1

Chapter 1

COMPLEX NUMBER

1.1 OBJECTIVE:

After going through this chapter you will able to :

 Define Complex number system and its property.
 Find the root of all quadratic equations.
 Different form of complex number.
 De moivre’s Theorem and its applications.
 Hyperbolic function and its property.
 Logarithm of complex number.

1.2 Introduction:-

We are well known with the system of real numbers. Square of any real number
are always positive i.e. x 2  0 but in some quadratic equation we get b2  4ac  0 which
is not possible in system of real numbers. To solve this kind of quadratic equation we
introduce Imaginary numbers.
All number which are roots of negative numbers are called imaginary numbers. A
unit imaginary number is i whose value is i .
Obtain form of the equation x2  1  0 Using real and imaginary numbers we
formed complex number.

Definition:-
A number of the form a  ib is called a complex number when a and b are real
numbers and i  1 is called imaginary number.
We call ‘ a ’ the real part and ‘ b ’ imaginary part of the complex number. The set of
complex number is denoted by this denoted by Z .
 The standard form of complex number is Z  a  ib .
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Note:-
1). i  1 is an imaginary number.
Higher power of I can be calculated as

 
2
i2  i  i  1  1

i3  i 2  i  1 i  i
i 4  i 2  i 2  1 1  1
Similarly i 5  i, i 6  i 2 , i 7  i 3 , i8  i 4

In general i 4 n   i   1  1, i 4 n1  i 4 n .i  i

4 n

i 4n 2  i 4n .i 2  1, i 4n3  i 4n .i 3  i

 Even powers of i are 1 and 1 and odd powers of i are i or i .

1.2.1 Equality of two complex numbers:

Two complex numbers a  ib and c  id are said to be equal if a  c and b  d , i.e.
in two complex numbers, their real part and imaginary parts are equal.
Note:- If a  ib  0 then a  0 and b  0

1.2.2 Conjugate of a complex number:-

Two complex numbers a  ib and a  ib are called complex Conjugate of each
other. The complex Conjugate of a complex number Z is denoted by Z .
Thus Z  a  ib , then Z  a  ib , a, b  R, i  1
i). Let Z  a  ib
 Z  Z   a  ib    a  ib   2a , which is real.
The sum of two complex Conjugate is a real number.

ii). If Z  a  ib then Z  a  ib
 Z .Z   a  ib  a  ib   a 2  i 2b2  a 2  b2  R
The product of two complex Conjugate is a non-negative real number.
 3

1.2.3 Geometrical representation of a complex number

We known that real number line which represent real number.
Let a complex number Z  a  ib
Where a1 , b  R and i  1

Point  a, b  represent on xy plane

Where  a, o  on x axis and  0,b  on y axis

There for point C  a, b  on xy plane

This representation of complex number by point on a xy plane is called argand’s

diagram.
Length of OC is given by

l  OC   a 2  b2
This is called modulus of Z
It is denoted by Z

 Z  a 2  b2

Where  is the angle made by seg OC with positive direction of X -axis is called
argument of Z or amplitude of Z
It is denoted by ‘arg  Z  and given by

b
arg  Z   tan 1  
a

1.3 Polar form of complex number :-

We are well known of polar coordinate system

We write x  r cos and y  r sin 

x2  r 2 cos2  and y 2  r 2 sin 2 

r  x2  y 2
 4

 y
  tan 1  
 
x
Z  x  yi be cartesian system of complex number which can return in polar form by
Z  r  cos  i sin  

Where r  Z and   arg  Z 

1.3.1 Exponential Form of complex number:-

Z  x  iy is cartesian system of represent a complex number which can be
written in exponential form as Z  rei where r  Z &  arg  Z 

1.4 Algebra of Complex numbers:

1). Addition and subtraction of complex numbers

Let Z1  a1  ib1 & Z 2  a2  ib2 be any complex number then

Z1  Z2  (a1  ib1 )  (a2  ib2 )

 (a1  a2 )  (b1  b2 )i

2). Multiplication of complex numbers.

Z1.Z 2  (a1  b1i)  a2  b2i 

 a1a2  b1b2  i(a1b2  b1a2 )

Complex numbers in a Polar Form

If Z1  r1 (cos 1  i sin 1 )

Z2  r2 (cos 2  i sin 2 )
Z1.Z2  r1.r2 [cos(1  2 )  i sin(1  2 )]

Where Z1.Z 2  r1.r2

arg  Z1.Z2   arg  Z1   arg  Z 2 

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Complex number in exponential form:-

i1
Z1  re
1 & Z 2  r2ei2

Z1Z 2  r1r2e  1
i  2 

Z1Z 2  r1r

& arg  Z1Z 2   arg Z1  arg Z 2

3). Division of complex numbers:-

Z1 ai  b1i ai  b1i
 
Z 2 a2  b2i a2  b2i


 ai  b1i  a2  b2i 
a2 2  b2 2

a1a2  b1b2   a2b1  a1b2  i

 .
a2 2  b2 2

Complex number in polar form:-

Z1 r1  cos 1  i sin 1 

Z 2 r2  cos  2  i sin  2 

r1
 cos 1   2  i sin 1   2  
r2 

Z1 r1
Where 
Z 2 r2

Z 
arg  1   arg  Z1   arg  Z 2 
 Z2 

Complex number in exponential form:-

Z1 r1ei1

Z 2 r2 ei2
 6

r1 i1 2 
 e
r2

Z1 r1
Where 
Z 2 r2

Z 
arg  1   arg  Z1   arg  Z 2 
 Z2 

Example:-1 Find the Conjugate modulus and argument it Z  5  3i .

Solution;- Conjugate of complex 5  3i is 5  3i
Now Z  5  3i
comparing with a  bi
a 5, b 3

Z  a 2  b2  25  9  34

b  3
arg  Z   tan 1    tan 1  
a 5
Z1
Example:-2 Find Z1Z 2 & , If Z1  3  2i and Z 2  4  i
Z2
Solution:- Hence Z1  3  2i and Z 2  4  i

Z1.Z2  (3  2i)(4  i)
 3(4)  (2)(1)  [(4)(2)  (3)(1)]i
 12  2  (8  3)i
 14  5i
Z1 3  2i 4  i
 
Z2 4i 4i
(3  2i)(4  i)

(4) 2  (i 2 )
4(3)  (2)(1)  [3(1)  (2)(4)[i

16  1
 7

12  2  (3  8)i

17
10  11i

17
10 11
  i
17 17

 3i 2i 
Example:-3 Express Z     in the standard form x  yi .
 3  2i 3  2i 

 3i 2i 
Solution:- Given Z   
 3  2i 3  2i 
(3  i)(3  2i)  (2  i)(3  2i)

(3)2  (2)2
[9  2  (6  3)i]  [6  2  (3  4)i]

94
7  9i  4  7i

13
11  2i

13
11 2
  i
13 13
Example:-4 If Z1 & Z 2 be any two complex numbers prove that

i). Z1  Z 2  Z1  Z 2
i.e.( The modulus of the sum of two complex numbers is less then or at the most equal
to the sum of their module.)
ii). Z1  Z 2  Z1  Z 2
i.e. ( The modulus of the difference of the complex numbers is greater than or at most
equal to the difference of their module)
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Solution:- Let P1 and P2 represent the complex number Z1 and Z 2

Z1  op1

Z 2  op2  pp1

op1 pp2 Parallelogram

And Z1  Z 2  op

Now from op1 p , op  op1  p1 p the sign of equality corresponding to the case when
o, p1 , p are collinear

Hence Z1  Z 2  Z1  Z 2

Again Z1   Z1  Z 2   Z 2  Z1  Z 2  Z 2

Thus Z1  Z 2  Z1  Z 2

Example:-5 If some of two complex number is 6 and their product is 25 then find them
Solution:- Let the two complex numbers be Z1  x  yi and Z 2  x  iy

Given Z1  Z 2  6 and Z1.Z 2  25

i.e. x  iy  x  yi  ( x  x  6  2x  6  x  3 (I)

Z1Z2  ( x  iy)( x  iy)  x 2  y 2

 (3)2  y 2  25
 y 2  25  9
 y 2  16
 y  4 (II)
From I and II

The complex number

Z1  x  yi  3  4i
Z 2  x  yi  3  4i
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Example:-6 If Z1  Z 2  Z1  Z 2 prove that the difference of the amplitude of Z1 and


Z 2 is .
2
Solution:-Let Z1  x1  iy1 , Z2  x2  iy2
Z1  Z 2  ( x1  iy1 )  ( x2  iy2 )  ( x1  x2 )  i ( y1  y2 )
Z1  Z 2  ( x1  iy1 )  ( x2  iy2 )  ( x1  x2 )  i ( y1  y2 )

Z1  Z 2  ( x1  x2 ) 2  ( y1  y2 ) 2
2

Z1  Z 2  ( x1  x2 ) 2  ( y1  y2 ) 2
2

But it is given that

Z1  Z 2  Z1  Z 2
Z1  Z 2  Z1  Z 2
2 2

( x1  x2 )2  ( y1  y2 )2  ( x1  x2 )2  ( y1  y2 )2

 x12  2 x1 x2  x2 2  y1  2 y1 y2  y2 2
 x12  2 x1 x2  x2 2  y1  2 y1 y2  y2 2
4 x1 x2  4 y1 y2
y1 y2
.  1
x1 x2

Let  and  be the amplitudes of Z1 and Z 2 and  be the difference of their

amplitude.
  
tan   tan    

tan   tan 

1  tan  .tan 
y1 y2

x1 x2

y y
1 1 . 2
x1 x2
 10

y1 y2

x1 x2

11
tan   
  tan 1  
  2

Hence difference of amplitudes Z1 and Z 2 is .
2
1  2i
Example:-7 Express in the polar form of complex number i.e. r  cos   i sin   .
1  3i
1  2i (1  2i)(1  3i)
Solution:- 
1  3i (1  3i)(1  3i)
1  6i 2  5i

1 9
5  5i

10
1 i
 
2 2
1 1
  i
2 2
2 2
1 1
r  x2  y 2      
2 2

1 1 2 1
   
4 4 4 2
1
y
   2  1
x 1
2
Then   1
  then 1 (1)
3

4
 11

1  3 3 
Z  r  cos   i sin     cos  i sin 
2 4 4 
Exercise :-1

Q-1). Express the following in the form a  ib , where a

and b are real.
2  3i 11 10
a). Ans.  i
4i 17 17

b).
 3  4i  2  i  Ans.
13 9
 i
1 i 2 2
1  2i 
3
7 1
c). Ans.  i
1  i  2  i  2 2

Q-2). Find the modulus and principal argument

3
a).  3  i Ans. 2,
6
1  2i 1 3
b). Ans. ,
1  3i 2 4

1  i 
2
3
c). Ans. 2,
1 i 4

 1 i  
d).   Ans. 1,
 1 i  4

3  2i sin 
Q-3). Solve for  such that the expression is
1  2i sin 
Imaginary.
3 3 
Ans. sin 2   or sin   or  
4 2 3
Q-4). Put the following complex numbers into polar form.
1 i  
a). Ans. cos  i sin
1 i 2 2
 12

35  5i  3 3 
b). Ans. 5  cos  i sin 
4 2  3 2i  4 4 

2  6 3i   
c). Ans. 2  cos  i sin 
5  3i  3 3
2  3i  23 
d). Ans. r  754,  tan 1   
3  7i  15 

, prove that  2   2  a 2  b2   1.
1
Q-5). If   i  
 a  ib 

Q-6). If Z1  Z 2 and amp  Z1   amp  Z 2   0 ,then show that Z1 and Z 2 are conjugate
complex numbers.

Q-7). If Z1 , Z 2 be complex numbers show that

Z1  Z 2  Z1  Z 2  2 Z1  Z 2
2 2
 2 2

1.5 De Moivre’s Theorem:-

Statement:-
If ' n ' is any real numbers are of the value of

 cos  i sin    cos n  i sin n

n

Using the De-Moivre’s theorem we can find power of complex number.

Z n   r  cos   i sin  

n

 r n  cos   i sin  
n

 r n  cos n  i sin n 
1.5.1 Root of a complex number:-
The De-Moivre’s theorem can be used to find all n roots of a complex number.
1
  
If n is any integer then  cos   i sin   n   cos  i sin 
 n n
Since cos   cos  2 m   
 13

sin   sin  2 m   
We known that  can be necessary as multiple ………of 2
Where m  0,1, 2.......  n  1

  cos   i sin  
n

1
 cos  2m     i sin  2m     n

 2 m   2 m   
 cos   i sin 
 n n
 Z  x  iy be any complex number.

x  iy  r cos  2 m     i sin  2 m   

1 1 1
 2 m   2 m   
Z n   x  iy  n  r n cos   i sin 
 n n
1.5.2 nth root of unity:-
Unity is a complex number in the polar form as
1  1  0i
 cos  i sin 
 cos  2 m     i sin  2 m   
1  cos 2 m  i sin 2 m
Taking nth root in both the side we get
1 1
1  cos 2 m  i sin 2 mn
n

2 m 2 m
cos  i sin 1
n n
Putting m  0,1,............  n 1

We get nth root of unity.

1 1
Example:-8 If 2cos   x  prove that 2cos r  x r  r .
x x
1
Solution:- Since x   2cos 
x
 14

 x2  2 x cos  1  0
Comparing with quadratic equation ax2  bx  1  0
a  1, b  2cos , x  1

b  b 2  4ac
x
2a

2cos   4cos 2   4

2
x  cos  i sin 
Taking the positive sign
x  cos  i sin 

 x r   cos   i sin  
r

 cos r  i sin r
Applying De-Moivre’s theorem
x  r   cos   i sin  
r

 cos r  i sin r
1
 xr   cos r  i sin r  cos r  i sin r
xr
 2 cos r

Example:-9 Expand cos 4 and sin 4 is terms of sin  and cos  .

Solution:- Let Z  x  iy be any complex number

in polar form Z   cos   i sin  

Z 4   cos   i sin    cos 4  i sin 4 ……………….(I)

4

De-Moivre’s theorem

 cos  i sin  
4
expanding with binomial theorem

 cos  i sin    cos4   4cos3  i sin   6cos2  i 2 sin 2   4cos  i 3 sin 3   i 4 sin 4 
4

 cos4   4sin  cos3  i  6cos2  sin 2 

 4i cos  sin 3   sin 4 
 15

  cos4   sin 4   6cos2  sin 2    i  4sin  cos3   4cos  sin 3   …(II)

Comparing I and II we get

cos 4  cos4   sin 4   6sin 2  cos2 
sin 4  4sin  cos3   4cos  sin 3 

Example:10 If n is positive integer prove that

n
   
n n
3 i  3 i  2n1 cos 
6
Solution:- let Z  3  i  r  cos   i sin  

r  3 1  2

  tan 1 ........... 
6

   r n  cos n  i sin  
n
3 i

 n n 
 2n  cos  i sin  …………….(I)
 6 6 
n n
   
n
3 i  2n  cos  i sin  ……..(II)
 6 6 
From I and II we get
n n n n
   
n n
3 i  3 i  2n cos  i sin  2n cos  i sin
6 6 6 6
n
 2n.2 cos
6
n
 2n 1 cos
6

   1
7
3
Example:-11 Use the De-Moivre’s theorem to show that  sin  i cos    i
 6 6 2 2
 16

  
7

Solution:- L.H .S   sin  i cos 

 6 6

       
7

 cos     i sin    
 2 6  2 6 

 
7

  cos  i sin 
 3 3
7 7
 cos  i sin ….by De-Moivre’s theorem
3 3
   
 cos  2    i sin  2  
 3  3
 
 cos  i sin ………. cos  2     cos
3 3
sin  2     sin 

1 3
 i
2 2
 L.H .S

   1
7
3
Hence  sin  i cos    i
 6 6 2 2

1
Example:12 Find the different value of 1  i  3 .

Solution:- Z  1 i
Comparing with a  ib we get x  1, y  1

r  x2  y 2  1  1  2
y
tan   ,    tan 1  1
x


4
  
1  i  2  cos  i sin 
 4 4
 17

1
1
     3
1  i  3   2  cos  i sin  
  4 4 
1
      3
  2 cos  2 r    i sin  2 r   
  4  4 
1
 1  1  
  2  6 cos  2 r    i sin  2 r   
 3 4 3 4 
Putting n  0,1, n. we get three value
1
  
  2  6 cos  i sin 
 12 12 
1
 9 9 
  2  6 cos  i sin 
 12 12 
1
 17 17 
  2  6 cos  i sin
 12 12 

Exercise:-2

Q-1). Prove that i).

    n n 
1  sin   i cos    1  sin   i cos   2n1 cos n    cos    ii).
n n

 4 2  4 2 
1  sin   i cos    n  n
n
 
1  sin   i cos    cos  2  n   i sin  2  n 

Q-2). If sin   sin   sin   0  cos   cos   cos  , prove that

sin 2  sin 2  sin 2  0  cos 2  cos 2  cos 2  0

 
13
1 i 3
Q-3). Find the modulus and principal value of the argument of .
 3  i
11

Q-4). If x2  2 x cos   1  0 , show that x2n  2 xn cos n  1  0 .

 18

sin 7
Q-5).  7  56sin 2   112sin  4  64sin 6 
sin 
Q-6). Prove that cos 6  32cos6   48cos4   18cos2  1.
1
Q-7). If x  cos  i sin  , show that (i). x m   2cos m
xm
1
(ii). x m   2i sin m .
xm
Q-8). Find the values for the following:-
1
i). 1  i  5
1
 1  1  
Ans 210 cos  2n    i sin  2n    where n  0,1, 2,3, 4.
 5 4 5 4 
1
ii).  i  6

 
Ans. cos  4n  1  i sin  4n  1 ,where
12 12
n  0,1, 2,3, 4,5.
2
iii). 1  i  3
1
  4n    4n   
Ans. 2 3 cos     i sin     ,where
  3 6  3 6 
n  0,1, 2.
Q-9). Prove that:
i). cos 6  cos6  15cos4  sin 2   15cos 2  sin 4   sin 6 
ii). sin 7  7cos6  sin   35cos4  sin 3   21cos2  sin 5   sin 7 
5 tan   10 tan 3   tan 5 
iii). tan 5 
1  10 tan 2   5 tan 4 

1.6 Circilar Function of a Complex Variable:-

The circular function of a real angles can be written as

 19

eiy  eiy
sin y  ,
2i
eiy  eiy
cos  and so on
2
it is there fore natural to define the circular functions of the complex variable Z by
the equations
eiz  eiz
sin Z 
2i
eiz  eiz
cos Z 
2
sin Z
tan Z 
cos Z
With cos ecZ , sec Z and cot Z as their respective reciprocals.

1.6.1 Hyperbolic Function:-

Definition:- If x be real or complex
e x  e x
i). is defined hyperbolic
2
sin of x and is written as sinh x .
e x  e x
ii). is defined as hyperbolic
2
cosine of x and is written as cosh x .
e x  e x e x  e x
 sinh x  cosh x 
2 2
e x  e x e x  e x
tanh x  x  x coth x  x  x
e e e e
2 2
sec hx  cos echx 
e  e x
x
e  e x
x

Formulas of Hyperbolic Function

1. cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1
2. sec h2 x  tanh 2 x  1
 20

3. coth 2 x  cos ech2 x  1

4. sinh  x  y   sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y

5. cosh  x  y   cosh x cosh y  sinh x sinh y

tanh x  tanh y
6. tanh  x  y  
1  tanh x.tanh y
7. sin 2 x  2sinh x cosh x
8. cos 2 x  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x
9. 2cosh 2 x 1  1  2sinh 2 x
10. sinh 3x  3sinh x  4sinh 3 x
11. cosh 3x  4cosh 3 x  3cosh x
3tanh x  tanh 3 x
12. tanh 3x 
1  3tanh 2 x
 x y  x y
13. sinh x  sinh y  2sinh   .cosh  
 2   2 
 x y  x y
14. sinh x  sinh y  2cosh   .sinh  
 2   2 
 x y  x y
15. cosh x  cosh y  2cosh   .cosh  
 2   2 
 x y  x y
16. cosh x  cosh y  2sinh   .sinh  
 2   2 

1.6.2 Inverse Hyperbolic Function:-


Example:13 Prove that sinh 1 x  log x  x 2  1 
Solution:- Let sinh 1 x  y
 x  sinh y
e y  e y
x
2
 21

 e y  e y  2 x
 e2 y  2 xe y  1  0
 This is quadratic equation in e y
a  1, b  2 x, c  1

2 x  4 x2  4
ey 
2

e y  x  x2  1
Taking positive sign we get

e y  x  x2  1
Taking log both side we get


y  log x  x 2  1 

 sinh 1 x  log x  x 2  1 
1  1 x 
Example:14 Prove that log h 1 x  log  
2  1 x 
Solution:- Let log h1 x  y
 x  tanh y
e y  e y
x
e y  e y
Applying compodendo and dividendo
1 x ey

1  x e y
1 x
 e2 y
1 x
Taking log both the side we get,
 1 x 
  log e
2y
log 
 1 x 
 22

 1 x 
2 y  log  
 1 x 
1  1 x 
y  log  
2  1 x 
1  1 x 
tanh 1 x  log  
2  1 x 

Example:15 If cosh  A  iB   x  iy then prove that

x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 and  1
cosh 2 A sinh 2 A cos 2 B sin 2 B
Solution:- Let x  iy  cosh  A  iB 
 cos B cosh A  i sin B sinh A
Equating the real and imaginary parts.
x  cos B cosh A , y  sin B sinh A ……..(I)
x y
cos B  sin B 
cosh A sinh A
But we known that
sin 2 B  cos2 B  1
2 2
 x   y 
    1
 cosh A   sinh A 
x2 y2
  1
cosh 2 A sinh 2 A
From I
x  cos B cosh A , y  sin B sinh A
x y
cosh A  , sinh A 
cos B sin B

But we known that

cosh 2 A  sinh 2 A  1
 23

x2 y2
 1
cos 2 B sin 2 B
Hence proved
Example:16 Prove that sin ix  i sin x and cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1
ei  ei
Solution:- Let sin  
2i
ei ix   ei ix 
sin ix  [taking   ix ]
2
e x  e x  e x  e x 
  i 2 
2i  2i 
 e x  e x 
 i 
 2 
 i sinh x
Now cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x
2 2
 e x  e x   e x  e x 
   
 2   2 
e2 x  2e x e x  e2 x e2 x  2e x e x  e2 x

4 4
1 2x
e  2  e2 x  e2 x  2  e2 x 
4
1
 cosh 2 x  sinh 2  1 Hence proved

1.7 Logarithm of complex number:-

If Z and W are two complex number and Z  ew then W  log Z .

Let Z  x  iy be any complex number in standard form
 It can be written as
Z  r  cos  i sin  
 24

 y
Where r  x 2  y 2 and   tan 1  
x
log  Z   log r  cos   i sin  

 log r  log  cos   i sin  

 log r  log ei

 log x 2  y 2  i

 y
 log x 2  y 2  i tan 1  
x
This value of log Z is called principal value of log Z
But in general value
LogZ  Log  x  iy 

 2in  log  x  iy 

 2in  log r  cos   i sin  

 2in  log  rei 

 2in  log r  i

  y 
 log x 2  y 2  i  2n  tan 1    .
  x 

Example.17 Find the value of log 1  i 1  i  .

Solution;- Let z  1  i can be represented in polar form

  
1  i  2  cos  i sin 
 4 4

i
 2e 4



 log 1  i   log 2.e
i
4  log 2  i
4

log 1  i   log 2  i  2m. i
4
 25

 
 log 2   2m   i
 4

Similarly,
 
log 1  i   log 2   2m   i
 4
log 1  i 1  i   log 1  i   log 1  i 

       
 log 2   2m   i   log 2   2m   i 
  4    4 

 2log 2  4m i  log 2  4 mi

 x  iy  1  y 
Example.2 Show that log    2i tan   .
 x  iy  x
Solution:- z  x  iy can be written as in polar form
z  x  iy  r cos  ir sin 
log z  log  r cos   ir sin  

 log rei
 log r  i
Similarly,
log  x  iy   log r  i

 x  iy 
log    log  x  iy   log  x  iy 
 x  iy 
 log r  i  log r  i
 2i
 y
 2i tan 1   .
x
Exercise:-3
i
Q-3).i). Find the general value of log i . Ans.  4n  1
2
 26

ii).Find the value of z If

a). cos z  2 
Ans. z  2n  i log 2  3 
b). cosh z  1 Ans. z   2n  1  i

iii).Find the general and principal value of i i .

1 cosh  2 y  cos 2 x
iv).Show that log sin  x  iy   log  i tan 1  cot x tanh y 
2 2

 a  ib  2ab
v). prove that tan i log   2 2.
 a  ib  a  b

i iz
Q-4). Show that tan 1 z  log .
2 iz

Q-5). If sin  A  iB   x  iy , prove that

x2 y2 x2 y2
  1,   1, .
cosh 2 B sinh 2 B sinh 2 A cosh 2 A

Q-6).If sin 1  x  iy   log A  iB , show that

x2 y2
2
 2
 1 ,where A2  B2  e2u .
sin u cos u
Summary:
In this chapter we have learn about
 Complex number system and properties of complex number.
 Cartesian, polar and exponential form of complex number.
 De moivre’s Theorem and its applications for finding roots of complex number.
 Hyperbolic function and its property
 Logarithm of complex number.
 27

Check your progress:-

1. If z1 and z2 are in then prove that z1  z2  z1  z2 .

2. Prove that z1  z 2  z1  z2 .

3. Find two complex numbers whose sum is 8 and product is 20 .

1  i 8  
4
3 i 1
4. Show that  .
 3  i
6
1  i  4 4

 z i  
5. If z  i  z and arg    ,find z .
 z  4
6. Find the square roots of 6  8i .

7. Show that  2  i    2  i   50cos 4 .

4 4

2
8. Show that the  4n  power of is  4  .
th n

1 i
9. If cos   cos   cos   s in  sin   sin   0 then prove that:
cos3  cos3  cos3  3cos       and
s in3  sin 3  sin 3  3sin       .

10. Prove that cosh 1  1  x   sin

2 1
x.

11. Find log  2  .

12. Find the value of log 1  i  .




 28

Chapter 2

DIFFERENTIATION OF COMPLEX NUMBER

2.1 OBJECTIVE:-

After going through this chapter you will able to:

 Know rules for differentiation of complex number.
 Analytic function.
 Cauchy-Riemann equation for the function is analytic.
 Polar and exponential form of Cauchy-Riemann equation.
 Harmonic function and harmonic conjugates.
 Conformal mapping and Bilinear mapping.

2.2 Introduction:-

In the previous chapter, we learned complex number system, now here we are
going to learn function of complex variable. Which is most important to solving a large
number of problems in integers and differentiation. Using conformal and bilinear
mapping we can represent the transformation, Rotation, Magnitude of the complex
function.

2.3 Complex Variable:-

Z denoted as complex variable defined by Z  x  iy where i  1 .
Function of a Complex number:-
The real function is defined by y  f  x  similarly for complex variable is
denoted by w  f  Z  , where w  u  iv where u is real and v imaginary part of f  Z  .
u and v are real value function of x and y . w  f  Z   f  x  iy   u  x, y   iv  x, y 
2.3.1 Limits of a Complex Function:-
 29

A function f  Z  is said to tends to limit l as Z approaches to point Z 0 ,If for

every real   0 their exist   0 such that f  Z   l   whenever Z  Z0   .

It can be written as lim f  Z   l .

Z  Z0

2.3.2 Continuity of a Complex Function:-

Function f  Z  is said to be continues at Z  Z 0 if lim f  Z   f  Z 0  .
Z  Zo

Further f  Z  is said to be continues in any region R of the Z -plane if it is continues at

every point of that region.

Note:- if f  Z   u  x, y   iv  x, y  is continues at Z  Z 0 then u  x, y  and v  x, y  are

also continues at x  x0 and y  y0 conversely.

If u  x, y  and v  x, y  are continues at x0 and y0 then f  Z  will be continues

Z  Z0 .
2.3.4 Differentiation of Complex Variable:-
Let w  f  Z  be a single value function then the derivative of w  f  Z  is
f  Z   f  Z0 
defined as f '  Z   lim provide the limit exist and hence the same value
Z  Z0 Z  Z0
for all the different ways in which Z  Z 0 .
1
Example:-1). If f  Z   expressed in term of function of u  x, y  and v  x, y  .
Z
1
Solution:- Let f  Z  
Z
If Z  x  iy then Z  x  iy
1 x  iy
 f  Z   f  x  iy   
x  iy x  iy
x  iy

 x    iy 
2 2

x  iy

x2  y 2
 30

x y
 i 2
x y
2 2
x  y2
 u  x, y   iv  x, y 

x y
 u  x, y   and v  x, y   2 .
x y
2 2
x  y2

2.4 Analytical Function:-

A single valued function f  Z  is said to be analytic at the point Z 0 . If it

possesses a derivative at Z 0 and at every point in some neighborhood of Z 0 .

A function f  Z  is said to be analytic in a region R of the Z  plane . If it is

analytic at every point of R .
An analytic function is also referred to as a regular function or a holomorphic
function.
A point, at which a function f  Z  is not analytic, viz., does nor process a
derivative, Is called singular point or singularity of f  Z  .

2.4.1 Cauchy-Riemann Equations:-

Theorem:-
If the function f  Z   u  x, y   iv  x, y  is analytic in a region R of the Z -plane.

u u v v u v u v
Then (i). , , and exist and (ii).  and   at every point in their
x y x y x y y x
region.

Note:-
1. The two equations given in (ii). Above are called Cauchy-Riemann
Equations which will be hereafter to as C.R .equations.

2.When f  Z  is analytic f '  Z  exist and is given by L , Viz, by L1 or L2 .

Thus f '  Z   ux  ivx or u y  iv y . Where ux , u y , vx , v y denote the partial derivatives.

 31

Theorem:-
The single valued continuous function w  f  Z   u  x, y   iv  x, y  is analytic
in a region R of the Z  plane. (i). If the four partial derivatives ux , u y , vx and v y exist,
(ii).They are continuous and (iii).They satisfy the C.R.equations. ux  v y and u y  vx at
every point of R .
Example:-2 Show that the following function is not analytic: f  z   z z

Solution:- Let z  x  iy then z  x 2  y 2

 f  z    x  iy  x 2  y 2

 x x 2  y 2  iy x 2  y 2

 u  x, y   iv  x, y 

 u  x, y   x x 2  y 2 v  x, y   y x 2  y 2

u 1
  ux  x 2x  x2  y 2
x 2 x y
2 2

2x2
  x2  y 2
2 x y
2 2

2 x2  2 x2  2 y 2

2 x2  y 2

4x2  2 y 2 2 x2  y 2
 
2 x2  y 2 x2  y 2
v y.2 y
 v   x2  y 2
y 2 x y
2 2

2 y2  2x2  2 y 2

2 x2  y 2

x2  2 y 2

x2  y 2
 32

u 2 x 2  y 2 v x2  y 2
 and 
x x2  y 2 y x2  y 2
u v

x y
 It does not satisfy the C  R equations.
 the function f ( z ) is not analytic.
Example:-3 Determine whether the following function is analytic and if then find the
1
derivative. f  z   .
z
Solution:- Let z  x  iy
1 1 x  iy
 f  z   
z x  iy x  iy
x  iy

x2  y 2
x y
 i 2
x y22
x  y2
x y
u  x, y   v  x, y  
x  y2
2
x  y2
2

ux 
x 2

 y2  x  2x 
vy 
x 2

 y2    y  2 y 

x  x 
2 2
2
 y2 2
 y2

x2  y 2  2x2  x2  y 2  2 y 2
 
x  x 
2 2
2
 y2 2
 y2

y 2  x2 y 2  x2
 
x  x 
2 2
2
 y2 2
 y2

ux  v y

2 yx 2 xy
uy  vx 
x  x 
2 2 2
2
y 2
 y2

 u y  vx
 33

 C  R equation can satisfied by f  z  except at z  0 .

 f '  z   u y  ivx

y 2  x2 2 xy
f ' z   i
x 2 2
 x 
2
2
y 2
 y2



 x 2  2ixy  y 2 
x 2
y 
2 2

 x 2  2 xyi  i 2 y 2

x 
2
2
 i2 y2

  x  iy 
2

 x  iy 2  x  iy 2
1

 x  iy 2
1

z2
2.4.2 C-R.equations in Polar co-ordinates:-
When Z is expressed in polar form rei , we have already observed that u and v ,
where w  u  iv ,are functions of r and  . In this case we shall derive the C.R.equations
satisfied by u  r ,  and v  r ,  , assuming that w  u  r ,   iv  r ,  is analytic.

Theorem:-
If the function w  f  Z   u  r ,   iv  r ,  is analytic in a region R of the Z -
u u v v
plane, Then (i). , , and exist and (ii).they satisfy the C.R.equations., viz.
r  r 
u 1 v v 1 u
 and  at every point in that region.
r r  r r 
Note :-
1). Where f  Z  is analytic f '  Z  exist and is given by L , viz., by L1 or L2 .

Thus when f  Z   u  r ,   iv  r , 
 34

1
f '  Z   ei  ur  ivr  or ei  v  iu  .
r
Where ur , u , vr , v denote the partial derivatives.

2). If w  f  Z  , then

dw  w
 ei .  u  iv   ei
dz r r
dw i
Also   ei  u  iv 
dz r
i 
 ei  u  iv 
r 
i w
  ei .
r 
Example:-4 Show that the f  z   sin z is analytic and find their derivatives.

Solution:- f  z   sin 2  sin  x  iy 

 sin x.cos iy  cos x.sin iy

 sin x.cosh y  i cos x.sinh y
u  sin x.cosh y v  cos x.sinh y
du dv
 cos x.cosh y   sin x.sinh y
dx dx
du dv
 sin x.sinh y  cos x.cosh y
dy dy
 ux  v y and u y  vx .

 f  z   sin z is analytic by C  R equation condition is satisfied.

 f '  z   ux  ivx

 cos x.cosh y  sin x.sinh y

 cos  x  iy 
 cos z
 35

Example:-5 Show that the f  z   e z is analytic and find their derivatives.

Solution:-Let z  x  iy

f  z   e z  e x iy

 e x  eiy
 e x  cos y  i sin y 

 e x .cos y  ie x sin y

u  e x cos y v  e x sin y

ux  e x cos y v y  e x cos y

u y  e x sin y vx  e x sin y

 ux  v y and v y  ux

Hence C  R equation is satisfied

f '  z   ux  ivx

 e x cos y  ie x sin y

 e x  cos y  i sin y 

 e x  eiy  e xiy  e z
Example:-6 Show that the f  z   cosh z  cos iz is analytic and find their derivatives.

Solution:- f  z   cos  ix  y 

 cosh x.cos y  i sinh x.sin y

u  cosh x.cos y v  sinh x.sin y
ux  sinh x.cos y vx  cosh x.sin y
u y   cos x.sin y vy  sinh x.cos y

C  R equation is satisfied
ux  v y and vx  u y

 f '  z  is quadratic equation when

 36

f '  z   ux  ivx

 sinh x.cos y  i cosh x.sin y

 sin  x  iy   sinh z

Example:-7 Show that f  z   ze z is analytic and find the derivatives.

Solution:- f  z    x  iy  e x iy

f  z    x  iy  e x  cos y  i sin y 

u  e x  x cos y  y sin y  ; v  e x  x cos y  y cos y 

ux  e x  x cos y  y sin y   e x cos y

u y  e x   x sin y  y sin y  sin y 


vx  e x x sin y  y cos y  e x sin y 
vy  e x  x cos y  cos y  y sin y 

 by C  R equation
ux  v y and u y  vx

 f  z   ze z is analytic can be differentiated as

f  z   ze z

f '  z   ze z  e z  e z  z  1
2.4.4 Properties of Analytic Functions:-
Definition:-
 2  2
  0 is known as Laplace equation in two dimensions.
x 2 y 2

2 2
 is called the Laplacian operator and is denoted as  2 .
x 2 y 2
Note:-
A real function of two real variables x and y that processes continuous second
order partial derivatives and that satisfies Laplace equation is called a harmonic
function.
 37

If u and v are harmonic functions such that u  iv is analytic, then each is called
the conjugate harmonic function of the other.
Example:-8 Show that the function u  x 2  y 2  2 y is harmonic.

Solution;- u2  x 2  y 2  2 y

u  2u
 2x  2 …………(I)
x x 2
u  2u
 2 y  2  2 ………..(II)
y y 2
Adding the equation (I) and (II), we get,
 2u  2u
  22  0
x 2 y 2

 2u  2u
 2  2 0
x y
Hence function is harmonic.
Example:-9 Show that the function u  x, y   4 xy  3x  2 is harmonic construct the
corresponding analytic function.
Solution:- u  4 xy  3x  2

u  2u
 4x  3  0 …………(I)
x x 2
u  2u
 4x  0 …………(II)
y y 2
Adding the equation (I) and (II), we get,
u2 y u2 y
 0
ux 2 uy 2
Hence function is harmonic.
u v u v
dv  dx  dy or  dx  dy
x y y x
 4 xdx   4 y  3 dy
Integrating with sides.
 38

v   4 xdx   4 y  3dy

 2 x2  2 y 2  3 y  C .
y
Example:-10 Prove that u  x 2  y 2 and v  are harmonic function
x  y2
2

of  x, y  but are not harmonic conjugates.

Solution:- u  x2  y 2

u  2u
 2x  2 …………(I)
x x 2
u  2u
 2 y  2 ………..(II)
y y 2
Adding the equation (I) and (II), we get,
 2u  2u
  22  0
x 2 y 2

 2u  2u
  0
x 2 y 2

Hence function u  x, y  is harmonic.

y
v
x  y2
2

v 2 xy  2v 6 x 2 y  2 y 3
  ……….(I)
x
  x 2  
2 3
x2  y 2 x2  y 2

v x2  y 2  2v 6 x 2 y  2 y 3
  ……(II)
y
  y 2  
2 2 3
x2  y 2 x y
2

Adding the equation (I) and (II), we get,

 2v  2v 6 x 2 y  2 y 3 6 x 2 y  2 y 3
   0
x 2 y 2 x y
2
 2 3

x y
2

2 3

 39

 2v  2v
  0
x 2 y 2

Hence function v  x, y  is harmonic.

u v u v
But  and 
x y y x
 Therefore u and v are not harmonic conjugates.

Milne Thomson Method:

By this method f  z  is directly constructed without finding v and the method is
given below;
Since z  x  iy and z  x  iy

zz zz
 x ,y
2 2i
f  z   u  x, y   iv  x, y  ……………………(1)

zz zz zz zz

f  z  u  ,   iv  , 
 2 2i   2 2i 
This relation can be regarded as a formal identify in two independent variables z
and z replacing z with z ,we get
f  z   u  z, o   iv  z, o 

Which can be obtained by replacing x by z and y by 0 in (1)

We have f  z   u  iv

u v u v
f ' z    i , f ' z    i ……….( C  R
x x y y
equation)
u u
If we write  1  x, y  ,  2  x, y 
x y
f '  z   1  x, y   i2  x, y  or f '  z   1  z, o   i2  z, o 

On integrating f  z    1  z, o dz  i  2  z, o dz  C …….[when u is given]

 40

f  z    1  z, o  dz  i  2  z, o dz  C ………[when v is given]

v v
When  1  x, y   , 2  x, y   .
y x

sin 2 x
Example:-11. If u  , find f  z  .
cosh 2 y  cos 2 x
sin 2 x
Solution:- Here u 
cosh 2 y  cos 2 x

u  cosh 2 y  cos 2 x  2cos 2 x  sin 2 x  2sin 2 x 


x  cosh 2 y  cos 2 x 2
2cosh 2 y cos 2 x  2(cos 2 2 x  sin 2 2 x)

(cosh 2 y  cos 2 x)2
2cosh 2 y cos 2 x  2
  1 ( x, y)
(cosh 2 y  cos 2 x) 2
u  sin2 x(2sinh 2 y)

y (cosh 2 y  cos 2 x) 2
2sin 2 x sinh 2 y
  2 ( x, y )
(cosh 2 y  cos 2 x) 2

f ( z )   1 ( z,0)  i2 ( z,0)dz  c


 2 cos 2 z  2 dz  c  2 1 1
 1  cos 2 z dz  c  2 2cos2 z dz  c
1  cos 2 z  2

  sec2 zdz  c  tan z  c .

Example:-12. Find the analytic function f (Z )  u  iv, given that v  e x ( x sin y  y cos y)
.
Solution:- Here v  e x ( x sin y  y cos y)
v
 v  e x ( x sin y  y cos y )  e x sin y   2 ( x, y )
x
v
 v  e x ( x cos y  cos y  y sin y )   1 ( x, y )
y
 41

f (Z )    1 ( z,0)  i 2 ( z,0)dz  c

  e z ( z  1)  i(0) dz  c

 ( z  1)e z   e z dz  c  ze z  c  ( z  1)e z  e z  c .

Exercise-2.1

1).Determine which of the following are analytic:

i). x 2  iy 2 Ans. Analytic at all points y  x .


ii). 2xy  i x 2  y 2  Ans. Not analytic.

x  iy
iii). Ans. Not analytic.
x2  y 2

iv). xy  iy 2 Ans. Yes, analytic at origin only.

x iy dw
2). Show that the function w   2 is an analytic function. Find .
x y 2
2
x y 2
dz
1
Ans.  2
z
3). Determine the analytic function f  z   u  iv , given that

3u  2v  y 2  x 2  16 xy
4).Show that the following functions are harmonic and determine
the conjugate functions..
i). u  2 x 1  y  Ans. v  x 2  y 2  2 y  C

ii). u  2 x  x3  3xy 2 Ans. v  2 y  3x 2 y  y3  C

5). Determine the analytic function, whose real part is

i). 2 x 1  y  Ans. iz 2  2 z  C

ii). log x 2  y 2 Ans. log z  C

 42

iii). 3x2 y  2 x2  y3  2 y 2 Ans. 2z 2  iz 3  C

iv). e x  x sin y  y cos y  

Ans. i ze z  C 
6). Show that the function u  x2  y 2  2 xy  2 x  y  1is harmonic. Find
the conjugate harmonic function v and express u  iv as a
function of z where z  x  iy .

Ans. 1  i  z 2   2  i  z  1

7). Construct an analytic function of the form f  z   u  iv , where v is

 y
v  tan 1   , x  0, y  0.
x
Ans. log cz .

8). Show that f  z   z  2 z is not analytic anywhere in the complex plane.

9). If f  z  is an analytic function with constant modulus, show that

f  z  is constant.
10). Show that each of the following function is not analytic at any point.
2
(i). z (ii). z

2.5 Conformal Mapping:

Mapping
A continues real function y  f  x  can be represented graphically by a curve in
the cartesian xy  plane. Similarly A continues real function Z  f  x, y  is represented
graphically by a surface in three dimensional spaces.

Definition:-
A transformation that preserves angles between every pair of curves through a
point both in magnitude and sense is said to be conformal at that point. A transformation
under which angles between every pair of curve through a point are preserved in
magnitude, but altered in sense is said to be isogonal at that point.
 43

Theorem:-
If f  Z  is analytic and f '  Z   0 in a region R of the Z  plane ,then the
mapping performed by w  f  Z  is conformal at all points of R .

2.5.1 Some simple transformations

1). Translation:
The transformation w  z  c ,where c is a complex constant, represents a
transformation.
Let z  x  iy, w  u  iv and c  a  ib
Then u  iv  x  iy  a  ib
 u  xa and v  y b .
This two equations may be called the transformation equations.

2). Magnification :
The transformation w  cz , where c is a complex constant, represents
magnification.
The transformation equation is given by
u  iv  c  x  iv 

i.e. u  cx and v  cy

 The image of the point  x, y  is the point  cx, cy  .

Hence the size of any figure in the Z  plane is magnified c times,but there will
be no change in the shape and orientation. Thus transformation also transforms circles
into circles.

3). Magnification and Rotation:

The transformation w  cz , where c is a complex constant, represents both magnification
and rotation.
Let z  rei , w  Rei andc  pei ,

Then 
Rei  pei  re  
i

  pr  .e 
i   
 44

 The transformation equations are

R  pr and     .
Thus the point  r ,  in the Z  plane is mapped onto the point  pr.    . This
means that the magnitude of the vector representing Z is magnified by p  c and its
direction is rotated through angle   amp  c  . Hence the transformation consists of a
magnification and a rotation. Clearly circles in the Z  plane are mapped onto circle by
this transformation. Also every region in the Z  plane is mapped onto a similar region
by this transformation.

4). Magnification, Rotation and Translation:

The general linear transformation w  az  b , where a and b are complex
constants, represents magnification, rotation and translation. The transformation
w  az  b can be considered as the combination of the two simple transformations
w1  az and w  w1  b .

w1  ac represents magnification by a and rotation through amp  a  .

w  w1  b represents translation by the vector representing b .

Thus any figure in the Z  plane will undergo magnification, rotation and
translation by the transformation w  az  b . In particular circles will be mapped into
circles by this transformation.

5). Inversion and Reflection:

1
The transformation w  represents inversion with respect to the unit circle
z
z  1 , followed by reflection in the real axis.

[The inverse of a point P with respect to a circle with centre O and radius r is
defined as the point P ' on OP such that OP.OPr  r 2 ]
Let z  rei and w  Rei
1 1
Then w gives Rei  ei
z r
 The transformation equations are
1
R and   .
r
 45

Example:-13. Find the image of the triangle with vertices at i,1  i,1  i in the

z -plane under the T  z   3z  4  2i .

Solution:- Since z  x  iy
T  z   3  x  iy   4  2i
 3x  i3 y  4  2i

  3x  4   i  3 y  2 

T  i   T  x  0, y  1  3  0   4  i 3 1  2 
 4i
T  i  1  T  x  1, y  1  3 1  4  i  3 1  2 
 7i
T  i  1  T  x  1, y  1   3  4   i  3  2  
 7  5i
Thus the image of the triangle whose vertices i, 1+i, 1-i in the z-plane under the T are
4  i , 7  i and 7  5i .
Example:-14. Find the image of the circle z  1  1in the complex plane under the
1
mapping w  .
z
1
Solution:- Given that w 
z
1
.e. u  iv 
x  iy
x  iy
 u  iy 
x2  y 2
x y
u and v  2
x y
2 2
x  y2

Now the circle z  1  1.

x  iy  1  1
 46

 x  12  y 2  1
x2  y 2  2 x  0

x2  y 2  2 x
x 1

x y22
2
1
u   2u  1  0 .
2
1
Thus the image of the circle under the mapping w  is 2u  1  0 .
z

iz
Example:-15. Find the mapping of x -axis under the transformation w 
iz
on to the w -plane.
iz
Solution:- Here w
iz
z  x  iy
i  x  iy
u  iv 
i  x  iy
 x  i  y  1 x  i  y  1
 
x  i  y  1 x  i  y  1

 x 2  2ix  y 2  1

x 2   y  1
2

Comparing real and imaginary parts

 x2  y 2  1 2x
u ,v 
x 2   y  1 x 2   y  1
2 2

an x  axi  y  0

1  x2 2x
u and v  2
x 1
2
x 1
 47

1 u 1 u
x2  x
1 u 1 u
1 u
2
 1 u 
2x
v 2  2  u 1  u 
x 1 1 u 1
1 u
v2  1  u 2  u 2  v2  1
Which represent a circle whose centre is origin and radius is 1.

Bilinear Transformation (Mobius Transformation)

az  b
w ad  bc  0 ……………….(I)
cz  d
(I).is known as bilinear Transformation
dw
If ad  bc  0 then  0 i.e. Transformation is conformal.
dz
dw  b
From (I). z ……………………(II)
cw  a
a
This is also bilinear except w  .
c
Note:- From (I). every point of z -plane is mapped into unique
d
point in w -plane except z   .
c
From (II).every point of w -plane is mapped into unique point in z -plane except
a
w .
c

Example:-16. Find the image of the points 0, 1, i,  under the linear
3z  1
transformation f  z   .
z i
3z  1
Solution:- Hence f  z 
z i
 48

3  0  1 1
If z  0,  f  0    i
0i i
3  1  1 4 1  i 4  4i
if z  1  f  1      2  2i
1  i 1  i 1  1 2
3  i   1
if z  i  f  i   
i  i
3  1 3
if z    f      3
i 1
 The image of the points 0, 1, i,  is an i, 2  2i, ,3 respectively
3z  1
under f  z   .
z i
Exercise:2.3

1
1. Find the image of z  2i  2 under the mapping w  .
z
1
2. For the mapping w  , find the image of the family of circles x 2  y 2  ax ,
z
where a is real.
3. Discuss the conformal transformation w  z .
4. Find the transformation which maps the points 1, i,1 of the z-plane onto 1, i.  1 of
the w-plane respectively.
5. Find the bilinear transformation which maps
(i). The points z  1, i, 1 into the points w  0,1,  .
(ii). The points z  0, 1,  into the points w  1, 2, i, i .
i 1  z 
6. Show that the transformation w  maps the circle z  1 into the real axis
1  z 
of the w -plane and the interior of the circle z  1 into the upper half of the w -
plane.
7. Find the bilinear transformation that maps the point z1  2, z2  i, z3  2 into the
points w1  1, w2  i and w3  1 respectively.
 49

8. Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points z  1, i, 1 into the points
w  i, o, i hence find the image of z  1 .

1 z
9. verify that the equation w  maps the exterior of the circle z  1 into the
1 z
upper half plane v  0 .

Summary:-
In this chapter we have learn about
 Differentiation of complex number.
 Analytic function and harmonic function.
 Cauchy-Riemann equation for singular condition for analytic function.
 Conformal mapping and Bilinear mapping.

Check your process:-

z i
1. If f  z   .Find f '  z  at z  i .
z i
z sin z
2. Find f '  z  at f  z   .
ez  z2
1
3. f  z  . Find f '  z  and determine where f  z  is analytic.
1 z
4. Show that f  z   z 3  2 is an analytic function and hence find f '  z  .

5. Show that f  z   z is not analytic.

6. Determine where f  z   log z is analytic and find f '  z  .

7. Let f  z   y  ix . Find the points where f is analytic and also find its derivative.

8. Show that u  x3  3xy 2 is a harmonic function.

9. For the above u , find v such that f  z   u  x, y   iv  x, y  will be analytic function.

10. Prove that f '  z   ux  z,0   iu y  z,0  if f  z  is an analytic function.

 50

11. Use Milne-Thomson method to find f  z   u  x, y   iv  x, y 

sin 2 x
If u  .
cosh 2 y  cos 2 x
12. Use Milne-Thomson method to find f  z   u  x, y   iv  x, y 

u  x sin x.cosh y  y cos x.sinh y. .

13. If u  3x  y the find v such that f  z   u  iv ia analytic.

 
14. Find the values of a, b, c if f  z   x 2  y 2  a  i  cxy  6 y  is analytic.

15. Show that u  x  xy is harmonic. Find its harmonic conjugate and the
corresponding analytic function.
z
16. Find and classify the singularities of the following function. (i). ,(ii).
1  cos z
ez  4 z3
and (iii). .
z2 1  cos z
17. Find the image of the square whose vertices are 1,1  i, i and 0 translation
T  z   z 1 i .
18. Find the image of the unit circle whose centre is at origin under the translation
T  z  z  2  i .

19. Find the image of unit circle with center at origin under the rotation map R  z   az
1 i
,where a  .
2
20. Find the image of the rectangle with vertices at  0,0  , 1,0  , 1, 2  and  0, 2  under the
z
magnification map M  z   .
2
21. Find the image of the rectangle with vertices at O  0,0  , A  2,0  , B  2,1 and C  0,1
under the linear function f  z   2iz  1  i  .

22. Find the image of (i).line given by x  y  1  0 ,(ii).circle unit circle with centre at
1
1, 0  under the inversion map w  .
z
1
23. Find the image of a circle x2  y 2  2 x  2 y  1  0 under the inversion map w  .
z
 51

2z 1
24. Find the image of the points 0,1, i,  under the bilinear transformation f  z   .
z i
25. Find the image of the unit circle with centre at origin under the bilinear
z 3
transformation f  z   , also find the image of the interior of the circle.
z 1
26. Find the image of the unit circle with centre at origin under the bilinear
z 3
transformation f  z   , also find the image of the interior of the circle,
z 3
.i.e. z 1 .

27. Find the bilinear transformation which maps 0, i, and  to 1, 0 and 1 .


 52

Chapter 3

CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTION.

3.1 Objectives

After going through this chapter you will able to:

 Salving complex integration using line integral.
 Singularities and its type.
 Poles of function and order of the pole.
 Residues theorem.
 Evaluator Integral using Residues Theorem.

3.2 Introduction:-

In previous chapter, we learned about differentiation, Now In this chapter we

introduce integration of complex number. To evaluate complex integration We used line
integral with different path. Residues theorem is also help to salve the complex integral
using complex integral we can evaluate some special type of real integral.

3.3 Complex Integration

Consider a continuous function f  z  of the complex variable z  x  iy defined at all

points of a curve C having end points A and B divide C into n parts at the points.
A  P0  z0  , P1  z1  ,...........Pi  zi  ,.......Pn  zn   B
n
Let  zi  zi  zi  1 and  i be any point on the are Pi 1 Pi . The limit of the sum  f  i   z
i
i 1
as n   in such a way that the length of the chord  zi approaches zero ,is called the line
integral of f  z  taken along the path C ,i.e.

 c f  z  dz.
 53

Writing fz  u  x, y   iv  x, y  and putting that dz  dx  idy ,

 c f  z  dz  c udx  vdy   i  c  vdx  udy 

Which shows that the evaluation of the integral of a complex function can be
reduced to the evaluation of two line integrals of real function.

3.1.1 Line Integrals:-

Line integrals are integrals of functions defined over curves. he curves my be
plane curves or curves in space.
In case of real variable the line integral of f along the curve C given by
 f  x, y dx this is called integrals of f along the curve C .
C

But in case of a complex function f  z  the path of definite integral  f  z  dz

C
along the curve C .
Its value depends upon the path of integration i.e.(curve C )

1i
  x  y  ix dz along the straight line from z  0 to z  1  i .
2
Example:-1. Evaluate
0

Solution:- the line joining to the z  0 and z  1  i i.e.  0, 0  and 1,1 in xy plane.

Equation of line passing through the plane .  0, 0  and 1,1 is

yx
Now z  x  iy
 x  ix
 1  i  x

z  1  i  x

dz  1  i  dx
1i
  x  y  ix dz    x  x  ix  1  i  dx
1
2 2

0 0

1
 1  i   ix 2  dx
0
 54

1
 x3 
 i 1  i   
3
i
 1  i  .
3

2i 2
x
Example-2. Evaluate   z  dz along the line y  .
0 2
x
Solution:- Along the line y 
2
i.e. x  2 y

i.e. z  2  i y

i.e. z  2  iy
dz   2  i  dy

2i 2 1
I 2   z  dz    2  i  y 2  2  i dy
2

0 0

1
 y3 
 52  i 
 3 0
5
 2  i .
3

2 4i
Example:-3. Evaluate   z  dz along the parabola y  x2 .
0

Solution:- z  x  iy , z  x  iy

Along the path y  x 2  dy  2 xdx

dz  dx  i 2 xdx where z  0 , z  2  4i
0  x  2
2  4i
  z  dz    x  ix   dx  i 2 xdx 
2
2

0 0
 55

  x  ix  1  i 2 x  dx
2
2

 
2
   x  2 x3  i x 2  2 x  dx
0
 
2 2
 x2 2 x4   x3 2 x 2 
   i  
2 4 0  3 2 0

8 
  2  8  i   4
3 
4
 10  i .
3

Zeros of an analytic function

3.4 Singularities of an analytic function:-

We have already defined a singular point of a function as the point at which the
function causes to be analytic.
(i).Isolated singularity:- it z  a is a singularity of f  z  such that f '  z  is analytic at
each point in its neighborhood (I,e. there exists a circle with centre a which has no other
singularity),then z  a is called an Isolated singularity
(ii).Removable singularity:-
If Lt f  z  exists finitely, then z  a is a removable singularity.
Note:-from the above discussion it is clear that
I. If lim f  z  exist then z  z0 is a removable singularity.
z  z0

This type of singularity can be removed by suitably defining f  z  at z0 .

II. lim f  z    if z is a pole.

z  z0

sin z sin z
Example:-4 Show that f  z   is not defined at z  0 but lim  1 .hence z  0 is
z z 0 z

a removable singularity of f  z  .
 56

Laurent expansion of f  z  is

sin z 1  z3 z5 
f  z    z    .......
z z 3! 5! 
z2 z4
 1   ........
3! 5!
It does not contain negative powers of z .
sin z
The singularity is removed if we define f  z    0 at z  0 .
z

(iii). Poles:-
If all the negative powers of  z  a  in (i). after the nth are missing, then the
singularity at z  a is called a Pole of order n.
A pole of first order is called a simple pole.

(iv).Essential singularity:-
If the number of negative powers of  z  a  in (1) is infinite, then z  a is called
an Essential singularity. In this case Lt f  z  does not exists.

 1 
Example:-5. Show that f  z    z  2  sin   has isolated essential singularity at
 z 1 
z  1,
Solution:- We have
 1 1 1 
f  z    z  1  3     .........
 z  1 3! z  1 5! z  1
3 5


1 1 3 3
 1   .......    .....
3! z  1 5! z  1 z  1 3! z  13
2 4

The principal part has infinite number of items. Hence f  z  has essential isolated
singularity at z  1 .
 57

Note:-
1. A function which is analytic everywhere in the z -plane is called an entire
function or integral function. An entire function can be expressed as a Taylor’s
series where results of convergence is  and conversely a power series whose
radius of convergence is  is an entire or integral function.
For example, function e z ,sin z,cos hz are entire function.
2. A function which is analytic everywhere in the finite z -plane except at a finite
number of poles is called a memorphic function.
1 3z
For example, f  z   , f  z  are memorphic function,
z  z  1  z  1  z  2 3
2 2

since they have finite number of poles.

3.5 Residues:-

The coefficient of  z  a 1 in the expansion of f  z  around an isolated

singularity is called the residues of f  z  at that point. Thus in the Laurent’s series
expansion of f  z  around z  a i.e.

f  z   a0  a1  z  a   a2  z  a   .........  a1  z  a   a2  z  a   ........, the

2 1 2

residues of f  z  at z  a is a1 .

1
 Res f  a    f  z dz
2 i C
i.e. C f  z dz  2 i Res f  a  .

1.5.1 Residues Theorem:-

If f  z  is analytic in a closed curve C except at a finite number of singular points
within C , then C f  z dz  2 i  (sum of the residues at the singular points within C )
Let us surround each of the singular points a1 , a2 ,...........an by a small circle each
that it enclose no other singular points (fig.20.21). then those circles C1 , C2 ,...........Cn
together with C , form a multiply connected region in which f  z  is analytic.
 58

 Applying Cauchy’s theorem, we have

C f  z dz  C f  z dz  C f  z dz  ..........C f  z dz

1 2 n

 2 i [Res f  a1  +Res f  a2  +…….+Res f  an  ] which is the desired result.

Calculation of Residues:-
1). If f  z  has a simple pole at z  a , then

Res f  a   Lt [ z  a  f  z ]

2). If f  z  has a pole of order n at z  a , then

1  d n1  
 n1  z  a  f  z   
n
fa 
n  1!  dz z a

Example:-6 Evaluate the following integral using residue theorem

4  3z 3
 z  z  1 z  2  dz where c is the circle z 
2
.
c

Solution:- The poles of the function f  z  are given by equating the

denominator to zero.
z  z  1 z  2   0, z  0,1, 2

The function has poles at z  0, z  1 and z  2 of which the given

circle encloses the pole at z  0 and z  1 .
Residue of f  z  at the simple pole z  0 is

 lim z
 4  3z   lim 4  3z
z 0 z  z  1 z  2  z 0  z  1 z  2 

40
 2
 0  1 0  2 
Residue of f  z  at the simple pole z  1 is

4  3z 4  3z 43
 lim  z  1  lim   1
z 0 z  z  1 z  2  z 0 z  z  2  11  2 
 59

By Cauchy’s integral formula

 f  z dz  2 i  sum of the residue within c

 2 i   2  1  2 i .

Example:-7. Determine the poles of the function and find the order of the poles.
1
f  z 
z  z  i
2

Solution:- hence f  z  has two poles one z  i and the another is z  0

Order of the pole z  i is one

i.e. z  i is simple pole
order of the pole z  0 is two

Example:-8. Find the residues of the function at their respective pole.

f  z   z 3eiz

eiz
Solution:- f  z 
z3
Hence f  z  has pole z  0 whose order is 3 .

1 d2  3
Re s f  z   lim  z  f  z 
z 0 z 0 2i dz 2 

z0
1 d2
 lim 2 eiz
2 z 0 dz
1
  lim eiz
2 z 0
1 1
 1   .
2 2
Example:-9. Find the residues for the function at their respective pole.
1
f  z 
z 2

 1  z  1
 60

1
Solution:- here f  z  
z 2

 1  z  1

f  z  has three simple poles z  i, z  i and z  1 .

1
Re s f  z   lim  z  i 
z i z i  z  i  z  i  z  1
1
 lim
z i  z  i  z  i 
1

2i  i  1

1

2i  2i
2

1 2  2i
 
2  2i 2  2i
2  2i

44
2  i  1

8
i 1

4
1
Re s f  z   lim  z  i 
z  i z  i  z  i  z  i  z  1
1
 lim
z  i  z  i  z  1
1

2i  i  1

1

2i  2i
2

1 2  2i
 
2  2i 2  2i
2  2i

44
 61

1  i

4
1
Re s f  z   lim  z  1 
z 1 z 1
 z  1  z 2  1
1
 lim
z 1 z  1
2

1

2
i 1 1  i 1
Re s  , Re s f  z   , Re s f  z   .
z i 4 z i 4 z 1 2

z2
Example:-10. Evaluate  dz by residues theorem , where C is the Circle
 z  12  z  2 
z  2.5 .

z2
Solution:- Here f  z  
 z  12  z  2 
The function has a simple pole at z  2 and f  z  has a pole of order of 2
at z  1 .
Re s f  z   lim  z  2  f  z 
z 2 z 2

z2 4
 lim 
z 2
 z  1 2
9

d z2 
Re s f  z   lim   z  1
2

z 1 z 1  dz
  z  2  z  1 2


z2  4z 5
 lim 
z 1
 z  2 2
9

Since f  z  is analytic an z  2.5 .

 All points inside except the planes z  2 and z  1 .
By the residues theorem
 62

 f  z  dz  2 i  Re s f  z   Re s f  z  
22 z 1 
C

4 5
 2 i   
9 9
 2 i .

dz
Example:-11.  cosh z where C is z  2 .
C

1 2
Solution:- here f  z   z z
cosh z e  e
2e z
f  z   2z
e 1
Pole of f  z  is given by

e2 z  1  0
e z  i
 
z i and z   i
2 2
Both pole line within z  2

 
 2e z 
Re s  lim  
 
 
z i z  i  d e2 z  1 
2
 dz 
2

 2e2 
lim   2 z   lim e z
 
z i
2
 2e  z  2 i

 i
e 2  i

Re s f  z  is conjugate of i.
 2
z  i
2

 Re s f  z   i

z  i
2
 63

By residues theorem
dz
 f  z    cosh z  2 i i  i 
C

 0.
Exercise_3.1
1 i
1). Evaluate  2 zdz Ans. I  4i.
1i

2). Evaluate  f  z  dz ,from z  0 to z  2i where f  z   z . Ans. 2

C

3).Evaluate  f  z dz ,from z  i to z  2  i ,where f  z   z . Ans. 2  2i

C

4).Evaluate  f  z  dz ,along the line from z  2i to z  4  i ,where f  z   z

C

Ans. 38  16i
4  2i
17
  x  2 y  iy dz along the parabola y  x .  4i .
2
5). Evaluate Ans.
1i 6

1i
 x 
 iy dz along the straight line joining the limits.
2
6). Evaluate
0

1  5i
Ans. 
6
1i
2 5
 z 
 z dz along the line y  x . Ans. I  i .
2
7). Evaluate
0 3 3

8). Evaluate  zdz along the arc given by x  a   sin   , y  a 1  cos   from   0

to    . Ans. a 2
 64

3.6 Application of Residue theorem to solve the integral:

3.6.1 Integration around the unit circle:-

2
An integral of the type 0 f  sin  , cos  d ,where the integrands is a rational function
of sin  and cos  can be evaluated by writing ei  z .
1 1 1 1
Since sin    z   and cos    z   ,then integral takes the form
2i  z 2 z
C f  z  dz , where f  z  is a rational function of z and C is a unit circle z  1 .

Hence the integral is equal to 2 i times the sum of the residues at those poles of
f  z  which are within C .

2
d
Example:-12 Use the Residues theorem Evaluate  2  cos 
.
0

2
d
Solution:- I 
0 2  cos 
2
d
  e  ei
i
0
2
2
2
d
 
0 4  e  ei
i

` Put ei  z
iei d  dz
dz
d 
iz
dz
2
I   zi
1
C 4 z 
2
1 2dz
 
i C z  4z 1
2
 65

 The poles are given by

z 2  4 z  1  0  z  2  3
The pole with in the unit circle C is a simple pole at z  2  3 .

 Re s f z  lim
1 
z 2 3 2 

z  2 3  
z  2

3 i z  2  3 z  2  3
 
2
 lim

z  2 3  i  z  2  3

1

3i
Hence by Cauchy’s residues theorem
2
d
  2 i [sum of the residues within the contour]
0 2  cos 
1
 2 i 
3i
2

3

2
d
 1  2a sin   a 2 when a  1 .
2
Example:-13. Evaluate the integral
0

2
d
Solution:- Let I  1  2a sin   a 2
0

2
d
 
0 
1  2a e  ei  a 2
i

z  ei  dz.iei d
dz
d 
zi
Where C is the unit circle z  1

dz
I
C zi  az  a  a 2 zi
2
 66

dz

C  az  ia z  zi  a
2
2

dz

C  iz  a  iza  1

Poles are given by

 iz  a  iaz  1  0
i
z  ia  z 
a
i
ia  1 a 2  1 and  1 . ai is the only poles inside the unit circle
a

 z  ai 
Re s f  z   lim  
z ai z ai  iz  a  iza  1
 
1
 lim
z ai i  iza  1

1 1
 .
i 1  a2
By Cauchy’s Residues theorem
2
d 1
 1  2a sin   a 2  2 i 
0 
i 1  a2 
2
 .
1  a2

3.6.2 Integration around a small semi-circle:-.


To evaluate  f  x dx , we consider  f  z  , where C is the contour consisting of the
 C

semi-circle CR : z  R , together with the diameter that closes it.

Supposing that f  z  has no singular points on the real axis, we have by the
Residues theorem,
R
 f  z dz   f  x dx  2 i  Re sf  a  .
CR R
 67


Finally making R tend to  , we find the value of  f  x dx , provided


 f  z dz  0 as R   .
CR

Example:-14. Using the complex variable techniques evaluate the integral


dx
 x 4  16
0


dx
Solution:-  x 4  16
0

1
Consider  f  z  dz where f  z  
x  16
4
C

Taken around the closed contour consisting of real axis and upper half CR . i.e. z  R .

Poles of f  z  are given by

x 4  16  0 i.e. z 4  16  16  cos   i sin  

or z 4  16 cos  2  1   i sin  2n  1  

1   
z  2 c os  2n  1   i sin  2n  1    2 cos  2n  1  i sin  2n  1 
4  4 4

    1 1 
If   0, z1  2  cos  i sin   2 i   2 i 2
 4 4  2 2

 3 3   1 1 
n  1, z2  2  cos  i sin   2  i    2 i 2
 4 4   2 2

 5 5   1 1 
n  2, z3  2  cos  i sin   2  i    2 i 2
 4 4   2 2

 7 7   1 1 
n  3, z4  2  cos  i sin   2 i   2 i 2
 4 4   2 2
There are four poles but only two poles at z1 and z2 lie within the contour.

 f  z  dz  2 i (sum of residues at poles within c )

C
 68

R
 f  z  dz   f  z  dz  2 i (sum of the residues)
R CR

R
1 1
 2 dx   2 dz  2 i (sum of the residues)
 R x  16 C x  16 R

1 1
Now  dz   2 dz
CR x  16
2
CR x  16

1
  dz
CR z  16
4

[since z  Rei , dz  Rei id  Rd ]


1 1 
 Rd   d
0 R 4
 16 R 4
 16 0


R 3
 4  R which  0 as R   .
R  16 1  16
R4
R
1
Hence  dx  2 i (sum of the residues within contour)….I
R x  16 4

As R 
R
1
Hence  dx  2 i ( sum of the residues within contour)
 R x  16
4

 

   1   1  1 1
Residue  atz  e 4      3   
 
 
3
  
d 4
z  16    4 z  z e 4  i 
3
 i 
 dz  z e 4 4  2e 4   32e 4 
   
 
3
1 i 1  3 3  1  1 1 
 e 4   cos  i sin    i 
32 32  4 4  32  2 2
 69

 
 
 3
  1  1
Residue  atz  e 4    3

 3
  
9

    i4 i
 4  2e     32e 4

     
3
1 i 1  9 9  1  1 1 
 e 4   cos  i sin    i 
32 32  4 4  32  2 2
Hence from I, we get

1 1  1 1  1  1 1 
 x 4  16dx  2 i  32   2  i 2   32   2  i 2 
     

  1 1 1 1    2   2
i i  i   i  i   
16  2 2 2 2  16  2 8 2 16

1 2  1 2
2 dx  , 4 dx 
0 x  16
4
16 0 x  16 32

Example:-15. Using complex variable, evaluate the real integral.


cos 3xdx

0 x 2

 1 x2  4 
e3iz
Solution:- Let f  z 
z 2

1 z2  4 
Poles are given by

z 2

1 z2  4  0 
i.e. z 2  1  0 or z  i
z 2  4  0 or z  2i
Let C be a closed contour consisting of the upper half CR of a large circle z  R
and the real axis from  R to  R . The poles at z  i and z  2i lie within the contour.

Residue (at z  i )  lim

 z  i  e3iz  lim
e3iz

e3
z i
z 2

1 z2  4  z i
 z  i   z 2  4 6i
 70

Residue (at z  2i )  lim

 z  2i  e3iz  lim
e3iz

e6
z 2i
z 2

1 z2  4  z 2i
z 2

 1  z  2i  12i

By theorem of residue  f  z  dz  2 i [residues]

C

R
e3iz dz e3iz dz  e3 e 6 
    2 i   
R z 2

1 z2  4  CR  
z2 1 z2  4  6i 12i 

 e3iz dz 
 i
 0 as z  Re and R   

 CR z 2  1 z 2  4
  

R
e3iz dz  e3 e6 
 dx     
R  
x2  1 x2  4  3 
6 


cos 3xdx 1 e3iz dx
  Real part of  2
0  x2  1 x2  4 
2  x  1 x 2  4   
  e3 e6 
   
2 3 6 

Excersize.2.
1 2z
1.  z  z  1 z  2  dz where C is the circle z  1.5 . Ans. 3 i .
C

z 1 2 i
2.  dz where C is the circle z  i  2 . Ans. .
z  z  1  z  2
2
C 9

2z2  z
3.  dz where C is the circle z  1  1. Ans. 3 i .
C z2 1
dz
4.  , C : z  1.5 . Ans. 0
C  
z 1 z2  4
2

4z2  4z 1
5.  dz C : z 1. Ans. 0
C  z  2  z 2  4
 71

2
d
6.  a  b sin  Ans.
0
2
,a  b
a 2  b2
2
sin 2  d
7.  a  b cos 
Ans.
0
2
b 2 
a  a 2  b2 , a  b  0 
2
1  2 cos  n cos n d
8.  3  2 cos 
Ans.
0
2
 
n
3 5 ,n  0
5
2
cos 2 
9.  d Ans.
0 5  4 cos  6
2
cos 2 d 2 a 2
10.  , a2  1 Ans.
0 1  2a cos   a 2
1  a2
2
d 2 a
11.  Ans.
 a  b cos   2 3
0
 a 2  b2  2

2
4d 8
12.  5  4sin 
Ans.
3
0

2
d 2
13.  2  cot  Ans.
3
0


dx 
14.  4 Ans.
 x  1 2

dx 
15.  Ans.
x 
2

2
1 2

3.7 Summary:-
 72

In this chapter we have learned

 Line integral and Riemann integral.
 Singularities and types of Singularities.
 Poles and the order of poles.
 Residues theorem.
 Application residues theorem for evaluation of integrals..

Check your progress:-

1 i
17 Evaluate  2 zdz . Ans. 4i .
1i

27 Evaluate  f  z  dz ,from z  0 to z  2i where f  z   z . Ans. 2

C

37 Evaluate  f  z  dz ,from z  i to z  2  i ,where f  z   z . Ans. 2  2i .

C

47 Evaluate  f  z  dz ,along the line from z  2i to z  4  i ,where f  z   z .

C
Ans. 38  16i .
4  2i
17
  x  2 y  iy  dz along the parabola y  x . Ans.   4i .
2
57 Evaluate
1i 6
1i
 x 
 iy dz along the straight line joining the limits.
2
67 Evaluate
0
1  5i
Ans.  .
6
1i
2 5
 z 
 z dz along the line y  x . i .
2
77 Evaluate Ans.
0 3 3

87 Evaluate  zdz along the arc given by x  a   sin   , y  a 1  cos   from   0

to    . Ans. a 2 .
1 1
97 Find the residues of f  z   . Ans. .
z 1
2
2i
 73

z3
107Find the residues of f  z   . Ans. 6 .
 z  2 3
1
117Find the residues of f  z   z 3 sin   . Ans. 0 .
z
z3  2
127Evaluate using the residues theorem  z2
dz ,where C is the unit circle.
C
Ans. 0 .
ez
137Evaluate  3
dz ,where   t   eit ,0, t , 2 . Ans.  i .
 z

z2  4
147  dz ,where   t   2eit ,0, t , 2 . Ans. 0 .
  z  i  z  i 

x2 
157Evaluate  dx . Ans. .
 1  x
4
2

x2 
167Evaluate  dx . Ans. .
 x 2

1 x  4
2
 3


dx 
177Show that  x6  1  3 .
0

2
d 2
187Evaluate  1  a sin   1  a  1 . Ans. .
0 1  a2
2
dt
197Evaluate  a  cos t
for a  1 using the residues theorem.
0
Ans.
2
.
a2 1
2
d
207Evaluate  . Ans.  .
0 3  2 cos   sin 

