Theory of Vibration, Ultrosonic wave and Special Theory of

Relativity
Free Vibrations
Consider a body executing simple harmonic vibrations. In the absence of any frictional
forces the body will continue to vibrate with the same amplitude and frequency for any
length of time. The total energy of the body remains a constant. Such vibrations are called
free vibrations. Example: A pendulum suspended in perfect vacuum.
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ executing free vibrations. Then, if ‘y’ is the displacement,
Kinetic energy of the body
 2
1 2 1 dy
= mv = m
2 2 dt
1
Potential energy of the body = 2 K y 2 , where K is the restoring force per unit displace-
ment.
Therefore,
 2
1 dy 1
K.E + P.E = m + K y 2 = constant
2 dt 2
Differentiating we get,

1 d2 y dy 1 dy
m2 2 + K 2y =0
2 dt dt 2 dt
or
d2 y
m +Ky =0
dt2
or
d2 y
 
K
2
+ y=0 (1)
dt m
Equation 1 is similar to the equation

d2 y
+ ω2 y = 0
dt2
which is the equation of motion for a body executing simple harmonic oscillations with an
angular frequency ω and the solution the equation is given by

y = a sin ω t

Thus, by comparison we can write

r
2 K K
ω = or ω=
m m
Therefore, the frequency of vibration of the body executing free vibrations is given by
r
k
ω=
m

1
Damped Vibrations
Free vibrations are only ideal cases. Under normal conditions there are frictional forces
acting on the vibrating body. Due to these frictinal forces like air resistance, viscosity etc,
the energy of the body gets dissipated with time. Hence the amplitude goes on decreasing
and finally the vibrations die out. Such vibratins are called damped vibrations.
The frictional forces are proportional to the velocity of the body and in a direction
opposite to the direction of motion of the body. If µ is the frictional force constant, then
the damping or frictional forces are given by −µ dy
dt . Thus the equation of motion in case of
damped vibration is given by,

d2 y dy
m 2
+ ky = −µ
dt dt
or

d2 y dy
m2
+ µ + ky = 0
dt dt

d2 y  µ  dy
 
k
+ + y = 0 − − − − − (1)
dt2 m dt m
This equation is of the form,

d2 y dy
2
+ 2b + k 2 y = 0
dt dt
µ k
Where, 2b = m and k 2 = m. The general solution for the above standard differential
equation is given by,
√ √
b2 −k2 )t b2 −k2 )t
y = A1 e−(b+ + A2 e−(b− − − − − − (2)
Where A1 and A2 are constants.
Case 1: Overdamped (b2 > k 2 )
p
When, (b2 > k 2 ), (b2 − k 2 ) is real and therefore both terms on the right hand side
of equation (2) decreases with time. Thus y continuously decreases as time increases and
finally becomes zero. Hence there is no oscillatory behaviour. If the body is displaced to
one side will slowly come back to the mean position and stop there itself. This kind of
motion is called overdamped vibrations.

2
 Example: A pendulum suspended in a highly viscous fluid when displaced to one side
just comes back to the equilibrium position without moving to the other side.
Case 2: Critically damped (b2 = k 2 )
When (b2 = k 2 ), the solution is y = (A1 + A2 )e−bt which is again a continuous decrease
in amplitude with time. In this case also the body does not show any vibratory motion.
When the body displaced from the mean position and rests there without swinging over to
the other side.

Example: The movement of the needles of ammeter, voltmeters etc. Such vibrations
are called critically damped vibrations.
Case 3: Under damped (b2 < k 2 )
p
When (b2 < k 2 ), (b2 − k 2 ) is imaginary. Let us write,

b2 − k 2 = (−1)(k 2 − b2 ) = (−1)β 2
p
Where β = (k 2 − b2 ) , so that,
p
(b2 − k 2 ) = iβ
Then,

y = A1 e−(β+iβ)t + A2 e−(β−iβ)t
This can be rearranged to be written in the form,

y = Ce−bt sin(βt + Φ)
As time goes on increasing, the
p amplitude goes on decreases. At the same time the body
also vibrates with a frequency, (k 2 − b2 ). But due to the frictional forces the amplitude
goes on decreasing and the body comes to rest Such vibrations are called under damped
vibrations.

Example: Pendulum suspended in air

3
depends upon the damping coefficient b. It is called under-damped motion
as shown in figure.
In this case the period is slightly increased or frequency decreased because
the period is √ω2π 2π
2 −b2 while in the absence of damping it was ω .
The example of this type of motion is the motion of a pendulum in air,
the motion of the coil of ballastic galvanometer or the electric oscillations in
LCR circuit.

3 Forced Vibrations
When a body is made to vibrated by an external periodic force (which may
or may not have its frequency equal to the natural frequency of the body) the
body, at first, tries to vibrate with its own natural frequency but ultimately it
vibrates with the frequency of applied force. Such vibrations are called forced
vibrations. The forced vibrations, after the removal of external periodic force,
becomes free and die out in due course of time.
Forced vibrations can be defined as the vibrations in which the body
vibrates with a frequency other than its natural frequency under the action
of an external periodic force.
As an example, consider the vibrations of bridge under the influence of
marching soldiers or vibrations of a tuning fork when exposed to the periodic
force of sound waves. In both the cases body vibrates because it is subjected
to an external periodic force. Such vibrations are called forced vibrations.

3.1 Equation of forced vibration

The forces acted upon the particle are

1. a restoring force proportional to the displacement but oppositely di-

rected, given by
fr ∝ −y or fr = −ky
where k is known as force constant.

2. a frictional force proportional to velocity but oppositely directed, given

by
dy dy
ff ∝ − or ff = −µ
dt dt
where µ is frictional force per unit velocity and

9
 3. the external periodic force, represented by

fe = F sin pt
p
where F is the maximum value of this force and 2π
is its frequency

So the total force acting on the particle is given by

dy
ft = −ky − µ + F sin pt
dt
The impressed periodic force is called driver and the body executing
forced vibrations is called driven oscillator.
By Newton’s second law of motion this must be equal to the product of
2
mass m of the particle and its instantaneous acceleration i.e., m ddt2y , hence

d2 y dy
m 2
= −ky − µ + F sin pt
dt dt
2
dy dy
m 2 + µ + ky = F sin pt
dt dt
Dividing by m
d2 y µ dy k F
2
+ + y= sin pt
dt m dt m m
d2 y dy
2
+ 2b + ω 2 y = f sin pt (14)
dt dt
µ k F
where m = 2b, m = ω 2 and m = f.
Equation (14) is the differential equation of motion of the particle.

3.2 Solution of equation of forced oscillations

In this case, when the steady state is set up, the particle vibrates with the
frequency of applied force and not with its own natural frequency. The
solution of differential equation (14) must be of the type

y = A sin(pt − θ) (15)
where A is the steady amplitude of vibrations and θ is the angle by which
the displacement y lags behind the applied force F sin pt. A and θ being
arbitrary constants.
Differentiating (15), we have

dy
= Ap cos(pt − θ)
dt
10
 d2 y
= −Ap2 sin(pt − θ)
dt2
substituting these values in (14), we have

−Ap2 sin(pt − θ) + 2bAp cos(pt − θ) + ω 2 A sin(pt − θ) = f sin pt

−Ap2 sin(pt − θ) + 2bAp cos(pt − θ) + ω 2 A sin(pt − θ) = f sin[(pt − θ) + θ]

or
A(ω 2 −p2 ) sin(pt−θ)+2bAp cos(pt−θ) = f sin(pt−θ) cos θ+f cos(pt−θ) sin θ
If this relation holds good for all values of t, the coefficients of sin(pt − θ)
and cos(pt − θ) terms on both sides of this equation must be equal i.e.,
comparing the coefficients of sin(pt − θ) and cos(pt − θ) on both sides, we
have
A(ω 2 − p2 ) = f cos θ (16)
2bAp = f sin θ (17)
Squaring equations (16) and (17) and then adding, we get
A2 (ω 2 − p2 )2 + 4b2 A2 p2 = f 2
A2 [(ω 2 − p2 )2 + 4b2 p2 ] = f 2

f
∴A= p (18)
(ω 2 − p2 )2 + 4b2 p2
Dividing equation (17) by (16), we have
2bAP 2bP
tan θ = 2 2
= 2
A(ω − p ) ω − p2
 
−1 2bP
∴ θ = tan (19)
ω 2 − p2
Substituting the value of A from equation (18) in (15), we get
f
y=p sin(pt − θ) (20)
(ω 2 − p2 )2 + 4b2 p2
Equation (18) gives the amplitude of forced vibration while (19) its phase.
Depending upon the relative values of p and ω, three cases are possible.

11
Condition for Resonance
The amplitude of the vibration is given by,

F
a= p
µ2 p2 + (K − mp2 )2
The amplitude will be maximum if the denominator on the right hand side is a minimum.
Therefore,

d  2 2
µ p + (K − mp2 )2 = 0

dp

2µ2 p + 2(K − mp2 )(−2mp) = 0

µ2 = 2m(K − mp2 )

µ2
= K − mp2
2m

µ2 K
2
= − p2
2m m

µ2
= w 2 − p2
2m2
Here, K 2
m = w , is the natural frequency of vibration of the body in the absence of
µ2
any frictional forces. If the frictional forces are very small so that 2m 2 is negligible, then
we obtain, w2 − p2 = 0 or w = p. Then the amplitude will have the maximum value.
This condition is called resonance. When the natural frequency of vibration equals to the
externally applied frequency, resonance take place and the body vibrates with maximum
amplitude.

Ultrasonics
Sound waves of the frequencies above the limits of human audibility i.e., gerater than 20kHz
are called ultrasonics. Propogation these waves through matrial medium depends on the
elastic properties and the density of the medium. In fluids ultrasonic waves are propogated
as longitudinal waves where as in solids, ultrasonic waves travels as both longitudinal as well
as transverse waves. The wavelength of ultrasonic waves are very small and this smallness
in wavelength makes ultrasonic waves are usefull in many of their applications. Particularly,
ultrasonic waves are widely used in medical diagnostics, marine applications, non destructive
testing of finished products and so on.

6
Ultrasonics

ULTRASONICS
Ultrasonic waves are longitudinal waves whose frequency is greater than 20 kHz.

Production
piezoelectric Method

Tunable Piezo
Electric
Oscillator
Crystal

A piezo crystal is a dielectric material. When it is placed between two matallic

plates the arrangement is similar to a parallel plate condenser. The natural
frequency of the crystal depends on the cut and thickness of the crystal. The
arrangement is connected to tunable oscillator. When the oscillator is switched
on the crytal vibrates. When the frequency of the oscillator is varied, at a
given frequency which is equal to the natural frequency of the crystal resonance
occurs. The crystal vibrates with maximum amplitude. By adjusting the cut
and thickness, the crystal can be made to vibrate in ultrasonic range.

Dr. S Doreswamy Page 1

Ultrasonics

Ultrasonic interferometer
Determination of velocity of Ultrasonic waves

Micrometer

Movable Metal
Re
ector

Liquid

l
2

RF
Quartz
GENERATOR
Crystal

It works on the prinicple of acoustic resonance.

Construction: It consists of a measuring cell filled with given experimen-

tal liquid. One end of the cell has quartz crystal. Other end has metallic plate
connected to micrometer. The quartz crystal is connected to RF oscillator.

Working: When the generator is switched on, the quartz crystal vibrates
and produces ultrasonic waves in the liquid. The waves are reflected back from
metallic plate producing stationary waves in the medium. When micrometer
is moved slowly so that at one position separation between the plate and the
quartz crystal is exact integral multiple of half the wavelength of waves. Acoustic
resonance occurs. The ammeter shows maximum reading. The reading of the
ammeter is noted down. Let it be R1 . The micrometer is further rotated to get
next acoustic resonance. Let the reading of the ammeter be R2 . R2 ∼ R1 = λ/2,
the wavelength of the ultrasonic waves. The frequency of the ultrasonic waves
is same as RF generator. Using, v = f λ the velocity of the ultrasonic waves is
calculated.

Dr. S Doreswamy Page 2

 5.2 Introduction to Nanomaterials

1) What are nanomaterials?

The word ‘nano’ means a billionth (10-9). The field Nanotechnology deals with various structures
of matter having dimensions of a nanometer.
“Nanoparticles can be defined as an aggregate of atoms between 1 nm to 100 nm with
dimensions less than the characteristic length of some physical phenomenon”.

2) Describe the various quantum structures:

Quantum Structures (Quantum Confinement)
Fundamentally, nanotechnology involves the creation and manipulation of typical functional
materials, devices and systems that fall in the range of 1–100 nm. When this fact occurs
exclusively in one dimension, we call it a thin-film or surface, whereas in two dimension,
nanorods, nanotubes, (nanowires) and other attractive morphologies can be formed. Materials
that are at the nanoscale in three dimensions are nanoparticles.
In 0-D nanostructures like quantum dots the carriers are confined in all the three
directions, unlike in nanorods and thin films where carriers can freely move in one and two
directions respectively, while in bulk structures the carriers are free in all three direction.

3) Give an account of Density of states (DOS) for various quantum structures:

The density of states (DOS) (number of electronic states per unit volume and energy) is greatly
modified for different type of nanostructures depending on the degree of confinement as shown
in the following Figures.
 For 3-D materials (Bulk), the DOS varies continuously. The density will be typically of
the order of 1026 /m3 eV.

 For a 2-D structure (film), the DOS varies as a step function. The density is typically of
the order of 1018 /m3 eV.

 For a 1-D structure (quantum wire), the DOS variation is neither smooth as 3-D nor even
constant (2-D). The density is typically of the order of 10 9 /m3 eV.

 For a 0-D structure (nanoparticles), the permitted energy values form discrete bunches of
varying densities because of the confined conditions for electrons. Thus density of energy
levels appear as discrete lines.

Dr. Deepa Urs MV Page 1

4) Explain the effect of nanoscale dimension in nanomaterials:
(a) Surface to volume ratio increases: In nanoparticles surface area to volume ratio is very
large. Atoms on the surface of a material are often more reactive than those in the centre, so a
larger surface area means the material is more reactive.

(b) Quantum effect: According to quantum mechanics, free carriers in a metal or semiconductor
can take only specific values of energy i.e., energy is quantized.
(c) Width of band decreases.
(d) Thermodynamic stability if altered.

5) What is carbon nanotube? (or)

In graphite, each carbon atom is linked to 3 other C – atoms through covalent bonds forming
hexagonal rings connected to each other to form plane sheets known as graphene. These plane
sheets are linked to adjacent layers through the weak vander Waal’s forces.
The structure of carbon nanotube (CNT) can be imagined as a cylinder formed
by rolling a graphene sheet and then closing it on both sides by fullerene hemispheres.

6) Explain the different molecular structures of nanotubes.

The CNTs are of 2 types –
1) Single walled nanotubes (SWNT) – which
can be imagined as a single atom thick graphite
sheet, i.e. graphene, rolled into a cylinder and
capped by fullerene hemispheres.

2) Multiwalled nanotubes (MWNT) – which

can be considered as nanotubes within
nanotubes.
The graphene sheets can be rolled in
different ways to get the three types of SWNTs:
Zig-zag, armchair and chiral.

Dr. Deepa Urs MV Page 2

7) Explain the properties and applications of carbon nanotubes:

Applications of CNTs:
CNTs are well-suited for virtually any application requiring high strength, durability, electrical
conductivity, thermal conductivity and lightweight properties compared to conventional
materials.
Currently, CNTs are mainly used as additives to synthetics. CNTs are commercially available
as a powder, i.e. in a highly tangled-up and agglomerated form. For CNTs to unfold their
particular properties they need to be untangled and spread evenly in the substrate.

Dr. Deepa Urs MV Page 3

Carbon nanotubes can also be spun into fibers, which not only promise interesting possibilities
for specialty textiles but may also help realize a particularly utopian project – the space elevator.

Carbon nanotube enabled nanocomposites have received much attention as a highly attractive
alternative to conventional composite materials due to their mechanical, electrical, thermal,
barrier and chemical properties such as electrical conductivity, increased tensile strength,
improved heat deflection temperature, or flame retardancy. These materials promise to offer
increased wear resistance and breaking strength, antistatic properties as well as weight reduction.
For instance, it has been estimated that advanced CNT composites could reduce the weight of
aircraft and spacecraft by up to 30%.

These composite materials already find use in

 sporting goods (bicycle frames, tennis rackets, hockey sticks, golf clubs and balls, sports
arrows)
 yachting (masts, hulls and other parts of sailboats)
 textiles (antistatic and electrically conducting textiles ('smart textiles'); bullet-proof vests,
water-resistant and flame-retardant textiles)
 automotive, aeronautics and space (light-weight, high-strength structural composites)
 industrial engineering (e.g. coating of wind-turbine rotor blades, industrial robot arms)
 electrostatic charge protection (for instance, researchers have a developed electrically
conducting and flexible CNT film specifically for space applications) and radiation shielding
with CNT-based nanofoams and aerogels.

Some of the other important applications are:

1) CNTs can store lithium due to which they can be used in batteries and other
electrochemical applications. They can also store hydrogen and find potential applications
in fuel cells.

2) Armchair SWNTs show good conducting properties whereas chiral and zig-zag SWNTs
show semiconducting properties. Hence they are used in transistors and electrochemical
supercapacitors.

3) They are extensively used in medical applications as carriers for drug delivery, to monitor
glucose level and to inject insulin when required.

4) They are being used to develop flat display panels for television and computers.

8) Discuss the applications of nanotechnology:

Nanotechnology has found wide ranging applications in many fields.

1) Electronics: Nanomaterials are used in devices like spin FET, spin LED etc. These devices
have increased the data storage capacities of hard discs and have led to small and faster
microprocessors.

Dr. Deepa Urs MV Page 4

2) Energy: Attempts are being made to increase the efficiency of solar cells by using
nanotechnology. Efforts are being made to use carbon nanotubes to trap and store hydrogen.

3) Automobiles: Nanoparticles are being used to develop light weight and less rubber consuming
tyres for automobiles which will increase the mileage of the automobiles. Nanomaterial catalysts
can be used as catalysts to convert the harmful emissions from automobiles to less harmful gases.

4) Space & Defence: Polymer composites can be used in spacecrafts which have to withstand
high temperature and stress conditions during launching and re-entry into the earth’s
atmosphere. Satellites and spacecrafts use solar energy.

5) Medical: Nanoparticles can be used for detection and treatment of cancer and tumours. They
are also used in drug delivery system.

6) Environmental: Nanoparticle based sensors are capable of detecting water and air pollution
due to toxic ions and pesticides with a very high sensitivity.

7) Textiles: The use of nanotechnology in textile industry has led to the development of water
repellent and wrinkle free clothes.

8) Cosmetics: Zinc oxide and titanium oxide nanoparticles are used in sunscreen lotions which
protect the skin from the UV radiations as these nanoparticles absorb UV radiations.

*******

Dr. Deepa Urs MV Page 5

 Module 5
Material Characterisation Techniques

Nanomaterials dispersed in the form of colloids in solutions, particles or thin films are
characterized by various techniques. Although the techniques to be used would depend
upon the type of material and information one needs to know, usually one is interested in
first knowing the size, crystalline composition, thermal, chemical state and properties like
optical or magnetic properties.
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
Scanning electron microscope is a type of electron microscope that uses a beam of electrons
moving at low energy to focus and scan the surfaces of the specimens with better resolution
power.
Principle: Scanning electron microscope works on the principle of applying kinetic
energy to produce signals due to the interaction of the electrons.
Construction: It consists of an electron gun to produce high energy electron beam.
A magnetic condensing lens is used to condense the electron beam and a scanning coil is
arranged in between magnetic condensing lens and the sample. The scattered electrons are
detected by using detector and can be converted into electrical signal. These signals can be
fed into cathode ray tube through amplifier as shown in figure.

Working: Stream of electrons are produced by the electron gun and these primary
electrons are accelerated by the anode. These accelerated primary electrons are made to
incident on the sample through condensing lenses and scanning coil. These high speed pri-
mary electrons upon falling over the sample produces secondary electrons, backscattered
electrons and diffracted electrons. Secondary and backscattered electrons are used to pro-
duce an image of the specimen. The secondary electrons emitted from the specimen play
the primary role of detecting the morphology and topography of the specimen while the
backscattered electrons show contrast in the composition of the elements of the specimen.
The collected electrons are converted into electrical signals and fed into cathode ray

1
tube through amplifier. The samples are mounted and coated with thin layer of heavy
metal elements to allow spatial scattering of electric charges on the surface of the specimen
allowing better image production, with high clarity.

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

Transmission electron microscope is a powerful electron microscope that uses a beam of
electrons to focus on a specimen producing a highly magnified and detailed image of the
specimen.
Principle: Electrons are made to pass through the specimen and the image is formed
on the fluorescent screen by using transmitted beam or by using the diffracted beam.

Construction: It consists of an electron gun to produce electrons. Magnetic condensing

lens is used to condense the electrons and is also used to adjust the size of the electron beam
that falls on to the specimen. The specimen is placed in between the condensing lens and
the objective lens as shown in figure.
Working: Stream of electrons are produced by the electron gun and made to incident
over the specimen using the magnetic condensing lens. These electrons are made as parallel
beam and are focused on to the object. The electrons are transmitted more in the less
dense region of the object and is transmitted less i.e., absorbed by the denser region of the
object. Thus the transmitted electron beam upon incident over the magnetic objective lens,
resolves the structure of the object to form a magnified real image of the object. Further
the image can be magnified by the magnetic projector lens and the final image is obtained
on the fluorescent screen.
TEM has the advantage that not only obtain the images of the specimen but also
diffraction patterns, which enable to understand the detailed crystal structure analysis of
the sample. Using diffraction analysis one can find out size dependent changes in the lattice
parameters as well as defects in the sample.

2
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy is a largely used technique to identify the functional
groups in the materials (gas, liquid and solid) by using the beam of infrared radiations
Principle: In FTIR, infrared radiation passes through the sample, part of the infrared
radiation is absorbed by the sample others are transmitted. The frequency at which a par-
ticular bond absorbs infrared radiation will be different over a range of bonds and modes of
vibration depending on atom size, bond length and bond strength. The resulting spectrum
represents the molecular absorption and transmission, creating a molecular finger print of
the sample.
Construction: Fourier transform infrared spectrometer makes use of the Michelson
interferometer for recording the spectra. It consists of an source which generate IR radiation,
sample in the form of gas, solid or liquid and detector which detects the transmitted light.
Michelson interferometer arrangement consisting of beam splitter, fixed mirror and movable
mirror as shown in figure.

Working: A parallel beam of infrared rays incident on the beam splitter. Beam splitter
spilts the light ray into two equal components. Part of the beam falls on a movable mirror
and other on fixed mirror. The rays are reflected back from both the mirrors along the
same path and interfere at beam splitter. A part of this combined beam incident on the
sample is detected by a detector. Constructive and destructive interference occurring at
beam splitter depends upon the path length of the rays.
The recombined beam passing through the sample produces absorption spectrum in
which certain characteristic frequencies are absorbed by molecules present in the sample.
Detector collects the signals from the sample for every millisecond and stores each spectrum
in different locations. With modern computers, by carrying out the Fourier transform
analysis, the resultant spectra are obtained as an output. Thus, better and fast data
acquisition is possible using FTIR spectrometer.

3
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
Atomic force microscopy is an advanced technique of studying properties of materials at an
atomic scale.
Principle: Atomic force microscopy principle is based on the cantilever/tip assembly
that interacts with the sample; this assembly is also commonly referred to as the probe.
Construction: Atomic force microscopy has a flexible cantilever of ≈ 100µm long,
10µm wide and 1µm in height attached to a piezodrive. A tip is mounted on a cantilever
as shown in figure. The resonant frequency is used to control the tip-sample interaction.
AFM tip is in close vicinity of the sample surface, experiences a repulsive force which results
into minute amount of bending of the cantilever. A laser beam is directed on back of the
cantilever as shown in figure. Small deflections caused by the tip-sample imteraction are
recorded by a position sensitive photodiode. By rastering the probe on sample surface and
measuring the cantilever deflections, surface image is obtained.

Working: An AFM can be operated in three different modes viz. (1) Contact mode,
(2) Non-contact mode and (3) Tapping mode.
Contact mode: In this case, the tip is in contact with the sample surface and is almost
forced into it. However due to repulsive interaction between electron charge cloud of the tip
atom and that of the surface atom, the tip is repelled back which bends the cantilever and
deviates the direction of the laser beam. The main disadvantage of this mode is that the
tip or sample can get damaged due to forcing of the tip into sample, especially, polymers
or other organic materials like biological samples which can get damaged by this method.
Non-contact mode: In non-contact mode, the tip or the probe moves at some small
distance away from the sample surface. Therefore, it cannot damage the sample.
Tapping mode: Tapping mode is a combination of contact and non-contact modes.
The resolution of the contact mode is higher than the non-contact mode, because in contact
mode the interaction between tip and surface atoms is much more sensitive to the distance
as compared to that in con-contact mode. With tapping, high resolution advantage of
contact mode and non-destructiveness of non-contact mode are achieved.