OSI MODEL: The OSI (Open System Interconnection) model is a layered framework for the

design of network systems that allows communication between all types of computer systems. It
consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving
information across a network.

(1) Physical Layer: The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit
stream over a physical medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the
interface and transmission medium. The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
(a) Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also
defines the type of transmission medium.
(b) Representation of bits: The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how 0s and 1s are
changed to signals).
(c) Data rate: Physical layer defines the data rate (number of bits sent per second).
(d) Synchronization of bits: The sender and receiver must be synchronized at the bit level.
(e) Line configuration: The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link.
In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
(f) Physical topology: The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology (every device is connected to
every other device), a star topology (devices are connected through a central device), a ring
topology (each device is connected to the next, forming a ring), a bus topology (every device
is on a common link), or a hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or more topologies).
(g) Transmission mode: The physical layer defines the direction of transmission between two
devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can send; the
other can only receive. In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive, but not at
the same time. In a full-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive at the same time.

(2) Data Link Layer: The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission
facility, to a reliable link. The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one node
to the next. Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:
(a) Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
(b) Physical addressing: If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the
data link layer adds address of sender and/or receiver of the frame.
(c) Flow control: If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at
which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to
avoid overwhelming the receiver.
(d) Error control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms
to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.
(e) Access control: When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.

(3) Network Layer: The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of
a packet, possibly across multiple networks (links). Other responsibilities of the network layer
include the following:
(a) Logical addressing: If a packet passes the network boundary, we need logical addresses to
find destination address.
(b) Routing: Routing is the process to make the route for packets to their final destination.

(4) Transport Layer: The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the
entire message. A process is an application program running on a host. Other responsibilities of
the transport layer include the following:
(a) Service-point addressing: Process-to-process delivery means delivery from a specific process
(running program) on one computer to a specific process (running program) on the other. The
transport layer adds port address with the message.
(b) Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each
segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination.
(c) Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented.
A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to
the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection oriented transport layer makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the
packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
(d) Flow control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
(e) Error control: The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the
receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication).

(5) Session Layer: The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization. It
establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.
Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
(a) Dialog control: The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either half duplex or full-duplex mode.
(b) Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add synchronization points, to a stream
of data. For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert
checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and
acknowledged independently.

(6) Presentation Layer: The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics
of the information exchanged between two systems. The presentation layer is responsible for
translation, compression, and encryption. Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer
include the following:
(a) Translation: Because different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation
layer is responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods. The
presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent format into
a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format
into its receiver-dependent format.
(b) Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.
Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and
sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original process to
transform the message back to its original form.
(c) Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information. Data
compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text,
audio, and video.
(7) Application Layer: The application layer enables the user to access the network. It
provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and
transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed information services.
Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:
(a) Network virtual terminal: A network virtual terminal allows a user to log on to a remote host.
(b) File transfer, access, and management: This application allows a user to access files from a
remote computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote
computer locally.
(c) Mail services: This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
(d) Directory services: This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.