a Russian - Ukrainian scientist who hypothesized that
groundwater. Oceans are important sinks for CO2 through direct life is a geological force that shapes the Earth.
exchange with the atmosphere and indirectly through the
o 1970s, the Gaia Hypothesis was jointly developed by James
weathering of rocks.
Lovelock, an English scientist/naturalist, and Lynn Margulis, an
o Heat is absorbed and redistributed on the surface of the Earth American microbiologist. According to the Gaia Hypothesis. the
through ocean circulation. biosphere is a self-regulating system that can control its physical
and chemical environment.
o the hypsographic curve is a graphical representation of the
proportion of land at various elevations (meters above or below sea o 1983, NASA advisory council established the Earth Systems
level). Through the process of weathering and erosion. the Science Committee. The committee, chaired by Moustafa Chahine,
hydrologic cycle is another important process contributing to the published a groundbreaking report Earth System Science: A Program
shaping and reshaping the surface if the Earth. This is an important for Global Change in 1988. For the first time, scientist was able to
link between the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and lithosphere. demonstrate how the many systems interact.

Rocks and Minerals

Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic solid with orderly

crystalline structure and a definite chemical composition. Basic
building blocks of rocks. Undergo geological processes and become
part of or develop into rocks, thus they become known as rock-
forming minerals.
• The origin of the systems approach to the study of the Earth. Physical Properties of Minerals
o One of the first scientist to push for a more integrated or holistic • Luster – the appearance of a mineral when it reflects light.
approach in the understanding of the universe (and by extension
o Metallic – mineral is opaque and behaves like a metal when
reflecting light.

o Nonmetallic – mineral does not reflect light like a metal; vitreous

(glassy), adamantine (brilliant/diamond- like), resinous (appearance
of resin or tree sap), pearly (sheen of a pearl or inside of a shell),
dull (earthy or not significantly reflective), silky, greasy, etc. 2.
Hardness – a measure of the resistance of a mineral (not specifically
surface) to scratching or abrasion.

• A mineral can be scratched by all minerals harder than itself and

will scratch all minerals softer than itself.

o Mohs scale is used to quantify the hardness of a mineral.

• Color – a result of the way minerals absorb light.

o Most minerals occur in many hues.

• Streak – the color of a mineral in powdered form.

• Crystal form/habit – the external shape of a crystal or groups of

crystals displayed/observed as they grow in open spaces.

o Acicular – needle-like

o Bladed – blade-like
o Botryoidal – grape-like masses • Other properties – magnetism, odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to
acid, etc.
o Columnar – long, slender prisms
Chemical Properties of Minerals
o Cubic – cube-shaped
• The chemical properties of minerals show the presence and
o Dendritic – tree-like, branching in multiple directions
arrangement of atoms in minerals. Some atoms are bound in the
o Fibrous – very slender prisms mineral’s crystal structure. Using their chemical properties, minerals
are identified by how they react to certain substances.
o Foliated or lamellar – layered structure, parts easily into very thin Consequently, minerals are grouped based on their common
sheets chemical composition and their crystalline structure.
o Granular – aggregates of crystals Mineral Groups
o Hexagonal – six-sided

o Massive – no distinct shape

o Octahedral– eight-sided

o Platy – flat, tablet shape

o Prismatic – elongate, prism like

o Radial or stellate – radiating outwards from a central point, star- • Silicates They are the largest mineral group comprising over 90%
like of the Earth’s crust.

• Cleavage – the property of some minerals to break along parallel o Silica tetrahedron (SiO4) is the fundamental building block of
repetitive planes of weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces. silicate minerals, which often is bounded to other elements, such as
aluminum, calcium, iron, and magnesium to create the wide variety
• Fracture – the property of some minerals to break and not have of silicate minerals.
cleavages but exhibit broken surfaces that are irregular and non-
planar. o Two most common silicate materials are feldspar and quartz.

• Specific gravity – the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight • Native Elements - Only a small number of minerals are found in
of an equal volume of water. this category. • Some of the minerals in this group are rare and
valuable. • Examples include gold, silver, sulfur, and diamond. •
They are classified as:
o Metals and Inter-metals – minerals with high thermal and o They are also important in science because they carry histories of
electrical conductivity, typically with metallic luster, low hardness changes in Earth’s magnetic field.
(gold, lead)
o Examples of oxides are hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4).
o Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile than metals and have They are both iron oxides.
lower conductivity (arsenic, bismuth)
• Phosphates - They are similar in atomic structure to the silicate
o Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond) minerals.

• Carbonates - The basic carbonate structure is one carbon atom o Phosphorus, arsenic, or vanadium bond to oxygen to form a
bonded to three oxygen atoms (CO32–). tetrahedron.

o They include other elements, such as calcium, iron, and copper. o Many different minerals are in this group, but most are rare.

o They are mostly found deposited in marine environments; formed o They are considered an important biological mineral found in
from the shells of dead plankton and other marine organisms. teeth and bones of many animals.

o They are also found in caves. o Turquoise is a phosphate mineral containing copper, aluminum,
and phosphorus.
o Calcite (CaCO3) is the most common carbonate mineral.
• Sulfates - They contain sulfur atoms bonded to oxygen atoms.
• Halides - They are formed when halogens (fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, or iodine) are combined with metallic elements. o Like halides, they form where salt water evaporates.

o They are salts that form when salt water evaporates. o They contain many different minerals, but only a few are
common.
o They are usually found in lakes, ponds, and other landlocked seas.
o Gypsum is a common example with a variety of appearances.
o Examples are halite/table salt (NaCl) and fluorite (CaF2).
• Sulfides - They are formed when metallic elements combine with
• Oxides They contain one or two metal elements combined with
sulfur.
oxygen.
o Unlike sulfates, they do not contain oxygen.
o Many important metals are found as oxides.
o Some are sources of economically important metals such as
o They are perhaps considered as the most important group at least
copper, lead and zinc.
in human civilization. Why?
o Pyrite, or iron sulfide, is a common sulfide mineral known as fool’s usually the only type of rock that contains fossils. Examples include
gold. People may mistake pyrite for gold because the two minerals conglomerate and limestone.
are shiny, metallic, and yellow in color.
Igneous
What are rocks?
• Igneous rocks (a word derived from the Latin word ignis which
Naturally formed, non-living earth material. Made of collections of means “fire”) are formed when magma or lava cools and hardens.
mineral grains that are held together in a firm, solid mass through Sometimes the magma cools inside the earth, and other times it
natural processes on Earth. Rocks are recycled. The cycle is never erupts onto the surface from volcanoes (in this case, it is called
ending and describes the dynamic transitions through geologic time. lava). With this, igneous rocks can be classified as intrusive or
Similar with minerals, rocks are very useful in human civilization. plutonic and extrusive. Plutonic or intrusive igneous rocks are
They are used as materials for buildings, roads, and furniture. They formed below the surface, from a slowly cooled magma, with a
may also contain other nonmineral materials like fossils. good crystallization (coarse-grained). On the other hand, extrusive
igneous rocks are formed when lava cools very quickly, thus no
Sedimentary
crystals form (fine-grained) and the rock looks shiny and glasslike.
• Sedimentary rocks (from the word “sediment,” which means “to Sometimes gas bubbles are trapped in the rock during the cooling
settle at the bottom”) are formed at or near the surface of the process, leaving tiny holes and spaces in the rock. Examples of this
Earth. They are formed from particles of sand, mud, shells, pebbles, rock type include basalt and diorite.
and other fragments of material. Together, all these particles are
Metamorphic
called sediment. Gradually, the sediment accumulates in layers and
over a long period of time hardens into rock. Sedimentary processes • Metamorphic rocks (meta means “change” and morph means
include weathering of rocks, erosion, sediment transport and “form”) are igneous or sedimentary rocks that undergo
deposition (compaction and cementation/lithification). Sedimentary metamorphosis under the surface of the earth due to exposure to
rocks that form when sediments are compacted and cemented high temperature and reactive fluids (contact metamorphism), high
together are called clastic sedimentary rocks. Whereas those that pressure (regional metamorphism), or a combination of both.
are formed when chemicals precipitate out of water are called Because of this exposure, some of the minerals undergo chemical
chemical or non-clastic sedimentary rocks. Generally, sedimentary and physical changes. The rocks that result from these processes
rocks are soft and may break apart or crumble easily. Most of them often have ribbonlike layers and may have shiny crystals, formed by
are found in beaches, rivers, and oceans where sediments are minerals growing slowly over time, on their surface. Examples of
present. Stratification or layering is a common feature of this rock type include gneiss and marble.
sedimentary rocks. Some scientists use these rocks to learn about
The Rock Cycle
the changes in climate and environment in Earth’s history. It is
Rocks change as a result of natural processes that are taking place Mineral Resources
all the time. Most changes happen very slowly; many take place
below the Earth’s surface, so we may not even notice the changes.
Although we may not see the changes, the physical and chemical
properties of rocks are constantly changing in a natural, never-
ending cycle called the rock cycle.

Processes of the Rock Cycle

• Several processes can turn one type of rock into another type of
rock. The key processes of the rock cycle are crystallization, erosion
and sedimentation, and metamorphism.

• Crystallization - Magma cools either underground or on the

surface and hardens into an igneous rock. As the magma cools,
different crystals form at different temperatures, undergoing
crystallization. For example, the mineral olivine crystallizes out of
magma at much higher temperatures than quartz. The rate of
Mineral Deposits
cooling determines how much time the crystals will have to form.
Slow cooling produces larger crystals. ● Mineral Occurrence – concentration of a mineral that is of
scientific or technical interest.
• Erosion and Sedimentation - Weathering wears rocks at the
Earth’s surface down into smaller pieces. The small fragments are ● Mineral Deposit – mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade
called sediments. Running water, ice, and gravity all transport these or concentration to enable extraction under the most favorable
sediments from one place to another by erosion. During conditions.
sedimentation, the sediments are laid down or deposited. The
accumulated sediment must become compacted and cemented ● Ore Deposit – mineral deposit that has been tested and known to
together. be economically profitable to mine.

• Metamorphism - When a rock is exposed to extreme heat and ● Aggregate – rock or mineral material used as filler in cement,
pressure within the Earth but does not melt, the rock becomes asphalt, plaster, etc.; generally used to describe nonmetallic
metamorphosed. Metamorphism may change the mineral deposits.
composition and the texture of the rock. A metamorphic rock may ● Ore – naturally-occurring material from which a mineral or
have a new mineral composition and/or texture. minerals of economic value can be extracted.
● Most rocks of the Earth's crust contain metals and other elements
but at very low concentrations. Average concentration of Gold in
rocks of the Earth's crust is about 0.005 ppm (parts per million)
which is roughly 5 grams of gold for every 1000 tons of rock.
Although valuable, extracting Gold at this concentration is not
economic (the cost of mining will be too high for the expected
profit). Fortunately, there are naturally occurring processes
(geologic processes) that can concentrate minerals and elements in
rocks of a particular area.

Types of Mineral Resources

● Metallic mineral deposits - gold, silver, copper, platinum, iron.

● Non-metallic resources - talc, fluorite, sulfur, sand, gravel.

Origins of Mineral Resources

Occurrence of Mineral Resources ● Magmatic Ore Deposits
● The geologic processes involved in the rock cycle play major role o valuable substances are concentrated within an igneous body
in the accumulation through magmatic processes such as crystal fractionation, partial
and concentration of valuable elements/ minerals. melting and crystal settling.

● Plate tectonics, the Earth’s crust is broken into a dozen or more o magmatic processes can concentrate the ore minerals that
plates of different sizes that move relative to one another contain valuable substances after accumulating elements that were
(lithosphere). These plates are moving slowly on top of a hot and once widely dispersed and in low concentrations within the magma.
more mobile material called the asthenosphere. The diagram below Some examples are:
shows the different mineral deposits that usually occur in different ▪ Crystal settling - as magma cools down, heavier minerals tend to
tectonic environments. crystallize early and settle at the lower portion of the magma
chamber.

▪ From a basaltic magma, chromite (FeCr2O4), magnetite (Fe3O4)

and platinum (Pt) can be concentrated through crystal settling.
▪ Fractional crystallization - the residual melt contains high copper, lead, zinc, and mercury occur as hydrothermal vein
percentage of water and volatile substances that are favorable for deposits.
the formation of pegmatites. Pegmatites are enriched in Lithium,
▪ Disseminated deposits - Deposits in which the ore minerals are
Gold, Boron, rare elements and some other heavy metals.
distributed as minute masses (very low concentration) through large
▪ Fractional crystallization of granitic magmas can concentrate rare volumes of rocks. This occurrence is common for porphyry copper
earth elements (such as cesium and uranium) and heavy metals. deposits.
This can also form pegmatites (large crystals of quartz, feldspars and
▪ Massive sulfide deposit (at oceanic spreading centers) -
muscovite) which may contain semi-precious gems such as beryl,
Precipitation of metals as sulfide minerals such as sphalerite (ZnS)
topaz, and tourmaline.
and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) occurs when hot fluids that circulated
● Hydrothermal Ore Deposits above magma chambers at oceanic ridges that may contain sulfur,
copper and zinc come in contact with cold groundwater or seawater
o Concentration of valuable substances by hot aqueous (water-rich)
as it migrate towards the seafloor.
fluids flowing through fractures and pore spaces in rocks
▪ Stratabound ore deposits (in lake or oceaic sediment) – This
o Hydrothermal solutions - are hot, residual watery fluids derived
deposit is formed when the dissolved minerals in a hydrothermal
during the later stages of magma crystallization and may contain
fluid precipitate in the pore spaces of unconsolidated sediments on
large amount of dissolved metals. These can also originate from the
the bottom of a lake or ocean. Such minerals may contain economic
ground water circulating at depth that is being heated up by a
concentrations of lead,zinc and copper, usually in sulfide form like
cooling and solidifying igneous body or along depths with known
galena (PbS), sphalerite (ZnS)and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)
geothermal gradient.
● Sedimentary Ore Deposits
o Such hot water can dissolve valuable substances (at low
concentrations) from rocks. As the metal enriched hot waters move o Some valuable substances are concentrated by chemical
into cooler areas in the crust, the dissolved substances may start to precipitation coming from lakes or seawater. Some examples are:
precipitate.
▪ Evaporite Deposits - This type of deposit typically occurs in a
o There are numerous hydrothermal mineral deposits: closed marine environment where evaporation is greater than
water inflow. As most of the water evaporates, the dissolved
▪ Vein type deposits - A fairly well-defined zone of mineralization,
substances become more concentrated in the residual water and
usually inclined and discordant and typically narrow. Most vein
would eventually precipitate. Halite (NaCl), gypsum (CaSO4∙2H20),
deposits occur in fault or fissure openings or in shear zones within
borax (used in soap) and sylvite (KCl, from which K is extracted for
the country rock. Sometimes referred to as (metalliferous) lode
fertilizers) are examples of minerals deposited through this process.
deposits, many of the most productive deposits of gold, silver,
▪ Iron Formation - These deposits are made up of repetitive thin o Important factors for the formation of residual deposit include
layers of iron-rich chert and several other iron bearing minerals such parent rock composition, climate (tropical and sub-tropical: must be
as hematite and magnetite. Iron formations appear to be of favorable for chemical decay) and relief (must not be high to allow
evaporite type deposits and are mostly formed in basins within accumulation) Some examples are:
continental crust during the Proterozoic (2 billion years or older).
▪ Bauxite, the principal ore of aluminum, is derived when aluminum-
● Placer Ore Deposits rich source rocks undergo intense chemical weathering brought by
prolonged rains in the tropics, leaching the common elements that
o Deposits formed by the concentration of valuable substances
include silicon, sodium and calcium through leaching.
through gravity separation during sedimentary processes.
▪ Nickeliferous laterites or nickel laterites are residual ore deposits
o Usually aided by flowing surface waters either in streams or along
derived from the laterization of olivine-rich ultramafic rocks such as
coastlines.
dunite and peridotite. Like in the formation of bauxite, the leaching
o Concentration would be according to the specific gravity of of nickel-rich ultramafic rocks dissolves common elements, leaving
substances, wherein the heavy minerals are mechanically the insoluble nickel, magnesium and iron oxide mixed in the soil.
concentrated by water currents and the less-dense particles remain
● Secondary Enrichment Deposits are derived when a certain
suspended and are carried further downstream.
mineral deposit becomes enriched due to weathering.
o Usually involves heavy minerals that are resistant to
transportation and weathering.
Mineral Exploration
o The source rock for a placer deposit may become an important
ore body if located. Some examples are: ● Geological Mapping - the foundation of all geological-related
studies, whether it be geotechnical, groundwater, geohazards or
▪ Common deposits are gold and other heavy minerals such as
mineral exploration etc. It is vital for developing the base-level
platinum, diamonds and tin.
picture of an area's geology, with each subsequent step of work in
● Residual Ore Deposits an area building off and correlating back to this initial stage. When
mapping with a mineral exploration focus, quite often prospecting
o A type of deposit that results from the accumulation of valuable will be conducted alongside.
materials through chemical weathering processes.
● Soil Sampling - soil is composed of several layers, and one in
o During the process, the volume of the original rock is greatly particular 'catches' the metal ions leaking from the underlying rocks,
reduced by leaching. accumulating a mineral-rich horizon. This is the desired layer in soil
sampling, from which a 1kg specimen is collected to test the
chemistry of the geology beneath. Because of the vast swathes of o Project Design - This is the initial stage in formulating a project.
pasture and woodland in Ireland, this technique is extremely This involves review of all available data (geologic reports, mining
important for collecting data in the countryside where the rocks are history, maps, etc.), government requirements in acquiring the
blanketed by soil and vegetation. project, review of social, environmental, political and economic
acceptability of the project, and budget and organization proposals.
● Stream Sediments - this method works on the principle that
sediment material in stream beds is derived from the erosion of the o Field Exploration - This stage involves physical activities in the
rocks further upstream. Therefore, sampling this material in various selected project area.
locations can give clues as to the geology of the upland area, as well
▪ Regional Reconnaissance - The main objective is to identify targets
as being tested for their chemistry to provide hints as to whether
or interesting mineralized zones covering a relatively large area
any metals of interest may be hosted within.
(regional). In general, the activities involve regional surface
● Drilling - the peak of a mineral exploration campaign. It is an investigation and interpretation.
extremely expensive process and so will only be used in the rare
▪ Detailed Exploration - This involves more detailed surface and
locations which have proven considerably interesting for their
subsurface activities with the objective of finding and delineating
mineral potential. However, drilling provides physical evidence of
targets or mineralized zones.
the rock below, and is used to confirm the theories of the
underlying geology which were developed during earlier techniques ▪ Prospect Evaluation - The main objective is to assess market
such as soil sampling etc. Drilling is an essential component of late- profitability by (1) extensive resource, geotechnical and engineering
stage exploration projects. drilling (2) metallurgical testing and (3) environmental and societal
cost assessment.
● Geophysics – whereas the above methods analyze the chemistry
(directly or indirectly) of the geology below surface, geophysics is ● Pre-production Feasibility Study - The feasibility study determines
used to test for the physical properties of the rock. These and validates the accuracy of all data and information collected
techniques can offer another side of the story to any geological from the different stages. Independent assessors to satisfy
theories, and so an exploration campaign can quite often compare interested investors to raise funds and bring production.
and collaborate both geochemical and geophysical studies.
Described in this page are the processes of magnetic, Mining Methods
electromagnetic, electrical resistivity, induced polarization, seismic ● Surface Mining - utilized to extract ore minerals that are close to
and radiometric surveys. Earth’s surface. Different types include open pit mining, quarrying,
● Optional Processes in Mineral Exploration placer mining and strip mining.
● Underground Mining - utilized to extract ore minerals from the o Cyanide heap leaching - This method used for low-grade gold ore
orebody is that is deep under the Earth’s surface. where the crushed rock is placed on a “leach pile” where cyanide
solution is sprayed or dripped on top of the pile. As the leach
The Milling Process
solution percolates down through the rocks, the gold is dissolved
● The materials “mined" are rocks composed of both ore and waste into the solution. The solution is processed further to extract the
material (part of the rock which contain very little or no element or gold.
mineral of economic value). The extracted rocks will undergo
● The waste material is either used as a backfill in the mine or sent
processes of mineral (e.g. metal) separation and recovery.
to a tailings pond, while the metals are sent for further processing.
● Recovering the minerals from the ore and waste materials can
Environmental Impacts
involve one or more processes where in the separation is usually
done in a mill. ● Improper mining can cause flooding, erosion, subsidence, water
and air pollution, damage to wildlife and habitat.
● Crushing and screening are the first stages of controlled size
reduction followed by grinding where the rocks are pulverized. ● Topsoil replacement using uncontaminated soil; reintroduction of
flora and fauna; neutralizing acidic waters; backfilling and sealing of
● Some examples of different Milling Processes:
abandoned underground mines; stabilizing the slope of impacted
o Heavy media separation - The crushed rocks are submerged in area to reduce erosion, etc.
liquid where the heavier/denser minerals sink thus are separated
● MGB regulates the Mining insdustries in the Philippines. Some of
from the lighter minerals. This is commonly used to separate
these initiatives are the following: o Mining Tenements. Pro-Forma
chalcopyrite from quartz before the refining processes of extracting
Mining Contracts. Approved Mining Permits and Contracts. Mining
copper.
Application in Regional Offices. Appeals Filed in MGB Central Office.
o Magnetic separation - If the metal or mineral is magnetic, the Mining Tenement Maps. Integrated Map pursuant to E.O. No. 79
crushed ore is separated from the waste materials using a powerful (2012)
magnet.
o MPP Compliance Monitoring.
o Flotation - The powdered ore is placed into an agitated and frothy
o Mineral Resource/Reserve Inventory.
slurry where some minerals and metals based on physical and
chemical properties may either sink to the bottom or may stick to o Mining Cases.
the bubbles and rise to the top thus separating the minerals and
metals from the waste.
Energy Sources percent under the CES scenario. The natural gas average share to
the supply mix will increase to 7.5 percent in comparison with its
We need energy for society to function. Our main energy sources
share of 4.7 percent under BAU scenario. Moreover, the anticipated
are fossil fuels. If have limited energy, factories shut down, no
share of RE sources under the CES will increase to 36.4 percent by
transportation, electricity, etc.
2030, as levels rise up by almost twice its 2015 level of 19.6 MTOE
Importance of Energy to 34.1 MTOE in 2030. On the other hand, other technologies that
will penetrate under the CES are also expected to contribute to TPES
● Many objects around us work on electrical energy, heat energy. at 2.0 MTOE by 2030.
● Energy helps us improve the quality of our life.

● It supports economic competitiveness. Uses of Energy

● Development of energy generates employment. ● Transportation - Petroleum is the main source of energy for
transportation. The transport sector will continue to dominate the
country’s total energy demand, with an annual average share of
35.6 percent in the TFEC. Its energy requirement is projected to
The country’s total primary energy supply (TPES) under the BAU grow at a yearly rate of 4.4 percent, from its demand level of 10.6
scenario will grow at an annual average rate of 3.5 percent to reach MTOE in 2015 to 20.1 MTOE in 2030. The bulk of the sector’s energy
86.9 MTOE in 2030, from 51.7 MTOE in 2015. Throughout the demand will be used for land transport, where about 80.0 percent
planning period for BAU scenario, coal and oil will dominate the of domestic traffic and 60.0 percent of freight traffic is by land
supply mix, as both fuels account for more than 30.0 percent of the ● Industrial - Energy is used in the industrial sector for a wide range
TPES in 2030. On the other hand, major sources of renewable of purposes, such as process and assembly, steam and
energy (RE) such as geothermal, biomass and hydro are expected to cogeneration, process heating and cooling, and lighting, heating,
contribute in the TPES at the average shares of 13.7, 13.3 and 4.9 and air conditioning for buildings. Under the Manufacturing
percent, respectively Meanwhile, TPES under the CES will reach 93.7 Resurgence Program, the Philippines is expected to become the
MTOE in 2030, 7.9 percent higher than the BAU for the same year, next manufacturing hub in Asia, and with the sector being a primary
while growth is faster at 4.0 percent per year. The difference is due engine of growth in the country’s economy. With this, energy use
to the expected reduction in fossil fuels, particularly oil and coal, as for industrial processes is expected to intensify for the next 15
it gives way to the increasing production of Reform power years. From its 2015 level of 6.8 MTOE, it is projected to expand at
generation, particularly geothermal energy and combined solar and an annual average rate of 5.7 percent while contributing an average
wind across the planning horizon. This tapers down the aggregate share of 26.6 percent in the country’s TFEC across the entire
share of coal and oil in the TPES to an annual average of 54.9
planning horizon. This will translate to demand levels going up by fastest at an average rate of 15.5 percent across the planning
more than twice of its 6.8 MTOE in 2015 to 15.6 MTOE in 2030. period, increasing to 33 kTOE by 2030 from its 2015 level of 4 kTOE.
Meanwhile, electricity demand in the sector will post an average
● Residential - They include watching television, washing clothes,
annual growth rate of 1.2 percent due to the continued
heating and lighting the home, taking a shower, working from home
improvement in design, development and extension of technologies
on your laptop or computer, running appliances and cooking.
on postharvest and modernization. Farmers try to adopt new
Residential uses of energy account for almost forty percent of total
agricultural machineries and technologies which were electricity
energy use globally.
fueled.
● Commercial - This includes heating, cooling and lighting of
Types of Energy Sources
commercial buildings and spaces, power used by companies and
business throughout our cities for computers, fax machines & ● Non-renewable - Non-renewable energy is a source of energy that
workstations. will eventually run out. Most sources of non-renewable energy are
fossil fuels, such as coal, gas, and oil. Not all nonrenewable energy
● Agriculture - Energy demand for Agriculture, Fishery & Forestry is
sources come from fossil fuels. Uranium forms as mineral deposits
comprised of Petroleum products, Electricity & Biodiesel. The
and is a nonrenewable energy source mined from underground
country’s AFF sector will continue to be the least energy-intensive
locations that becomes fuel for use at nuclear power plants.
among the economic sectors accounting for a meager share of 1.1
Because all these fuels don't replenish in the short term, taking eons
percent in the total energy demand. The energy demand levels will
to form, scientists consider them non-renewable.
improve from 401 kTOE in 2015 to 599 kTOE in 2030, or an average
yearly growth of 2.7 percent. Energy demand in the AFF sector is o Fossil Fuels - Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes
comprised of: (1) petroleum products, used mainly for farm such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. The age
equipment, crop production and fishery; (2) electricity, largely used of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions
in the livestock and poultry subsector; and, (3) biodiesel which is a of years, and sometimes exceeds 650 million years. Fossil fuels
mandatory input to diesel categorized under petroleum products contain high percentages of carbon and include coal, petroleum and
used for farm machineries implements. Electricity will account for a natural gas. Other more commonly used derivatives of fossil fuels
49.2 percent average share from 2016 to 2030; followed by include kerosene and propane.
petroleum products, which will take up as much as 47.9 percent
o Coal - Coal is a fossil fuel. It comes from the remains of plants that
share, and biodiesel with 2.9 percent share. Over the planning
died about 100 to 400 million years ago. Coal is a non-renewable
period, the sector will be heavily dependent on petroleum products,
energy source because it takes millions of years to form. Coal is a
as its demand levels increase at an average annual growth rate of
rock created from buried plants that lived and died hundreds of
3.5 percent, from 194 toe in 2015 to 324 kTOE in 2030, spurred by
millions of years ago, when the Earth's surface was covered by
the rise in diesel demand. As such, biodiesel demand will grow
swampy forests. Coalification is the formation of coal from plant
material by the processes of diagenesis and metamorphism. Over buried by thousands of feet of sediment and sand, which turned to
100 million years ago, dead plant matter would fall and accumulate rock. As the layers increased, pressure and heat built up, causing the
at the bottom of swamps on the Earth's surface. Over time, layers of organic matter to be broken down into compounds called
water, rock and dirt built up above the layers of dead plants. The hydrocarbons (made of hydrogen and carbon atoms). Finally, an oil-
heat and pressure this created reduced the oxygen content of the saturated rock – a bit like a wet sponge - was formed.
plant matter, leaving rich hydrocarbon deposits.
o Natural Gases - Natural gas is a non-renewable fossil fuel formed
▪ Types of Coal: from the remains of tiny sea plants and animals that died 300-400
million years ago. Approximately 90% of natural gas is composed of
● Peat - Peat consists of partially decomposed vegetation.
methane, but it also contains other gases such as propane and
Technically speaking, it isn’t coal. It has a carbon content of less
butane.
than 60% and is composed entirely of volatile matter. A poor fuel
that was once used throughout Europe in the form of dried o Transported by water, it (organic matter) sometimes sinks to the
briquettes for heating, today it is used only in a few regions, such as bottom of the sea or large continental lakes. A tiny proportion of
Ireland. this organic matter — about 0.1% — escapes this fate. It is partly
preserved in these poorly oxygenated environments, well away
● Lignite - Lignite is 65 to 70% carbon and 63 to 53% volatile matter.
from tidal currents. It mixes with inorganic matter, such as clay
It is a low-grade fuel with a high moisture content that is used in
particles and very fine sand, and with dead marine plankton
industrial boilers.
(microscopic organisms). This mixture is transformed into dark, foul-
● Sub-bituminous - Sub-bituminous coal is 70 to 76% carbon and 53 smelling mud by anaerobic bacteria. Over time, this mud
to 42% volatile matter. It is burned in industrial boilers. accumulates and hardens. Mud that contains at least 1 to 2%
organic matter may be transformed into source rock, which
● Bituminous - Bituminous coal contains 70 to 86% carbon and 46 to eventually produces oil and gas deposits.
31% volatile matter. It is used to make coke, used in metallurgy.
o Rise to the Surface of Oil and Gas - In the source rock,
● Anthracite - Anthracite is 86 to 98% pure carbon and 8 to 3% hydrocarbons are present in greater volumes under higher
volatile matter. It is an excellent fuel that is still used to heat homes. pressures than the initial kerogen. Little by little, they are expelled
o Oil - Oil (also known as petroleum) is a fossil fuel formed from the into the water-containing rocky layers located adjacent to the
remains of tiny sea plants and animals that died hundreds of source rock. Because hydrocarbons are lighter than water, gas and
millions of years ago. Once refined, oil can be used to make oil rise upward by circulating between the mineral grains of the
products such as gasoline, diesel and jet fuel. Hundreds of millions rock. This slow, constant movement away from the source rock is
of years ago (before dinosaurs existed), when tiny sea plants and called migration. The rate depends on the permeability of the rocks
animals died, they sank to the bottom of the oceans. They were they cross and the size of the molecules: Gas molecules rise more
quickly than oil molecules, because they are smaller and more This heat can be recovered using different geothermal technologies
mobile. Some hydrocarbon molecules are prevented from moving depending on the temperature. But are not inexhaustible. The
upward, either because they dissolve in the water contained in the adjective geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and
rock they encounter (this affects gas much more often than oil) or thermos (heat). It covers all techniques used to recover the heat
because they adhere to the grains that make up the rock. This that is naturally present in the Earth’s subsurface, particularly in
phenomenon is known as migration loss. These losses can be aquifers, the rock reservoirs that contain groundwater. About half
significant, especially if the oil and gas have a long way to travel. this thermal (or “heat”) energy comes from the residual heat
This is why some source rock hydrocarbons will never be suitable produced when the planet was formed 4.5 billion years ago and
for development. about half from natural radioactivity. The temperature of
geothermal water increases with depth, depending on the thermal
o Nuclear Energy - A particular form of uranium – called uranium-
gradient — the average rate at which the temperature rises with
235 – is most commonly used for energy production, as its nucleus
depth — of the region where it is found. The average value of the
splits easily when it is bombarded by a neutron.
gradient worldwide is 3°C per 100 meters of depth, but it varies
● Renewable - Renewable energy is any natural resource that can between 1°C and 10°C per 100 meters depending on the physical
replace itself quickly and dependably. conditions and geology of the region. The average geothermal heat
flow — the energy available for any given surface area and period —
o Solar Energy - Solar energy is energy produced from the sun. It is a on the surface is low. It averages 0.06 watts per square meter per
renewable energy, which means it will never run out. Solar energy year, or 3,500 times less than the solar energy flow received in a
can be converted into electricity, or used to heat air, water or other single year by the same surface area. These “geothermal reservoirs”
fluids. are found in all the Earth’s sedimentary basins, but high-
o Wind - Wind is simply air that is moving. It is produced as different temperature geothermal energy is most likely to be found near
types of land and water absorb the Sun's energy at different rates. volcanoes. In volcanic areas, geothermal heat flow can reach 1 watt
Wind can be used to generate electricity using wind turbines. per square meter. This involves capping the amount of heat used
and putting a time limit on the operation of the site.
o Biomass is organic matter – anything that is alive or was a short
time ago – that can be used as an energy source. Examples of o Hydroelectric - Hydropower is energy produced from the force of
biomass include wood, crops, seaweed and animal waste. Biomass moving water. This force can be extremely powerful and is driven by
gets its energy from the Sun and is a renewable energy source. gravity. Hydropower plants use this energy to produce electricity.
Water energy encompasses both plants installed on land — on
o Geothermal energy comes from the heat inside the Earth. It can rivers and lakes — and ocean energy, which is still being developed
be used to produce electricity, to heat homes and buildings, and to and harnesses the force of waves, tides and currents. Widely used
provide hot water. Geothermal energy is the only renewable form for decades, hydropower plants are the world’s leading renewable
of thermal energy. Underground rock and water become hotter.
energy source, producing 83% of renewable power. The kinetic o Refining and consuming produce air, water and solid waste
energy generated by moving water has been used by humankind for pollutants.
centuries, to drive watermills that produce mechanical energy.
o Natural Gases - Produces fewer pollutants than oil and coal, and
Modern hydropower, sometimes referred to as “white coal," is
less CO2.
harnessed in plants where electricity is generated. Around 40
countries use hydropower to produce more than a fifth of their o Coal - Produces CO2 and other air, water and solid waste
electricity1. Hydropower accounts for 16% of electricity worldwide, pollutants.
behind coal and gas, but ahead of nuclear.
o Biomass burning emits CO2 and other pollutants. Possible toxic
▪ Types of Hydropower Plant: byproducts from societal waste. Loss of habitat when trees
harvested, unless sustainable tree farms.
● Run-off River Plants - Run-off River Plants are modular, meaning
that energy can be produced on demand, with dams used to create o Hydroelectric Power plants leads to destruction of farmlands,
reservoirs that can be released as required. On lakes, water falls dislocation of people, loss of habitat, alteration of stream flows.
from a significant height (over 300 meters); on locks, from between
20 and 300 meters. o Geothermal power - Disrupts natural geyser activity o Wind Power
- Aesthetic issues, Needs lots of land, Possible impacts on birds and
● Pumped Storage Power Plants - Pumped storage power plants are their migration patterns.
specifically designed for modular operation. They have two
reservoirs at different heights. When demand requires, water is o Nuclear Power - Byproduct is highly radioactive and highly toxic.
released from the higher reservoir to the lower reservoir. When Disposal solution complex technically and politically. Safety issues in
there is excess production — for example, from wind or solar terms of operating a facility with the potential to release radiation
sources — the surplus electricity is used to pump water into the to the atmosphere. Possibility high for water pollution because of
higher reservoir. radioactive tritium.

Human Activity & the Environment ● A successful energy future will depend on managing
environmental impacts while keeping energy affordable. Kyoto
● All energy production and use have environmental impacts. Fossil Protocol.
fuels and nuclear produce more solid, liquid and gaseous wastes,
while renewables (geothermal and hydroelectric) face challenges of ● Priority Solutions Advocated by International Communities
land and water use, visual and noise pollution. o Curbing Global Warming - Climate change is the single biggest
● Environmental Impacts of Energy Sources environmental and humanitarian crisis of our time. The Earth's
atmosphere is overloaded with heat-trapping carbon dioxide.
o Creating the Clean Energy Future - Dependence on fossil fuels economy, and natural environment. The government develops and
threatens our national security and is a major contributor to global advocates sustainable solutions for our communities.
warming and toxic air pollution. By investing in renewable energy
● Energy Reform Agenda (Philippine Energy Plan) by Department of
sources such as the sun, wind and biomass, we can help solve the
Energy
energy and climate crises. Our best weapon against global climate
change is clean energy. o Power Sector Development - The development plans on power
systems, transmission highways, distribution facilities and
o Reviving the World's Oceans - The world's oceans are on the brink
missionary electrification provide the platform to put in place long-
of ecological collapse. We can restore marine vitality by ending
term reliable power supply, improve the country’s transmission and
overfishing, creating marine protected areas and improving the way
distribution systems and attain nationwide electrification.
we govern our oceans. Powerful forces have pushed the world's
oceans to the brink of ecological collapse. By focusing on these o Fueling Sustainable Transport Program - Conversion of Public &
solutions, we can achieve the broadest, most long-lasting benefits Private Vehicles to Compressed Natural Gas & Electric Power.
for our oceans and those who rely on oceans-related jobs.
o Indigenous Energy Development Program - The Plan programs the
o Defending Endangered Wildlife and Wild Places - The destruction conduct of energy contracting rounds as an effective strategy to
of our last remaining wildlands means the loss of vast troves of bring in critical investments for the exploration, development and
biological diversity, critical regulators of global climate, and production of local energy resources.
irreplaceable sanctuaries. Our government joins forces with NGOs
and other environment activists to defend some of our country's o National Renewable Energy Plan - The PEP includes the targets set
most imperiled species and their habitats. under the NREP to strengthen its energy security plan. Specifically,
the NREP seeks to increase the country’s renewable energy-based
o Protecting Our Health By Preventing Pollution - We must reduce capacity by 2030.
or eliminate the dangerous chemicals in the products we buy, the
food we eat and the air we breathe. o Energy Efficiency and Conservation Program - The PEP includes
the National Energy Efficiency and Conservation Program (NEECP) as
o Ensuring Safe and Sufficient Water - Clean and plentiful water is one of the centerpiece strategies in pursuing energy security of the
the cornerstone of prosperous communities. Yet as we enter the country and investigates it as a major solution to the energy
21st century, swelling demand and changing climate patterns are challenges of the future.
draining rivers and aquifers and pollution is threatening the quality
of what remains. o Natural Gas Master Plan - A complementary initiative to ensure
the country’s energy security is the review and update of the
o Fostering Sustainable Communities - The choices we make for Master Plan Study for the Development of the Natural Gas Industry
where and how we live have enormous impacts on our well-being, in the Philippines.