Lie Detection

Techniques
COURSE GUIDE
AIZA E. MINALABAG, RCRIM
ANTHONY CARL V. BORNEO, RCRIM
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE
EDUCATION

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

 All rights reserved.

No copies temporary or permanent, in whole or in part of this

Instructional Material shall be made without written permission from
the author/s.

ii
 Vision

_____________________________________________________

A vibrant, flourishing academic institution that provides its present and

target programs with exemplary educational experiences, prioritizing
community needs through quality instruction, research, and extension
services.
_____________________________________________________

Mission

_____________________________________________________

To empower communities through academic programs that provide

dynamic and inclusive learning environment, innovative instruction,
impactful research, and relevant extension service grounded in
promoting lifelong learning, ethical values, and social responsibility.
_____________________________________________________

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 Course Guide in
Title
Page
LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

iv
 Foreword

Detecting deception is an age-old practice that dates back to ancient times.

In its golden age, deception detection was put to use in order to identify
lawbreakers, but the results were largely dependent on superstitious
beliefs, the instinctive responses of humans, and divine providence. The
application of lie detection methods in the field of investigation in modern
times provides a significant role to support facts that are related to the
commission of a crime. This is a significant departure from the old practice
of deception detection. Further, the introduction of the polygraph machine
brought about the scientification of the practice; however, in order to carry
out a successful polygraph examination, the examiner must be competent
and possess the necessary skills. This is because a successful examination
relies on both the reliability and accuracy of the result recorded and
reflected from the physiological responses of the subject, as well as the
examiner’s own competent and skills.

Students who are studying criminology and are interested in

gaining additional knowledge, particularly in deception detection, can
benefit from the creation and development of this module. The scope of the
content is determined by the syllabus that was provided, and each topic
was organized so that it is simple for the student to comprehend and so
that they can engage in interactive learning throughout.

At the end of the course, it is anticipated that the students will

acquire a significant amount of knowledge ranging from the origins of lie
detection to its most recent advances. In addition to this, the students are
expected to put their knowledge to use in real world scenarios by
performing polygraph examination and gaining an understanding of the
significance in the art of lie detection.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Vision Iii
Mission iii
Title Page iv
Foreword v
Table of Contents vi
Course Overview vii
Module Guide ix
Module Overview xi
Pre-Test xii

Midterm
Polygraphy: Components,
Module 1 Functions, and Historical 1
Development

Lesson 1 History of Lie Detection 1

Early Methods of Deception Detection 2
Contemporary Methods of Deception
9
Detection
Early Scientific Methods of Deception
14
Detection
Methods of Detecting Deception through
16
Regular Police work

The Conventional and Computerized

Lesson 2 19
Polygraph Machine
Three fundamental bases of Polygraph
21
Technique
Conventional Polygraph Instruments 28
Computerized Polygraph 33

Lesson 3 Development of Polygraph 37

Timeline in the development of polygraph 38

machine
Personalities behind the Development of 42
Polygraph

Lesson 4 Psychology of a Lying Person 44

References 51

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COURSE OVERVIEW
Course Code Major 17
Descriptive Title Lie Detection Techniques
Credit Units 3
School Year/Term 2024-2025
Mode of Delivery Face-to-Face Classes and Module Support with
Blended Learning
Name of
Name of Faculty
Instructor/Professor
This course offers a comprehensive
Course Description exploration of lie detection methods, blending
both theoretical knowledge and practical skills.
Students will delve into the anatomy and
psychology of deception, examining various
theories and types of lies. A significant focus is
placed on polygraphy, including in-depth
training on the use of polygraph machines and
software.
Through a blend of lectures and hands-on
practical labs, students will gain proficiency in
conducting polygraph examinations,
interpreting results, and understanding their
application in crime investigation and legal
contexts. The course also includes a review of
lie detection practices and their historical
development, with a particular emphasis on
their use within the Philippine legal system.
Assessments will consist of exams and
practical exercises designed to reinforce both
theoretical concepts and technical skills. The
course is conducted in a traditional classroom
setting, ensuring an interactive and immersive
learning experience.

vii
Course Outcomes Students are expected to:
a. Recognize the importance of
deception detection in the field of
investigation by understanding its
psychological implication and
recognizing its historical
development.
b. Demonstrate knowledge and skills in
operating a polygraph machine by
familiarizing the different components
and identifying their functions.
c. Apply knowledge and skills in
formulating test questions employing
it as one of the effective polygraph
examination techniques.
d. Manifest Knowledge and skills in
conducting polygraph examinations
by applying the effective techniques
and methods.

viii
MODULE GUIDE

This learning module is specifically designed for Bachelor of

Science in Criminology (BSCrim) students at Burauen Community
College (BCC). It is divided into two parts, consisting of ten
modules that cover various aspects of Lie Detection Techniques.
The module aims to provide students with a comprehensive
understanding of Lie Detection techniques within the context of
criminology.

Part I: MIDTERM MODULES Part II: FINALS MODULES

Module 1: Polygraphy: Components, Module 2: Test Question formulation

Functions, and Historical Development and Polygraph Examination

MODULE OVERVIEW SECTION

A brief outline of what the module will cover, including key topics, objectives,
and the overall focus.

PRE-TEST SECTION
Do answer the pre-test honestly before turning to the next pages of this
module.

LESSON SUMMARY
A concise overview of the main points of the lesson.

LESSON OBJECTIVES SECTION

This section shoes what the teacher wants the students to have learned or
achieved by the end of a lesson.

LET’S LOOK BACK SECTION

This section stimulates prior knowledge in preparation for the upcoming
lesson.

MOTIVATION QUESTION
Do answer the pre-test honestly before turning to the next pages of this
module.

LET’S LEARN!
This section presents the lesson at hand.

LET’S TRY THIS!

This involves you doing enabling activities to wrap up learnings.

LET’S DO THIS!
After every lesson, you need to make practical activities as
application to your learning

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 MODULE 1: Polygraphy: Components,
Functions, and Historical Development

HISTORY OF LIE
DETECTION

Module Overview

This course module covers the historical perspective of deception detection from
the ancient to the modern and scientific methods. Psychological explanation why a
person commits lying will also be discussed including the different classification,
kinds, and types of lies and liars.

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 Pre - Test

Instructions: Choose the Best or nearest answer by writing the

corresponding letter of your choice.

1. He was the 1st one to use the term “Psychogalvanic Reflex”

a. Veraguth
b. Vittorio Benussi
c. Luigi Galvani
d. Harold Burtt
2. In what year Leonard Keeler invented the “Keeler Polygraph” which is an
improvement of Larson’s apparatus.

a. 1945
b. 1949
c. 1942
d. 1925
3. Father of the “Modern Day Polygraph”

a. John A. Larson
b. William Moulton Marston
c. Leonarde Keeler
d. John E. Reid
4. He was accorded the distinction of being the 1 st person to utilize an
instrument for the purpose of detecting lies.

a. Dr. Hans Gross

b. Angelo Mosso
c. Cesare Lombroso
d. Richard O. Archer
5. He defined “Search for truth” as the basis and goal of all criminal
investigations.

a. Cesare Lombroso
b. Angelo Mosso
c. Harold Burtt
d. Dr. Hans Gross
6. In what year that keeler developed the “Relevant- Irrelevant” test.

a. 1942
b. 1945
c. 1947
d. 1949
7. He Studied fear and its influence on the heart.

a. Angelo Mosso
b. Sir James McKenzie
c. Luigi Galvani
d. Daniel Defoe
8. He founded the Journal of Polygraph Science, the oldest of the polygraph
publications.

xii
 a. Richard O. Archer
b. Veraguth
c. Harold Burtt
d. Sir James McKenzie
9. He wrote an essay entitled “An Effectual Scheme for the immediate
prevention of street robberies and suppressing all other disorder of the
night” which recommends taking of the pulse as a method of identifying a
criminal.

a. Richard O. Archer
b. Daniel Defoe
c. Dr. Hans Gross
d. Sir James McKenzie
10. A Lawyer from Chicago, Illinois, who developed the Control Question
Technique (CQT) a polygraph technique that incorporated control
questions.

a. John E. Reid
b. Cleve Backster
c. Leonarde Keeler
d. Richard I. Golden
 Activity

Determining Guilt by Passing the egg

Instruction: Follow the Instructions Carefully.

1. Form a group with 5 - 8 members and think of a situation where

one usually tells a lie.
2. Brainstorm with the members regarding the issue.
3. Pass the egg to each group member while asking who is not telling
a lie regarding the issue.
4. When passing the egg and broke in the hand of the member, that is
counted as one (1) lie.
5. Continue passing the egg until all the eggs will break in; the more
broken eggs in the hands of the students the more he/she tells lie.
6. The member who shall break more eggs will be given a
consequence.
7. Submit the list of the group.

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LESSON 1: Early Methods of Deception Detection

LESSON SUMMARY

Historically the act of lying is a common practice by our

ancestors, it is part of their daily lives and survival as they used it in
many aspects as part of their living. According to historians, they
need to lie to hide from their enemies, acquire territories, protect
their families and friends and to conceive their wrong actions
punishable by the rules and norms of their society (Trovillo, 1939).
Even in the biblical settings” the midwives of Hebrews lied to the king
of Egypt instead of carrying out orders to kill all male Hebrew babies
they did not execute the order; the midwives did this because they
feared God” (Exodus 1:15-20). Another, when” Rahab lied to the king
of Jericho about hiding the Hebrews spies and was not killed, with
those were disobedient because of her faith”. (Hebrews 11:13). In
addition, the practice of our ancestors on how to detect truth and lies
varied in different ways and some of those are barbaric and inhumane
practices.

In Western Africa people suspected of a crime were made to

pass a bird’s egg to one another. If a person broke the egg, then they
are considered guilty, it is based on the idea that their nervousness
was blame. In ancient China, the suspect held a hand full of rice in
their mouth during a prosecutor speech. Since salivation is believed
to cease at times of emotional anxiety, the person is considered
guilty if the rice was dry by the end of that speech.

The search for truth means to identify the untrustworthy as

ancient as man. Some deception techniques were found from
superstitions and or religious belief that “God would in some way
reveal the truth and disallow the immorality “. Some rely on
psychological and physiological basis, some continued pain and
torture.

LESSON OBJECTIVES:

a. Discuss the concept that underlies the history of deception

detection.
b. Compare the early and scientific methods of deception
detection through concept mapping.
c. Understand the psychology of lying by identifying its types
and kinds.
LET’S LEARN!

EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

• OBSERVATION OF BEHAVIOR

It was written in the history that liars can be detected by

observing their behavior. In an ancient text written in India
around 900BC, it was mentioned that poisoner can be
determined because they are evasive and cannot give direct
answer to a question. He exhibits gestures of uneasiness, and
noticeable physiological changes are indicated (Trovillo 1939).

Another popular example of observing the behaviour to

verify truthful and false statement was reported during the era
of king Solomon. He made a wise decision regarding the two-
woman claiming to be the mother of a disputed child. King
Solomon determined the real mother by observing the behavior
displayed by both woman when he stated to cut the baby into
two parts to settle the conflicts. The real mother readily gave
up her claim rather than seeing the baby killed, while the other
woman agreed to the statement made by the king (Krapojil &
Shaw, 2019)

• FEELING THE PULSE

It was depicted in history that lying was presumed to
affect the physiological activity of deceitful person.
Physiological changes are observed as symptoms of lying when
the person experiences fear of being detected.

Erasistratus (200-250) a famous physician and

anatomist known for his research on the functions of the brain
and nervous system, was consulted by the king of Syria to
diagnose the unknown illness of his son. The king’s sons were
observed losing his weight, no appetite and feeling depressed.
Erasistratus hinted that the cause of the mysterious illness was
the son passion for the kings young and beautiful wife. During
the examination he conducted, Erasistratus observed that the
pulse rate of the king son increases when he mentioned the
physical attributes of the king’s new wife. His findings were
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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 later on proven with the birth of a baby girl out of the intimacy
between the prince and the new queen (Trovillo 1939).

• TRIAL BY COMBAT
Trial by combat was also practiced on many countries in the
early years. Disputes between two adversaries is resolved by a
physical combat. The innocent person is expected to prevail in
the fight because of the belief that the truth is on his side.
Nevertheless, the result of the combat usually favors the wise,
skilled and able-bodied participant. According to historians,
trial by combat was the earliest method of determining
truthfulness and deception of a person.

For example, two men was seen behind a dead victim each
of them did not claim the killings, and to determine who is
telling the truth they will now engage in combat. The ideal
assumption there is that those who are innocent will win the
trial while that loser will be declared guilty. But that scenario
changed during the medieval period.

• TRIAL BY ORDEAL
In the ancient years of determining truth or deception,
ordeal was the most popular approach applied. An ordeal is a
procedure subjecting the accused to a painful and dangerous
test. Superstitious belief and divine intervention serve as a
basis to prove the innocent individual will be spared by God
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 from harm. In these methods of trial, the accused was exposed
to physical danger which was supposed to be harmless if he
was innocent. It is also a term of varying meaning “Dei
Indicum” meaning “miraculous Decision”
This method of verifying deceit was also centered on actual
monitoring of psychological and physiological clues that guilty
and innocent individual may indicates (Trovillo, 1939)

DIFFERENT FORMS OF TRIAL BY ORDEAL

Different methods of ordeal were used during ancient times to

determine guilt and truth. Some of those are inhumane, unfair, and
violent, far from today’s process of identifying accountability. In
Greece, they would ask questions and “feel the subject’s pulse” to
detect lies and used torture as a means of interrogation. Romans used
crucifixion, and Strappado as a means of medieval inquisition that
may dislocate joints. The rack would stretch the victim’s joints to the
breaking point and a Red-hot pincher would be applied. This kind of
torture is not allowed in today’s justice process. Instead, the suspect
is treated humanely, protecting their right from abused and torture.
In 1948, following the horrific abuses of World War II, the General
Assembly of the United Nations inserted the prohibition against
torture in the landmark Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Article 5 states: "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. " The prohibition
against torture is well established under customary international law
as jus cogens. The Supreme Court in 1963 ruled that a confession
extracted under “truth serum” – drugs such as sodium pentothal,
sodium amytal, and scopolamine - violated a defendant's
constitutional right against self-incrimination.

To explore more about the ancient methods of ordeal, the ff.

methods below will bring you back in the ancient time.

• Red Hot Iron Ordeal- this was practiced in the hill tribe of
RAJMAL the hill tribe of north Bengal. The accused will place his
tongue to the red-hot iron nine (9) times unless burned sooner.
If burned, he is put to death as he is guilty. The basis of that
ordeal is salivary secretion because if the tongue is dry suspect
is guilty as dryness is a sign of nervousness.

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 • Ordeal by the Balance- this was practiced in Vishnu, India
where a balance scale is used. The accused is placed in the

other end while a counterbalance is made. The basis of this

ordeal is Body in balance or the failure of the body to balance
is a sign of guilt due to trembling reactions

• Ordeal of the Red Water – used in the wide region of Eastern

and Western Africa. The ordeal of sassy bark or red water was
used. Suspect fast for twelve hours before given a small

5
 amount of rice to swallow and red colored liquid made of root
extract to drink. If the suspect vomits and ejects all the rice,
he is considered innocent. The natives preferred this kind of
test when being accused because of their faith in the process.
They believed that only guilty people will suffer from the ordeal.

• Trial by Torture- The accused put into a severe physical test.

If the accused can endure such torture, he is considered
innocent.

• Boiling water Ordeal-

First mentioned in the 6th-
century Salic law, the boiling
water ordeal required the
accused to dip their hand into a
kettle or pot of boiling water
(sometimes oil or lead was used
instead) and retrieve a stone.
Assessment of the injury was
similar to that of the fire ordeal.
An early (non-judicial) example
of the test was described by
Bishop Gregory of Tours in the
late 6th century. He describes
how a Catholic saint, Hyacinth,
bested an Arian rival by
plucking a stone from a boiling
cauldron. Gregory said that it
took Hyacinth about an hour to
complete the task (because the waters were bubbling so
ferociously), but he was pleased to record that when the heretic
tried, he had the skin boiled off up to his elbow.

• Smelling the Liars – In Africa, there is other techniques

involve in determining fear thru smell. In this approach, the
suspect was assembled in circle, then an exorcist, who will
perform hypnotic ceremonies will threw himself to each suspect
and smell their neck. This procedure continues around the circle
for several hours until the guilty person was smelled out.

• Guillotine ordeal – In Turkey, the ordeal of guillotine is the

most severe means of detecting deception. The head of the
accused was cut off during the trial. If he was innocent, his
head would Roll through the maze directly through the sea. If
the accused was guilty, his head would get stuck in the maze.
The implication of this ordeal reflects on the honor of the
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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 family if the accused were proclaimed innocent, his family
would be spared from the embarrassment of the crime.

• Ordeal by Rice Chewing – This was practiced by the Indians.

It is performed with a kind of rice called sathee, prepared with
various incantations. The Person on trial eats the rice and spits
up on an eyeful leaf. If the saliva is mixed with blood or the
corner of his mouth swell or trembles, then the person is
declared as a liar where the accused is made too fast for twelve
hours and let them swallow a small amount of rice until they
are imbibed in the dark colored water. This water is emetic or
will cause vomiting and if the suspects discharge all the rice, he
is innocent otherwise, the accused is guilty.

• Drinking Ordeal- This was a practice in Nigeria and India.

Those accused was given a decoction to drink by a priest- of
innocent no harms befall them, but if guilty they will die.

• Trial by the Eucharist- Practiced in European countries. This

trial is reserved for the clergy and administered with pomp and
ceremony. If the accused was guilty, it was angel Gabriel will
descend from heaven and prevent the accused from swallowing
the food given to him.

• Ordeal of Red-Hot Needle- This was practiced in East Africa

where a red-hot needle was drawn through the lips of the
accused, if no blood will be seen flowing the accused is
innocent.

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 • Ordeal by
Heat and Fire-
This was practiced
in East Germany,
early
Scandinavian
countries, and
early England.
The accused is
forced to walk
barefooted
through a fire, if
he remains unhurt
then he is
innocent.

• Ordeal of the tiger – This was practiced in Thailand. Where

accuser and accused were placed together in the same and a
tiger set loose upon them. If both were spared, further
elimination was followed.

• Test of the Cross Ordeal- Practiced in Europe where the

accuser and accused were made to stand with arms crossed on
their breast; the one who endured the longest was deemed to
have told the truth.

• The Sacred Ass Ordeal- Practiced by the Hindus of India

where a cow or an ass is secretly placed inside a closed and
very dark room, and suspects are told to enter to the same
room to touch the tail of the cow; if the cow will make a loud
sound, then the said suspect is guilty.

• Donkeys Tail Ordeal- Practiced by the Hindus of India where

the suspect is required to enter a dark tent where a cow or
donkey and inside the tent. The tail of this donkey is covered
with soot. The suspect is told to pull the tail of the donkey.
When the suspect comes out with a dirty hand, he is not guilty
as he is not afraid to pull the donkey’s tail because he did not
commit any wrong. A person who comes out of the tent with a
clean hand is presumed guilty as he is afraid to pull the
donkey's tail, a manifestation of guilt at that time.

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 CONTEMPORARY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

1. Physiological Lie Detection – The use of modern equipment

to record the physiological changes that occur on a person was
employed in determining guilt or innocence. Polygraph is one
that is used to accurately record and measure physiological
changes which include respiratory, electrodermal,
cardiovascular and vasomotor activity. These parameters are
monitored by the sensors connected on a particular part of the
body of a person being tested.
a. Deception Test – An approach in polygraph testing
that is conducted to determine the involvement of an
examinee to a known incident or to multiple issues of
concern.

b. Recognition Test – this approach in polygraph testing

is intended to determine if the examinee who are
knowledgeable on the case information or facts, will
exhibits physiological reaction when confronted with the
item relevant to the test.

2. Non - verbal Lie detection - There are several concepts

considered to determine the non-verbal indicators of deception.
This approach includes the following.
a. Multifactor Model – in this model, there are elements
that may influence cues to deception, and each has
distinct effect on the non-verbal behavior of liar.

i. Emotional Reactions – According to Ekman

(1985) telling a lie is most associated with different
emotions such as fear, guilt, or delight. A lying
person may feel guilty, afraid to discover his lie or
elated about fooling someone. The strength of
these emotions depends on the personality of the
liar and the circumstances under which the lie takes
place. It is important to note that the behaviors of
a lying person may be affected because of guilt,
fear, and excitement.

Note: The stronger the emotions, the more likely

that some of these behaviors will reveal deceit.

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 Example:
EMOTIONS INDICATORS OF
REACTION
• Guilt • Gaze aversion
• Fear and • Increase in movements
excitement • Speech hesitation
• Speech errors
• Repetition of words
• Omission of words
• Increased pitch

ii. Cognitive Load – There are various aspect that

may explain why lying requires more cognitive
demand than telling the truth:
1. Formulating a lie demands more cognitive
effort
2. Lairs are typically less likely than the truth
tellers to take their credibility for granted.
3. Liars monitor the interviewers’ reactions
more carefully to assess whether they appear
to be getting away with their lie.
4. Liars may be preoccupied by the task of
reminding themselves to act and roleplay,
which requires extra cognitive effort.

Note: Liars who engage in cognitively complex task

experiences speech hesitations and errors, speak
slower, and takes time to give answer. It also
resulted in less hand and arm movement. It further
resulted in more gaze aversion due to difficulty in
maintaining eye contact.

iii. Attempted Behavioral Control – Liars are aware

that they must appear convincing in the eyes of
investigators, thus they will try to control their
behavior. They must subdue their nervousness
while trying to hide their difficulty of answering
questions. Lairs need to act and appear honest and
keep away from dishonest behaviors. This effort of
controlling behavior increases on high stakes
situation.

b. Self – Presentational Perspective - This approach

predicts that as liars experience one or more factors in
multifactor models, it is plausible that signs of deception

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 will occur. However, DePaulo et al argued that emotions,
cognitive load, and behavioral control may also influence
the behavior of truth tellers. Liars and truth tellers will
succeed in their social interactions goals only if they
appear sincere and convincing (DePaulo et al, 2003)

c. Interpersonal Deception Theory - This theory

suggests that liars must perform several simultaneous
communication tasks during face-to-face encounters.
Their verbal message must be credible while projecting
plausible non-verbal behavior. Liars must control their
behavior while maintaining smooth conversation with
their partner. The response is in accordance with what
they say and must conceal any intent to deceive their
partner. The response is in accordance with what they
say and must conceal any intent to deceive their partner.

NON-VERBAL CUES OF DECEPTION

According to DePaulo et al (2003), the most consistent
indicators of deceptions are the following:
• verbal and vocal immediacy
• Pupil dilation
• discrepant /ambivalent
• verbal and vocal uncertainty
• nervous tense
• vocal tension
• chin raises
• pitch frequency
• lip pressing
• illustrators
• facial pleasantness
• changes in foot movements
• pupillary changes
• genuine smile
• indifferent, unconcerned
• specific hand and arm movement
• intensity of facial expression
• direct orientation
When a person is under deception detection, he become defensive
because he is afraid of the consequences of his actions; thus, these
indications of guilt are observable in his physiological aspects;
however, these indicators of guilt do not necessarily mean that
he/she is completely lying; at some point, we must also consider
some factors that affect the person’s responses and behavior. Some
of these factors include the environment, the people around him, the

11
ability to speak in front of strangers and other conditions.

Tools for Non-Verbal Lie Detection

A. Facial Emotional Expression

The aspect of facial communication is beyond control and
can betray a deceiver’s true emotion via micro expression of
that emotion. However, researcher have found out that micro
expression of emotions is common to both liars and truth -
tellers (Brinkle et al.,2012)

B. Behavioral Analysis Interview (BAI)

The procedure includes asking non-threatening,
investigative and behavior provoking question. The guilty
suspect is supposed to probably display nervous behaviors such
as crossing their legs, shifting seating position, and performing
grooming behavior when giving answer to the question.
Innocent suspects are expected to lean forward, maintain eye
contact and use illustrators to supplement confidence in their
statements (Ganis, 2014). The guilty suspect swiftly answers
the question with lack of sincerity. They are more likely to
exhibit anxiety reducing behavior like shifting seating position
(Inbau et al, 2013). Investigators are inclined to observe
nervous behaviors to classify the innocent and guilty suspect.
Succeeding experiments on the use of BAI produced
contradicting result on the findings of Inbau. It was found out
that liars were less likely to cross their legs and shift posture
than the innocent. Another subsequent experiment showed that
BAI procedure failed to distinguished innocent from truth
tellers. (Vrij et al.,2006)

The concept about non-verbal indicators of lying has been

subjected to comprehensive research and experiments. These
tools are found to be unreliable in determining truth -tellers and
liars. There is no available evidence to support that it can
effectively discriminate the truthful and guilty person.

C. Verbal Lie Detection

The basic premise of verbal lie detection are that liars
must think harder to fabricate a lie and will try to make more
convincing impression than truthful person. Verbal lie detection
is a memory -based approach, regarded as a unique sign of
deception. It is presumed that people remember differently the
events that he experienced from the events that are fabricated.
Hence, they talk about them in different ways

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
Tools for Verbal Lie Detection
A. Statement Validity Assessment (SVA)
The SVA is a tool designed to verify the accuracy of the
testimony of a child witness during the trial of sexual cases.
There are times that an investigator encountered difficulty in
determining the facts of sexual offense involving children due
to unavailability of evidence. Also, because of the absence of
possible witnesses that could provide independent version of
the events to validate contradicting statement of victims and
accused. The SVA assessment are accepted as evidence in
some north American courts and in criminal courts in several
Western European countries.

B. Reality Monitoring
This method is used only for scientific research and said to
have strong theoretical support. It is based on memory theory
and is centered on the concept that memories of experienced
events differ in quality from memories of imagined events.

C. Scientific Content Analysis

This tool was developed by Avioam Sapir, a polygraph
examiner and a former Israeli police lieutenant. It is supposed
in this approach that truth tellers and liars differ from each
other. However, no theoretical support is available to support
the said assumptions (Nahari et al., 2012). The procedure
requires an examinee to write down in detail his/her activities
to crucial period. Handwritten statements are then analyzed
based on the criteria set for this tool.

D. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging – Based Lie

Detection
The method of monitoring brain activity has been employed
by several researchers in an attempt to detect deception. The
fMRI approach involves measurement of changes in regional
cerebral blood flow cause by the activity of the nervous system.
The activity of the brain in response to a specific type of events
is measured through fMRI procedures (Ganis, 2014)

E. Optical Motor Detection of Deception

The idea of measuring the size of pupil can be traced from
the theory suggested by Charles Darwin that pupil dilation was
associated with fear and other emotion (Andreassi, 2000). It
was speculated based on research that sympathetic nervous
system influenced the pupillary changes which could be used to
measure the value of interest and pleasure on visual stimuli.

13
 Succeeding research suggests that cognitive effort can be
related to pupil dilation.

The automatic nervous system controls the Dilation and

constriction of the pupil. The iris dilates when the sympathetic
nervous system is activated, the parasympathetic subdivision
of the Autonomic nervous system causes the constriction of the
iris.

EARLY SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF DECEPTION DETECTION

A. Polygraphy Test
This method is done using a polygraph machine which
requires proper interpretation for validation as an aid in
criminal. This method is done using a polygraph machine which
requires proper interpretation for validation as an aid in criminal
investigation, but it is not a substitute or replacement for
criminal investigation and the accuracy of the machine is
directly proportion to the credibility of the examiner.

B. Hypnotism
This method was introduced by an Austrian Physician
Franz Anton Mesmer in 1778. He believed in animal magnetism,
by which in his own personal electro – magnetism, therapeutic
effect influences other persons. This effect was attributed to the
state of mind of a subject whereby he is set up, and thereby
instructed to sit quietly and gazed at flashing light or shiny
object tangled in front of his eyes and to cooperate with
whatever the hypnotist would like him to do.

C. Word Association Test

This method was introduced in 1879 by Sir Francis Galton
(1822-1911- an English Scientist and Anthropometrist. His
experiment was later developed by Dr. Carl Gustav Jung (1875-
1961)- a Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist and the founder
of Analytical Psychology. This method is done by giving a
subject a long list of carefully selected stimulus words or object
with other pictures combined with other irrelevant words,
objects, or pictures with the instruction to respond with the very
first word that may come to subject’s mind. Dr. Jung was able
to observe how the thinking reactions were linked to his subject
emotional habit. The theory behind this method is that word or
idea is reflective of another word or idea and the expression of
their association forms a meaningful picture.

14
Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 D. The Truth Serum Method
This method was introduced by Dr. Edward Mandel House
(1858-1938), a U.S Physicist and diplomat and a confidential
adviser to former U.S President Woodrow Wilson. The term,
“truth serum” is a misnomer. The procedure does not make
someone tell the truth and the thing administered is not a
serum but is a drug. This method is based on the theory that
“intervention through interrogation is made possible after
dosage of drugs has been appropriately administered, which
depress the cerebral activity to a point of unconsciousness, an
influence called as the “House Receptive Stage” of the “Twilight
Zone”. On this condition, the subject is half asleep.

E. Narco-Analysis or Narco-Synthesis
This method of detecting deception was practically the
same as that of administration of truth serum. The only
difference is the drug used. The drug Sodium Amytal and
Sodium Pentothal is administered to the subject. It was claimed
that the drug causes depression of the inhibitory mechanism of
the brain and the subjects talk freely. The administration of the
drug and subsequent interrogation must be done by
psychiatrist. Like the administration of truth serum, the result
of the test was not admissible in court.

F. Intoxication
This was practiced by way of drinking alcoholic beverages
as stimuli to obtain truth on the part of the subject. The subject
for interrogation will be allowed to take alcoholic beverages up
to the point of intoxication. Theoretically, when under the
influence of alcohol, the power of control is said to be
diminished; thus, the subject will tend to tell everything he
knows or reveal all the relevant information. Interrogation is to
be made during the excitatory effect of alcohol.

Under this method, there is eventually a lack of self-

control of the subject under intoxication. When the subject is
already in a depressive state due to excess alcohol intake, he
will not be able to answer questions anymore, and perhaps fall
asleep. Confession made by the subject while intoxicated is
admissible if he is physically able to recollect the facts and sates
them truly and exactly even after the influence of ‘spirit” of
alcohol has disappeared. But in most instances, the subject can
recall his utterances or usually refuses to admit the truth of the
statement given.

15
 METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION THROUGH REGULAR
POLICE WORKS

The Police Methods sought to answer the legal investigation process

are the so called “Five Wives and one husband” technique or the 5
W’s and 1 H which stands for WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO, WHY and
HOW. These questions are used to gain the so called “Three I’s” (3
I’s) of investigation which refers to the following:

1. Information Gathering- Through Record check,

surveillance and intelligence check.
2. Investigation- Through Interrogation and/or interview to
obtain admission or confession.
3. Instrumentation- through criminalistics processes with
use of different investigative forensic sciences such as
medico legal or forensic medicine, forensic chemistry,
forensic photography, forensic ballistics, questioned
document examinations, dactyloscopy and polygraphy or
deceptography.

Note: Determine the difference between Interview and Interrogation

and admission from confession), Thus

INTERVIEW VS INTERROGATION
1. Process is compulsory.
1. Nature is voluntary.
2. Suspect should answer
2. Witness may or may
the questions.
not answer questions.
3. Technique: Questions
3. Mode: merely asking of
should be propounded to
questions.
the Suspects.
4. Answers or statements
4. Answers are very
may be necessary to
important either as
the case, or not.
confession or admission.
5. Subjects are often
5. Subjects are always the
victims or witnesses.
Suspects.
ADMISSION VS CONFESSION
It is a self-incriminatory It is a declaration of facts
statement of facts by the directly acknowledging the
accused, that does not truth of the guilty as charged,
directly acknowledge the or of some essential part of the
offense committed, with commission of the criminal act
which he is being charged. itself.

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 LET’S TRY THIS!

Instructions: Ask your great grandparents, grandparents, and

parents about what they had remember about ancient methods of
deception detection. After, develop your own historical timeline.

LET’S TRY THIS!

Instructions: Identify the difference and similarities between the

ancient and modern methods of deception detection.

Ancient Modern
Methods Methods

17
 LET’S DO THIS!

Instruction: Read and reflect the following quotation

1. “Search for truth” as the basis and goal of all criminal

investigations. -Hans Gross
2. “Investigation is a battle of lie against lies”. -Hogan (PCCr,
Instructional Module 1996)

How do you reflect the above quotations? How does it

motivate you in relation to your chosen course?

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 MODULE 1: Polygraphy: Components,
Functions, and Historical Development

The The Conventional

and Computerized
Polygraph Machine
Conventional and Computerized Polygraph Machine

Module Overview

This lesson covers the polygraph machine, or lie detector, which

measures physiological responses like heart rate, breathing, and skin
conductivity to detect deception. Key components include sensors for tracking
sweat and breathing, a recording device, an amplifier, and computer software
for data analysis. We also explore the historical advancements made by John
Augustus Larson, who developed the first modern polygraph, Leonard Keeler,
who improved its design, and William M. Marston, whose research underpinned
its theoretical basis. This overview provides insight into the polygraph's
operation and its development over time.

19
LESSON 2: The Conventional and Computerized Polygraph
Machine

LESSON SUMMARY

In this lesson, we explored the intricacies of polygraph

machines, also known as lie detectors. A polygraph machine is
designed to measure and record physiological responses such as
heart rate, respiratory rate, and skin conductivity, which may indicate
whether a person is being truthful or deceptive. The main components
of a polygraph machine include sensors, a recording device, an
amplifier, and computer software. Sensors like the Galvanic Skin
Response (GSR) sensors track changes in skin conductivity due to
sweating, while the respiratory belt monitors breathing patterns. The
cardiograph records heart rate and blood pressure variations. These
physiological signals are captured by the recording device and
amplified to ensure accuracy. The computer software then analyzes
this data to assist in interpreting the results.

The development of the polygraph machine was significantly

advanced by key figures in its history. John Augustus Larson, in the
1920s, developed the first modern polygraph, incorporating
techniques for measuring physiological responses. Leonard Keeler
made significant improvements in the 1930s, refining the machine’s
design to enhance its precision. Additionally, William M. Marston
contributed foundational research on the polygraph's theoretical
underpinnings. Through the combined efforts of these innovators, the
polygraph machine evolved into a more sophisticated tool for
examining truthfulness.

LESSON OBJECTIVES:

a. Discuss what is a polygraph machine and its different parts.

b. Explain the functions of every component of a polygraph machine

in the process of polygraph examination.

c. Identify the contributions of different persons behind the

development of polygraph machine.

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
LET’S LEARN!
Polygraph
The use of polygraph machine as scientific tool in deception
detection is very technical specifically in a forensic settings wherein
different factors should be considered to value its application and the
results thereof. In polygraph, the question is whether the examiner
can consistently detect deception because the result of a polygraph
test will depend on the ability, skills, competence, and knowledge of
the polygraph examiner to detect deception and obtain confession or
admission. Polygraph is derived from the Greek word ‘’Poly’’ which
means many or several and ‘’Graph” which means writing chart.
Polygraph is popularly referred also as a lie detector test it is a
scientific machine capable of recording simultaneously changes in
blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration, and skin resistance as an
indicative of emotional disturbance especially of a lying subject when
being questioned. It is a sensitive machine which is likened and
compared to an X- ray, which require proper interpretation for
validation and its accuracy is said to be directly proportional to the
knowledge, skills, education, desire, competency, and integrity of the
operator.
Thomas Jefferson is the first man to use the word ‘’polygraph’’

Three fundamental bases of Polygraph Technique

6. Mechanical Basic Premise – The Polygraph machine is
mechanically capable of making graphical records containing
reliable information regarding physiological responses of the
subject.
7. Physiological Basic Premise - the physiological changes
that may be recorded and identified are those that
automatically occur only following the simulation of specific
nervous system component and from which stimulation of
those specific nervous system component can be reliably
diagnosed.
8. Psychological Basic premise - under polygraph leg
premise, the specific nervous system component whose
stimulation can be diagnosed are so stimulated by the
involuntary mental and emotional processes of the individual

21
 who is consciously attempting concealment of deception
specially if the individual has something at stake and the
prevailing circumstances lead him to believe the exposure to
detection is quite possible though undesirable.

Physiological Phenomena as a Basis of Detecting Deception as

per the tripod foundations

I. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Dr. William Martson was known as the first to use blood
pressure cuff in an attempt to detect deception. He used a
discontinuous blood pressure test to record systolic blood
pressure readings of a suspect during investigation. Dr.
Martson findings on discontinuous blood pressure test was
presented in Frye case in 1923 which led to decision of U.S
District Court of Washington disallowing the result for lacked
general acceptance in scientific community (Handler et al,
2007). The cardiovascular system consists of the heart,
arteries, capillaries, and veins. Its purpose is to transport
nutrients and oxygen to body tissues and removed metabolic
wastes and carbon dioxide from the body tissues (Handler, et
al.,2007).
During Polygraph examination, the primary concern of
polygraph examiner is to monitor the changes that occur in the
heart and blood vessel by measuring the psychological
phenomena through a partially inflated blood pressure cuff.
Emotion-evoking questions are known to cause baseline
arousal and sometimes a change in pulse amplitude. Baseline
changes in cardiograph tracing usually may occur during phasic
or tonic change. (Handler, et al., 2007)

Cardiovascular Baseline
• Changes in the Baseline
• Changes in the Pulse amplitude
The Diagnostic importance of pulse amplitude and
baseline changes are primarily caused by changes in blood
pressure and blood volume.
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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 Cardiac Cycle
The cardiac cycle describes all the activities of the heart
through one complete heartbeat that involves one contraction
and relaxation of both the atria and ventricles.

Blood pressure and Heartbeat Frequency

Increase of blood pressure and heartbeat frequency
following relevant questions and the suppressions in breathing
are the criteria for detecting deception. Ink curved as shown on
the heartbeat recorded on a moving graph paper of a polygraph
represent the beat frequency (pulse) and the two pressures
(blood pressures), Systolic (systole) or high pressure – they
exist when the heart is contracted and the valves are open with
the blood rushing into the arteries. It is the highest vertical
point in the pulse wave of the cardiovascular tracings, Diastolic
(diastole) or Low pressure – this exist when the valves are
closed, and the heart is relaxed. This refers to the descending
limb of the pulse wave. Dicrotic Notch – it is the rebounding of
the blood against the closed aortic semilunar valve after
systole.
Note: normal blood pressures are less than 120/ 80 mmHg
The heart is an automatic organ that continues to beat
even when removed from the body of provided with proper
blood, the rate and force of the heartbeat as regulated by two
sets of nerves the sympathetic set – which accelerate the beat
and the Cranial Autonomic System – which retard the beat.

23
 The average heart rate changes between 70-80 bpm
(Martini, 2000). It may decrease during sleep by 10 to 20 bp
and may reach up to 150 bpm during emotional excitement.

II. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system supplies oxygen and removes
carbon dioxide from our body. As we breathe, the air travels in
and out of our lungs. There is an intake of oxygen as we inhale,
carbon dioxide is taken out of body cells when we exhale.
During polygraph testing, breathing is monitored to determine
physiological phenomena associated with the activity of the
autonomic nervous system.
The respiratory center is responsible for producing and
maintaining the rhythm of respiration. It regulates homeostasis
in response to physiological changes. The respiratory center
receives inputs from chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, the
cerebral cortex, and the hypothalamus in order to regulate the
rate and depth of breathing. Input is stimulated by altered level
of oxygen, carbon dioxide and blood Ph, by hormonal changes
relating to stress and anxiety from the hypothalamus, and by
signals from the cerebral cortex to give a conscious control of
respiration.

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 Breathing as a means of detecting Deception
Breathing consists of two steps.
Inspiration (inhalation) – caused by the
contraction of diaphragm and expansion of the chest
cavity that results in the air rushing into the lungs.
Expiration (exhalation) – caused by relaxation
of the diaphragm and contraction of the chest cavity
resulting in the air rushing out of the lungs.

Note: the ff. affects the breathing rates,

1. Muscular exercise (muscle movement / jogging)
2. Anticipation of muscular exercise (thinking to
perform heavy work)
3. Recalling mentally emotional experience
4. Mental activity
5. Anxious expectancy
6. Shock
7. Surprise
8. Disease
9. Age

25
 III. ELECTRODERMAL ACTIVITY
The term electrodermal activity refers to changes in the
electrical properties in the skin. The older term used to describe
the skin phenomena is galvanic skin response or galvanic skin
reflex which was named after Luigi Galvani (Boucsein, 2012,
Handler, etal.,2010).

Methods of Recording Electrodermal Activity

• Exosomatic Method – The application of either direct
current (DC) or alternating current (AC) to the skin. In
DC measurement, if voltage is kept constant, EDA is
recorded directly in skin conductance units, while skin
resistance units are obtained when current is kept
constant. The discovery of exosomatic method of
recording EDA was discovered by Fere in 1888
o Skin Conductance – Siemens (S) or mhos
o Skin Resistance – Ohms
• Endosomatic Method – Refers to the measurement of
electrodermal response generated by the sweat glands
without using external current. It was first reported by
Tarchanoff in 1890.
o Skin Potential – measured in microvolts.

Different layers of the Skin

• Epidermis – the
outer layer of the skin
which provides
waterproof barrier and
creates skin tone.
• Dermis (cutis)– the
lower layer part of the
skin that contain tough
connective tissues, hair
follicles and sweat
glands. It serves to
cushion the body from
stress and strain.
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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 • Hypodermis – it attaches to the skin connective tissues
covering the muscles. It contains the secretory part of the
eccrine sweat gland embedded in fatty tissues, blood vessels
and nerves supplying the rest of the skin.

THE SWEAT GLANDS

• Apocrine Sweat Glands

These types of sweat glands are located in the armpit and
genitals are. They are larger in size which are discharge into
hair follicles and produced body smells and produced body
smells that cause by skin bacteria. They are not of value as
source of electrodermal response considered in
psychophysiology or polygraphy.
• Eccrine Sweat Glands
These types of sweat glands are distributed all over the body,
but most are found on the palms, soles and forehead and least
dense on the arms, trunks and legs.
The eccrine sweat gland’s primary function is to help in
maintaining homeostasis by regulating body temperature. It
consists of secretory coil found in the dermis and sweat duct
located in the hypodermis.

27
 Factors affecting Electrodermal Response
o Medication
o Temperature
o Demographics (age and gender)

Conventional Polygraph Instruments

The two-common brands of conventional polygraph are

Lafayette and Stoelting. The instrument basically consists of two
pneumography, galvanometer, and cardio channels that record the
physiological phenomena during the period of test. There are some
differences about the future of the components and parts, but its
functions and operation are generally the same.

Major Components of a conventional Polygraph

The instrument used in Polygraph Examination is often called
Polygraph. It was defined as an instrument or device capable of
producing recordings of physiological phenomena that may be used
as a basis for the application of reliable techniques for diagnosing
truth or deception.
Remember: it only records the physiological changes that occur
when the subject tells a lie or deception, it is the examiner who
determines deception through the use or aid of the polygraph
instruments.
The Polygraph simultaneously records different physiological
phenomena from these different components.

A. The Pneumograph Channel

It records respiration, and it is one of the three traditional
channels of the modern polygraph used in Polygraph
Deception Detection. Most contemporary polygraphs use
two Pneumograph recordings that occupy the two upper
pens which records the abdominal and thoracic breathing
patterns of respiration. This is accomplished using this
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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 pneumograph consisting of two hollow corrugated tubes
about seven inches in length, each attached to a unit by a
rubber hose not longer than six feet and not larger than one
quarter inch in diameter.

1. Pneumographic tube – is a corrugated and stretchable

rubberized tube or apparatus that is to be attached to the
subject chest or stomach. Inhalation will cause the tube
to stretch and subsequently create an upward tracing or
movement of the pneumo- pen unto the polygraph chart.
Exhalations are the downward tracing thereof.
2. beaded chain – is a freewheeling string of stainless
beads with a hook that fastens the pneumographic tube
unto subject’s chest or stomach.
Explanation: These two rubber tubes filled with air are placed
around examines chest and abdomen, when the chest and abdominal
muscles expand, the air inside the tubes is displaced and the
computerized or digital polygraph employs transducer to convert the
energy of that displaced air into electronic signals.

B. THE CARDIOGRAPH CHANNEL

It records the changes occurring in the human circulatory
system, such as the blood pressure rate and strength pulse
beat. This is the fourth and the bottom pen of the instruments.
Note: cardiograph is a general term for any recording of
heart activity. In psychophysiological and medical literature
this is most often referred to as electrocardiograph.
29
 1. Arm cuff – attached to the
subject’s arm
2. Hand pump bulb – causes
the arm cuff to inflate to
produce blood pressure and
pulse rates.
3. Aneroid Blood Pressure
Meter Gauge – measures and
monitors blood pressures while
the polygraphic testing is going
on.
Explanation: The cardio unit is
a mechanically operated, it is a high-pressure system that records
changes in blood pressure cuff containing a rubber bladder that is
wrapped around the upper arm, in a manner that places the bladder
against the brachial artery. The bladder is connected to the rubber
hose, past a pressure indicating gauge to a very sensitive billows and
its connected lever system that powers the pen. The polygraphist
inflates the bladder with a hand pump to a constant air pressure that
will provide a tracing amplitude of 0.75 to 1 inch with a dichotic notch
situated about the middle of the diastolic limb of the tracing.
Note: The attachment of the cuff to the subject’s arms must be
centered to have a normal recorded pattern of blood to produce clear
and precise pressure.

C. The EDA (Electrodermal Activity) CHANNEL

It is also known as GALVANOGRAPH it records the
changes occurring in the nervous excretory system. It has been
studied that brain activities and electrical charges have been
recorded thru the epidermal skin reflexes passed through the
different nerves of the human body. The EDA channel provides
the most reliable and visible tracing used in the evaluation of
physiological data collected during polygraph testing. The
magnitude of Electrodermal response recorded by the
component is equal to the psychological significance that the
examinee provides during the test (Handler, et al 2010)
- This is the longest and the third pen of the instruments
- Sometimes called the Galvanic-skin- reflex

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 - Galvanic Skin Resistance also called as electro- dermal
activity.

1.Finger Electrodes
– are special types of
sensitive metal plates
to be attached to the
subject’s end joints of
both index and ring
fingers of the left
hand or the palmar
and dorsal surfaces of
the left hand, for the
recording of the electrical charges from the brain through the skin.
Explanation: the fingertips are one of the most porous areas of the
body and therefore a good place to look for sweat, there is a theory
that the more we produce sweat if we are placed under stress
therefore finger electrodes are attached to the two of the examinee’s
fingers. This finger electrode measures the skin’s ability to conduct
electricity. When the skin is hydrated (as with sweat), it conducts
electricity much more easily than when it is dry.

D. The Kymograph Channel

A motorized mechanism that moves strip chart paper at
a specified rate. This is the chart drive recording unit of the
instrument. It has a synchronized motor that drives the chart
at the rate of six (6) to twelve (12) inches per minute and its
speed constant is vital because the vertical lines which are
spaced either at one half of an inch interval, represent five- or
ten-seconds interval on the chart. This provides the
polygraphist with a means of determining pulse rate and the
questioning space.
Other minor parts of a conventional polygraph
a. Chart – (approximately 100 ft.) rolled graph paper
composed of twelve divisions in one minute run
designed to measure the rate of various body
functioning.

31
 b. Cutter bar – used to cut the paper at the end of the
test.
c. Rubber roller – the one responsible for pulling the
paper out of the machine
d. Pen table – flat portion where the pen writes on the
chart
e. Paper rail guide – serves as the security for the
unnecessary movement of the chart paper or to ensure
the paper’s forward movement without shaking.
f. Synchronous motor – to run the chart paper at the
uniform rate speed regardless of the voltage changes.
g. Pen lifter – raise or lower pen to three (3) position
h. Paper tear bar- provides cutting edge for removal of
charts.
i. Chart Drive Module – propels chart paper at the rate
of 6 – 12 inches per minute. Also known as kymograph
j. Paper tear bar- provides cutting edge for removal of
charts.
k. Mechanical Pneumo Module – recording part of
mechanical Pneumo Channel.
l. Galvanic Skin Reflex (GSR) module – recording part
of GSR Channel
m. Mechanical Cardio Module – recording part of
Mechanical Cardio Channel
n. Chart drive roller lever – lifts chart drive roller for
paper changes and chart removal
o. Sphygmomanometer dial – reads operating pressure
of Cardio Channel
p. Pump – connection for hand pump used to inflate
subject cuff
q. Centering control – position pen on chart. Rotating
clockwise raise the pen while counterclockwise rotation
lowers it. operates similarly on all channels.
r. GSR Mode Switch – select the operating mode for GSR
Channel manual or automatic
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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 s. Sensitivity control – determine the tracing size
(amplitude). Rotating clockwise increases size while
counterclockwise rotation decreases size.
t. GSR Input Connector – accepts plug from GSR
subject attachment

Computerized Polygraph

The development of computerized Polygraph system began at

the University of Utah. Its concept was based on extensive laboratory
and field research conducted for more than 30 years. The system was
designed to measure physiological features including skin
conductance response, increase in relative blood pressure and
reduction in respiration line length. Other sensors are designed to
record finger pulse using photoelectric plethysmograph. Subjects’
movement is monitored through seat, arm and feet sensors. Two
microphones are used for voice events generated by the examiner
and subject. Optional sensors are designed to monitor skin potentials
and other parameters.
33
 BASIC PARTS OF COMPUTERIZED POLYGRAPH

1. Physiology Data Acquisition System – This is the system

that acquires and transforms the physiological data monitored
by the different sensors attached to the parts of the subject’s
body.
2. Pneumograph Sensors – Thoracic and abdominal respiration
tracings are obtained using either the pneumatic rubber
convoluted sensor or the piezo electronic sensor. The signal is
produced by the pneumograph sensors which stretch and relax
when the subject breathes.
3. Electrodermal Activity Sensors - Computerized polygraph
records electrodermal activity through endosomatic or
exosomatic process. Skin conductance or resistance is
measured with the use of a traditional finger electrode,
reusable electrode which is enhanced by an electrode paste, or
with the sensitive disposable gel electrode attached on the
palm of the subject.
4. Cardiovascular Activity Sensor – Cardio tracing is obtained
using a traditional blood pressure cuff, arm cuff or a finger cuff
depending on which is most convenient and effective. The
Stoelting Computerized System, optimal cuff pressure is
between 52 to 62 mmHg. The tracing will be corrupted if
adjustment was made. Sensitivity of a Cardio has a default
setting of 50
5. Plethysmograph Sensor – Blood pulse volume is measured
using a sensitive photoelectric plethysmograph. The sensor is
placed on the palmar surface of the distal phalange of the index
finger or thumb on the arm with no arm cuff.
6. Seat / Movement Sensor – The movement sensors can
record body movement. The sensor is designed to be sensitive
to somatic/behavioral nervous system activity. The addition of
activity sensors can increase the detection of somatic activity,
and this may reduce occurrence of false accusations of
countermeasure used.

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 LET’S TRY THIS!

Identification of Polygraph Parts

Name: Date:
Yr & Section: Score:

I. Objectives: This activity will enable the students to:

i. Identify the parts of polygraph
ii. Familiarize the functions of every part of
polygraph
iii. Appreciate the importance of the examiner’s
knowledge about the functions and operations of
polygraph.
II. Direction: Identify the parts of the polygraph instrument.
Describe the function of each part.

NO. Name of Parts Function Remarks

10

11

12

13

35
 14

15

Explain the importance of polygraph examiner’s technical knowhow

on the functions and operations of the polygraph instrument.

III. Assessment tool

NO. Procedures Score

Excellent Very Satisfactory Needs Poor

Satisfactory Improvement Below

1 Identification
of polygraph
parts

2 Description
of functions
for each part

3 Explain the
significance
of examiners
knowledge
on the
functions of
polygraph
instruments.

Total Score

Evaluated by:
Instructor

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 MODULE 1: Polygraphy: Components,
Functions, and Historical Development

Development of
Polygraph

Module Overview

In this lesson, we explore the evolution of polygraph technology, starting with

Jacques D’Arsonval’s early galvanometer work and Charles Samson Féré’s
emotional response research. Key developments included Angelo Mosso’s heart
rate measurements, Cesare Lombroso’s and George Sticker’s deception detection
methods, and 20th-century advances by Sir James Mackenzie, Otto Veraguth,
Leonarde Keeler, Capt. Chester W. Darrow, John E. Reid, Cleve Backster, and Paul
Wilhelm with Donald Burns, which refined the polygraph’s accuracy and
application.

37
LESSON 3: Development of Polygraph

LESSON SUMMARY

In this lesson, we traced the development of polygraph

technology through pivotal figures and innovations. We began with
Jacques D’Arsonval in 1851, whose work on electricity and
galvanometers laid early foundations. Charles Samson Féré’s 1888
discovery linked emotional states to physiological responses, while
Angelo Mosso's 1895 sphygmomanometer advanced the
measurement of heart rate under emotional stress. Cesare
Lombroso’s hydrosphygmograph and George Sticker’s 1897
galvanograph furthered deception detection techniques. The early
20th century saw major strides with Sir James Mackenzie’s “Ink
Polygraph,” Otto Veraguth’s “psychogalvanic reflex,” and Hugo
Münsterberg’s push for polygraph evidence in court. Leonarde
Keeler’s 1925 improvements, and Capt. Chester W. Darrow’s 1932
modifications and John E. Reid’s 1945 Reid Polygraph refined
accuracy, culminating in Cleve Backster’s 1947 control question
technique and Paul Wilhelm and Donald Burns’ 1951 electronic
psychometric. These advancements highlight the evolution of
polygraph technology and its role in detecting deception.

LET’S LEARN!
1851 – Jacques D’Arsonval a French scientist who declared that
electricity is generated by the body. This was known as external
friction. His works helped in the development of the galvanometer.
1888 - Charles Samson Fere a French scientist who discovered
that electro-dermal response is caused by an increase in the action
of the heart and vital energy converted with human emotions. He
asserted that the human body could generate, store, and discharge
high voltage of static electricity.
1895 - Angelo Mosso studied fear and its influence on the heart.
His observations subsequently formed the basis for the technique
employed in his developed Sphygmomanometer.

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 Cesare Lombroso
employed the first
scientific instruments
to detect deception.
This instrument known as
hydrosphygmograph
measured changes
measured changes in
pulse and blood pressure
when suspect when
questioned about their
involvement in or
knowledge of a specific
response. The procedure
on the use of
hydrosphygmograph in
detecting deception begins with subject hands which was placed
under water filled tank sealed with membranes of rubber then he will
be shown pictures connected with the crime or will be asked of the
relevant facts of the crime. The pulsation of blood was then recorded.
1897 - George Sticker first person to suggest the use of the
galvanograph for detecting deception. He theorized that the galvanic
skin phenomenon was influenced by exciting mental impressions.
1906 - Sir James Mackenzle a famous English Heart Specialist who
wrote an article entitled, ‘’The Ink Polygraph’’. His invention,
however, was not for lie
detection purposes, but
rather for the use in medical
examination. Nevertheless,
it did contain the essential
features of the present-day
instruments.
1907 - Otto Veraguth was
the first to use the term
‘’PSYCHOGALVANIC
REFLEX’- an idea that the
electrical phenomenon was
due to the activity of the
sweat glands.

39
1908 - Hugo Munsterburg proposed and advocated that lie tests
based on lie detectors should be admissible as evidence in court.
1914 - Vittorio Benussi successfully detected deception with a
pneumograph, an instrument that graphically measures an
examinee’s inhalation and exhalation and demonstrated that changes
in breathing patterns accompany deception.
1915 - William Martson dealt with the sphygmomanometer which
was used to obtain periodic discontinuous blood pressures readings
during the examination. He was also noted in the development of the
pneumograph, which records breathing patterns and galvanometer,
which registers changes in skin resistance.
1918 - Harold Burtt determined that respiratory changes were
indicative of deception. He found out that changes in systolic blood
pressures were of greater value in determining deception than
changes in respiration.
1921 - John Larson
developed the ’Larson
Polygraph’’, an instrument
capable of continuously
recording blood pressures,
pulse, and respiration. It
was made on a Polygraphic
apparatus in a portable
form and became the first
assemblage apparatus
used by his co- workers in
the Berkeley Police
Department. Under the
Larson Polygraph, a strip of paper on which the tracing is recorded is
mounted on two drums which are turned by a spring mechanism
known as kymograph. The paper is smoked to reduce the friction of
the styluses or recording levers which were actuated by many
tambours.
1925 - Leonarde Keeler developed a compact portal instrument
using modifications of the Erlanger pressure reducer that permits the
blood pressures changes to be recorded over a greater range. He
later made further improvement by substituting metal bellows or
diaphragm capsules in place of the Erlanger type pressure reducer.
The instrument ids housed is housed in a steel case with wrinkled
finish and chromium trim. The cover is attached to the case by means

40
Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 of slip hinges and can
be removed when the
instruments are to be
used. All connections
to the instruments are
made directly under
the right end of the
panel, which include
the hose connection
for the cuff inflation
bulb, the tube from
the blood pressure
cuff, a connector for
the hand electrodes of
the electro dermal unit, an extension cord, and a tube from the
pneumograph. Space is provided directly below the attachment for
storage of the accessories, and they may be stored without
disconnecting the accessories form the instruments
1930 - Capt. Clarence D. Lee designed the Lee Psychograph consist
essentially of four units – chart drive or recording unit, pneumograph or
respiration unit, cardiograph, or pulse- blood pressure unit, and the
stimulus signal unit.

1932 - Chester W. Darrow made a third modification to the Larson

cardio-Pneumo Psychograph, by adding a galvanometer. The new
instruments included a psychogalvanometric record, electrodes on
the palm and back of the hand, as well as a continuous blood pressure
record, and pneumographic record.
1945 - John E. Reid devised an instrument for recording muscular
activity. He invented his own Reid Polygraph which was capable of
recording simultaneously the blood pressure and pulse rate,
respiration tracing and rendered much more accurate readings.
1947 - Cleve Backster developed the control question technique
which introduces a lie in the polygraph chart to establish a yard stick
so that one would know what the reaction really means. According to
the Backster’s technique, if this person responds to this control lie to
a greater extent than those to the actual question under
investigation, it assumes and establishes the subject is telling the
truth at that point.
1951- Paul Wilhelm and Donald Burns were known as lie
specialists in Michigan City, Indiana, USA, who invented electronic
Psychometric using Electro Dermal Response as a basis for lie
41
detection. Both have proven that the result of lie detection test using
their instruments was 95% accurate.
PERSONALITIES BEHIND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
DIFFERENT COMPONENT OF A POLYGRAPH

A. CARDIOSPHYMOGRAPH
a. Cesare Lombroso (1895) – credited to be the first to
conceive the idea of utilizing scientific lie detection.
b. Angelo Mosso (1895) – utilized a scientific cradle and
focus on the importance of fear as a strong influence on
deception.
c. William M. Martson (1915) – He made use of a
sphygmomanometer and focus on the importance of the
systolic blood pressure. He also devised a discontinuous
technique in questioning. “Father of modern
Polygraph’’
d. John A. Larson (1921) – devised the so called “Bread
Lie Detector’’, a scientific instrument capable of
simultaneously recording changes in blood pressures,
pulse beat and respiration.

B. GALVANOGRAPH
a. George Sticker – works on the galvanograph
component and study the influence of the sweat glands
to skin resistance
b. Otto Veraguth – formulated the term psycho galvanic
skin reflex following the study of sticker.
c. Richard O. Arthur – the person who developed a
polygraph machine with two galvanic skin resistance
d. Luigi Galvani (1791) – an Italian physiologist who was
accorded the distinction for developing galvanic skin
reflex or the galvanometer
C. PNEUMOGRAPH
a. Vittorio Bennussi – focus on the formulation of the
inhalation and exhalation ratio

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 b. Harold Burtt – considered respiration as a weak basis in
determining deception and incorporated the systolic
blood pressures to respiration.

D. KEYMOGRAPH
a. Leonarde Keeler – developed the kymograph machine
and the keeper’s polygraph in the year 1926 as one of
the great advancements to the development of the
polygraph machine.
i. He is also the father of modern lie detection.

OTHER PERSONALITIES

1. John E. Reid – developed the Reid Polygraph with an

incorporation of muscular resistance compared to the Keelers
and Stoelting. Also developed the SAT test and Control
Question Test
2. Francis Galton – Formulated the Word Association Test
3. Cleve Backster – formulated the numerical scoring on the
polygraph chart and standardizing quantitative polygraph
technique.
4. Sir James Mackenzle – a heart specialist who Published in
two British Journal, the machine he used in his work and
named it ‘’INK POLYGRAPH’’.

43
 MODULE 1: Polygraphy: Components,
Functions, and Historical Development

Psychology of a
Lying Person

Module Overview

In this lesson, we explore the psychological reasons why a person would lie and
understand that lying is a learned behavior that evolves with experience. Young
children lie primarily to avoid punishment, often telling implausible lies due to
their limited understanding of believability. As they grow, their experiences help
them grasp the implications of lying, leading to a shift in their behavior by early
adulthood. Adult lying becomes more sophisticated, influenced by emotional
reactions such as fear, anxiety, and apprehension. These emotions trigger
physiological responses that can be detected through lie detection tests, revealing
fluctuations in the liar's physiological state that are beyond their conscious
control.
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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
LESSON 3: Development of Polygraph

LESSON SUMMARY

The capability of telling a lie is learned as human

developed and earned experiences. Young children learned to
lie to avoid punishment for any wrongdoing. In this early
stage of development, children utter lies which are
unbelievable because they could not fully realize whether their
statement is believable or not. When their lies were
undetected, they will be encouraged to tell more lies. The
moral understanding to stop from telling lies is not yet
perceive by children. Experience makes them understand the
nature and effect of lying. Their attitude of telling lies is likely
to change in early adulthood. Obviously, adult lying is more
sophisticated than children.
Knowing that lying is typically an emotional act that
causes reactions in the lying person's mental, emotional, and
physiological aspect such as fear, anxieties, and apprehension
that can be related to a circumstance that will trigger their
instinct for self-preservation to fight off the consequence of
the wrong they had already done.
Fear from detection is one of the reasons why a person
tends to commit a lie, thus if that person is under a lie
detection test his or her reactions is scattered in different
responses and comes out in some physiologic fluctuations that
come together with that emotion which is natural and
automatic beyond the conscious control of the subject.

LET’S LEARN!
According to Handler (2018) a very justifiable theory in
comparison question test is that there are changes in measured
physiology load on one group of question or the other, as a function
of deception or truth telling the relevant question.

45
 A subject who is lying to the relevant question will have larger
changes in the measure d physiology to the relevant question than
to the comparison question. On the other hand, a person who is
telling the truth to the relevant question will have larger changes in
the measure d physiology to the comparison question than to the
relevant question (Handler, 2018).

DECEPTION LIE
an act of convincing another 1. An assertion of something
to believe information that is known or believed by speaker
not true. It involves concepts or writer to be untrue with
like propaganda, distraction, intent to deceive (Miriam-
and concealment webster.com)
2. A false statement made with
deliberate intent to deceive
(thesaurus.com)
3. Is a type of deception in the
form of an untruthful
statement with the intention
to deceive.
4. An assertion that is believed
to be false, typically used with
the purpose of deceiving
someone.
(https//google.com)

KINDS OF LIES
• White Lie or Bening (/bəˈnīn/) Lie - This kind of lie is the
most common of all lies, intended to protect, or maintain
harmony or friendship at home, in the office, or anywhere.
• Pathological Lie – This is a lie made by a person who cannot
distinguish between right and wrong. Those people who are
mentally sick or with low psychological understanding. They are
considered as barriers and obstacles to lie detection with the
aid of polygraph. Insane people commonly commit this.
• Red Lie- This is about spite and revenge. Liars are driven by
motive to harm others even at the expense of harming oneself.
• Black Lie- This is a lie that accompanies pretensions and
hypocrisies, intriguing to cause dishonor or discredit one’s

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 image. Simple and callous selfishness. For self-interest, to gain
something at the expense of another.
• Malicious or judicial Lie - This is an extremely
straightforward, pure and unjustifiable kind of lie that a guilty
person tells with. The sole intention is to mislead or obstruct
the course of justice.
• Noble Lie- A lie whose truth, if revealed, would bring about
discord, but which in exchange for its benefits to the liar would
help maintain social order and give advantage to the other
party.
• Emergency Lie- the truth may not be told because it will harm
a third party.
• Perjury- The act of lying by making false statements under
oath or affirmation in a court of law or in any various sworn
statement.
• Bluffing- full of pretensions that he or she has the capability
to do things out of the control of others.
• Jocose (/jōˈkōs/) Lie- are lies used in jokes or jest and are
understandable by the people around.
• Promotional lies- these are statements that are not credible.
Frequently observed in various forms of advertisement.
• Lying by omission – It is the type of lie that people usually
use because it is simple to tell. Individuals who use this type of
lie will tell the truth while omitting or leaving out details that
could create possible troubles.
• Lie of Fabrication- this is the most difficult lie that subject
could tell during an interview.
• Lie of minimization – in this type of lie individual will accept
that something has occurred but downplays the implications.
Lie minimization could be used if a subject wants to stay close
to the truth; however, he covers the truth for his or her own
benefit.
• Lie of exaggeration -this is a lie often used to exaggerate
things for the hope of obtaining some advantage. This is also
often found on resumes when applicants exaggerate his or her
experience, knowledge, skills, salary, and length of service.

47
 TYPES OF LIARS
• Panic Liar– a person lies to avoid the consequences of a
confession. He or she is afraid of embarrassment to loved ones
and it is serious blow to his /her ego and believes that
confession will just make the matter worse.
• Occupational Liar– They are practical liars for they lie when
it has a higher “payoff” than telling the truth
• Tournament Liar- Loves to lie and is excited by the challenge
of not being detected. This person views an interview as
another content and wants to win. This person realizes that
they will probably be convicted but will not give anyone the
satisfaction of hearing him or her confesses. They want people
to believe that the law punishes an innocent person.
• Psychopathic Liar- This is the most difficult type of liar, they
have no conscience and will never show regret, manifestation
of guilt and dishonesty.
• Ethnological Liar– one who is taught not to be a squealer (one
who reveals confidential information in return for money). Used
by underworld gang for their member not to reveal any secret
of their organization.
• Pathological Liar- This is committed by an insane person.
They can commit lies because they cannot distinguish right
from wrong, and they cannot weigh the consequences of their
actions.
• Black Liar- A person who always pretends. They provide
misrepresented facts to excuse themselves from troubles or
gain benefits from it.
• Sociopathic liars- are those who lie continuously to get their
way without care or concern for others. They are goal oriented.
• Occasional liars – are those who seldom tell a lie. They are
quick to ask forgiveness from the individual they lied to and are
often respected for their attempts at being truthful and humility
to admit when they commit lies
• White liars – These are liars who do not usually think of
themselves and are considered as true liars. They justify their
lies as harmless and beneficial. They sometimes tell only part
of the truth and are not suspected of lying at all.

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
 POST-TEST

1. It refers to the hardware of computerized polygraph

system that transforms the physiological data monitored by
the different sensors.
a. Seat Sensor
b. Plethysmograph
c. Piezo Electronic Sensor
d. Physiology Data Acquisition System
2. The Term Polygraph came from a Greek word poly which
means many and grapho which means.
a. To write
b. To draw
c. To Engrave
d. A & C
3. The Polygraph channel that monitors and records changes
in relative blood pressure changes and pulse wave.
a. Cardio Channel
b. EDA Channel
c. Pneumograph Channel
d. Kymograph
4. Sensitivity control is found in every channel of an electronic
polygraph, it is designed to regulate.
a. Reaction
b. Distortion
c. Manual Mode
d. Tracing Amplitude
5. The Kymograph is designed to run the polygraph chart at
an average speed per minute. The current standard speed
of kymograph is .
a. 5.5 inches / min
b. 6 inches / min
c. 6 to 12 inches / min
d. 3 inches / min
6. He was the 1st one to use the term “Psychogalvanic Reflex”
a. Veraguth
b. Vittorio Benussi
c. Luigi Galvani
d. Harold Burtt

7. In what year Leonard Keeler invented the “Keeler

49
 Polygraph” which is an improvement of Larson’s apparatus.
a. 1945
b. 1949
c. 1942
d. 1925
8. Father of the “Modern Day Polygraph”
a. John A. Larson
b. William Moulton Marston
c. Leonarde Keeler
d. John E. Reid
9. He was accorded the distinction of being the 1st person to
utilize an instrument for the purpose of detecting lies.
a. Dr. Hans Gross
b. Angelo Mosso
c. Cesare Lombroso
d. Richard O. Archer
10. He defined “Search for truth” as the basis and goal of all
criminal investigations.
a. Cesare Lombroso
b. Angelo Mosso
c. Harold Burtt
d. Dr. Hans Gross

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Lie Detection Techniques | Minalabag & Borneo
REFERENCES

Manwong R.K, & Caballero N.S (2017). Polygraph: The Art and
Science of Lie Detection (2nd Edition). Pampangga, Philippines. Wiseman
Book Trading, Inc.

Domingo S.S (2018). Polygraphy: The Science of Lie Detection. Manila,

Philippines. Wiseman Book Trading

Villaluz J.C,Revisa W.A & Panganoron C. (2014).Polygraph: Lie

Detection. Pampangga, Philippines. Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc.

Adra MJQ & Tancangco D.L (2013) The essentials of Polygraph. Quezon
City, Philippines. Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc.

Manlusoc AD. (2016) Compiled Handouts in Polygraph Examination.

Malate, Manila. Center for Technical Profession Review Center

51
 COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

Author/s: Aiza Minalabag, RCrim & Anthony Carl Borneo,

RCrim
Date of Creation: March 15, 2024
Date of Revision: August 1, 2024
Number of Revisions: Rev.__2__
Date of Implementation: S.Y.2024-2025

Evaluated: Verified:

Florens Lacambra, RCrim, MSCJ, Cheron O. Reyes, RCrim, MSCJ,

CCS CCS
Program Head, Criminology DEAN, College of Criminal Justice
Education

Approved: ODIEIM