‫‪General Physics (1) for Engineering‬‬

‫‪Course code: PHY1110‬‬

‫فيزياء عامة )‪ (1‬للهندسة‬

‫الفصل الدراسي اﻷول للعام الجامعي ‪ 2025/2024‬م – ‪ 1446‬هـ‬

 Chapter 1

Measurement

1
• To measure any physics quantity, we need magnitude and unit

• For example: the full day is 24 hours

• Each unit must be compared to a standard

• There are 3 Base Quantities (Length, Time, Mass).

• We then define other physical quantities in terms of these base quantities

and their standards (called base standards).

• For example: volume is length × length × length, density is the ratio of

mass to volume (volume is length × length × length) …

• Base standards must be both accessible and invariable

2
 The International System of Units

• The International System of units (abbreviated as SI units) has

only seven quantities that are chosen internationally as base
quantities. These units are used to derive any other unit in
science.

• In this course we need only these three base quantities: length,

time, mass to derive all other units we will study.

For example:

Length
Speed =
Time

Derived quantity base quantities

unit of length 𝑚
⸫ Unit of speed = unit of time
= 𝑠
3
• To express the very large and very small quantities we often run into in
physics, we use scientific notation, which employs powers of 10. In this
notation,

3 560 000 000 m = 3.56 × 109 m

0.000 000 492 s = 4.92 × 10−7 s

• When dealing with very large or very small measurements, we use the
prefixes listed in Table 1-2, For example:

1.27 × 109 meter = 1.27 gigameter = 1.27 Gm

2.35 × 10−9 s = 2.35 nanoseconds = 2.35 ns

You should memorize prefixes that are inside

the red frames
4
Changing Units
• We often need to change the units in which a physical quantity is expressed.
• We multiply the original measurement by a conversion factor
• For example, because 1 min and 60 s are identical time intervals, we have:
Conversion factor between min and s
1 min = 60 s

• If we need to convert 2 min to seconds:

60 𝑠 2 min×60 𝑠
2 min = = 120 s
1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛

5
• Another example: we need to change the quantity 15 m/s to its equivalent in cm/min:

Conversion factors are:

1 min = 60 s and 1 m = 100 cm, so,

𝑚 100 𝑐𝑚 60 𝑠 15 𝑚×100 𝑐𝑚 ×60 𝑠

15 = = 90000 cm/min
𝑠 1𝑚 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 𝑠 ×1 𝑚 ×1 𝑚𝑖𝑛

• By using this method, we can convert any unit to any other unit (even if we are not familiar
with these units)

6
Notes on unit conversion:

If there is a power in the unit, you must use the same power for the conversion factor.

1 m = 100 cm 1 cm = 10–2 m
1 m2 = (100)2 cm2 ⟹ 1 m2 = (10 000) cm2 1 cm2 = (10–2)2 m2 ⟹ 1 cm2 = (10–4) m2
1 m3 = (100)3 cm3 ⟹ 1 m3 = (1 000 000) cm3 1 cm3 = (10–2)3 m3 ⟹ 1 cm3 = (10–6) m3
For example, converting 5.3 m2 to cm2 unit will be: For example, converting 5.3 cm2 to m2 unit will be:

10000 𝑐𝑚2 10–4 𝑚2

5.3 m2 × = 53000 cm2 5.3 cm2 × = 5.3×10–4 m2 = 0.00053 m2
1 𝑚2 1 𝑐𝑚2

7
Example: The micrometer (1 μm) is often called the micron. (a) How many microns make up 1 km? (b)
What fraction of a centimeter equals 1 μm? (c) How many microns are in 1 yd?

Solution:
Conversion factors: Conversion factors:
1 km = 1  103 m and 1 m = 1  106 m, 1 cm = 1  10–2 m and 1 m = 1  10–6 m,

⟹ 1 km = 103 m ⟹ 1 m = 1  10–6 m
Now we convert 103 m to m: Now we convert 1  10–6 m to cm:

1  106 m 1 cm
103 m× = 109 m 1  10–6 m × 1  10–2 m = 1  10–4 cm
1m
Conversion factors:
1 yd = 0.91 m and 1 m = 1  106 m,

⟹ 1 yd = 0.91 m
Now we convert 0.91 m to m:

1  106 m
0.91 m × 1m = 1  105 m

8
Example: In printing some book, a length unit of “points” and “picas” are used: 12 points = 1 pica, and 6 picas =
1 inch. What is 0.8 cm in (a) picas and (b) points?

Solution:
a) Conversion factor:
We need first to convert cm to inch: 6 picas = 1 inch

Conversion factor: 6 picas

0.315 in × = 1.9 picas
1 in = 2.54 cm 1 in

1 in
0.8 cm × 2.54 cm = 0.315 in
b) Conversion factor:
12 points = 1 pica
Now we convert in to picas and points:
12 points
1.9 picas × = 22.8 points
1 pica

9
Length

• In 1792, the meter (m) was selected to be the standard unit of length.

• The old definition of the meter: the meter, defined to be one ten-millionth of

the distance from the north pole to the equator.

• Later, the meter was defined as the distance between two fine lines engraved

near the ends of a platinum–iridium bar, the standard meter bar, which was

kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris.

• New definition of the meter: The meter is the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum during a time

interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.

10
Time
• Any phenomenon that repeats itself is a possible time standard, for example, Earth’s rotation,
which determines the length of the day, has been used in this way for centuries
• However, the accuracy of measuring time this way is not good enough for science and engineering
technology.
• To meet the need for a better time standard, atomic clocks have been developed

• One second is defined as the time taken by 9 192 631 770 oscillations of the light emitted by the
cesium atom.

• Atomic clocks are so consistent and accurate.

11
Example: A plant can grow 3.7 m in 14 days. What was its growth rate in micrometers per second?

Solution:

Conversion factor:
1 m = 1 × 106 µm and 1 day = 86400 s

3.7 m
The growth rate in m/days = = 0.26 m/day
14 day

Now, convert 0.26 m/day to µm/s:

m 1 × 106 μm 1 day 0.26 m × 1×106 μm×1 day

0.26 × × = = 3 µm/s
day 1m 86400 s 1 day × 1 m × 86400 s

12
Mass

• Mass used to be measured by making a comparison to the “standard

kilogram”

• The Standard Kilogram: The SI standard of mass is a cylinder of

platinum and iridium that is kept at the International Bureau of Weights
and Measures near Paris

• The masses of atoms can be compared with one another more precisely
than they can be compared with the standard kilogram. For this reason,
the mass of carbon atom is used as a second mass standard. By
agreement,

mass of carbon atom = 12 atomic mass unit (u).

1 u = 1.66054 × 10–27 kg

• In 2019, the kilogram definition has changed (it is defined now based
on some universal physics constants).

13
Example: Earth has a mass of 5.98 × 1024 kg. The average mass of the atoms that make up Earth is 40 u.
How many atoms are there in Earth?

Solution:

Conversion factor:
1 u = 1.66054 × 10–27 kg

1.66054 × 10−27 kg
⟹ mass of one atom = 40 u × = 6.64 × 10–26 kg
1u

mass of Earth 5.98 × 1024 kg

Number of atoms in Earth = = –26 = 9 × 1049 atoms
mass of one atom 6.64 × 10 kg

14
Example: Assuming that water has a density of exactly 1 g/cm3, find the density of water in kg/m3.

Solution:

Conversion factor:
1 g = 1×10–3 kg and 1 cm3 = 10–6 m3

g 1 × 10–3 kg 1 cm3 10–3 kg

1 cm3 × × 10–6 m3 = 10–6 m3 = 103 kg/m3 = 1000 kg/m3
1g

15
To summarize, the difference between quantity, unit, and standard can be understood from this example:

Assume that a man has a mass of 60 kg, and his height is 170 cm.
Then we can write the following:

Quantity Magnitude Unit Standard

Mass 60 kg

Height 170 cm

"‫ ولكن تم وضعها في الجدول لتوضيح مفهوم الفرق بين "الوحدة‬،‫الحظ أن المعايير المبينة في الجدول هي معايير قديمة وقد تم االستغناء عنها‬
"‫و"المعيار‬
 Chapter 2

Motion Along a Straight Line

1
Motion
• In this chapter we will study the motion of objects only in a
straight line.
• We will not study the force causing this motion (this part will
come later)
• Motion in a straight line can be vertical, horizontal, or slanted,
but it must be straight.

Position and Displacement

• To locate an object means to find its position relative to some reference point, often the origin (or zero
point) of an axis such as the x axis.
• Position can be on the positive direction or on the negative direction of the axis.

Object is located at Object is located at

x=–4m x=3m
x (m)
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
Origin
2
• A change from position x1 to position x2 is called a displacement Δx, where

Δx = x2 − x1

• For example, if the particle moves from x1 = 5 m to x2 = 12 m, then the displacement is

Δx = (12 m) − (5 m) = +7 m. The positive result indicates that the motion is in the positive direction.

• If the particle moves from x1 = 5 m to x2 = 1 m, then Δx = (1 m) − (5 m) = −4 m. The negative result indicates that the
motion is in the negative direction.

3
• If you move between an initial position xi to a final position xf as shown, then displacement ≠ distance

Displacement

xi xf

• Displacement is not always equal to the total distance covered in the trip
• Displacement is the net change in position between original and final positions
• Displacement is a vector: it is described by a magnitude and a direction
• Distance is a scalar (it has no direction)

4
 Comparison between displacement and distance:

Displacement Distance
Net change between an Total trip from an initial
initial position xi to a final position xi to a final position
position xf xf
Does not depend on the path Depends on the path of
of motion motion
Vector Scalar
SI unit: m SI unit: m

5
∵ Displacement is a vector

∴ To determine the displacement of an object, you need to specify

1- Magnitude (The direct distance between the initial and final positions)
2- Direction (Negative or positive sing)

xi xf
Displacement Δx = 3 m means the object
x (m)
-2 -1 0 1 2 position has changed by 3 m in the positive
Δx = 3 m direction.

xf xi Displacement Δx = –3 m means the object

x (m) position has changed by 3 m in the negative
-2 -1 0 1 2
direction.
Δx = –3 m

6
Here you can see the difference between displacement (Δx) and distance on the x-axis:

xi xf Δx = 1 m.
x (m) distance = 7 m.
-2 -1 0 1 2

xf xi Δx = – 1 m.
x (m) distance = 7 m.
-2 -1 0 1 2

xi xf Δx = 1 m.
x (m) distance = 1 m.
-2 -1 0 1 2

7
Average Velocity and Average Speed

To measure “how fast” an object is moving, we use two quantities:

1) average velocity vavg
2) average speed savg

Suppose an object is at position x1 at time t1, and then moves and reaches position x2 at time t2.
x1 x2
x

Time elapsed
Δt
This means that the displacement Δx occurs during a particular time interval Δt
The average velocity Vavg is defined as:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ∆𝑥
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡

8
• Because displacement is a vector ⟹ velocity is a vector (velocity always has direction)

• Average velocity vavg always has the same sign as the displacement Δx:
positive displacement ⟹ positive velocity
negative displacement ⟹ negative velocity

• The SI unit of velocity is m/s

• Average speed savg is the second way of describing “how fast” an object moves.
• The average speed involves the total distance covered during the motion:

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡

• Because distance is scalar, speed is scalar (has no direction).

• Average speed savg is always positive.
9
• The SI unit of speed is m/s
 Comparison between velocity and speed:

Velocity Speed
displacement distance
= =
time time
Does not depend on the path Depends on the path of
of motion motion
Vector Scalar
SI unit: m/s SI unit: m/s

• Average speed is not always equal to the magnitude of average velocity.

• Both vavg and savg are measured over a time interval Δt (not for a specific instant during the motion),
thus they are called “average”

10
Example: a man walked as shown in the figure, then stopped at the point P. The total time that he takes
during his walk was 250 s. Calculate the distance, displacement, average speed, and average velocity.

Solution:

Distance = 70 + 50 = 120 m
The + sign means that the displacement and the
Displacement = +20 m
velocity are in the positive direction of x-axis
distance 120
Average speed = = 250 = 0.48 m/s
time
displacement +20
Average velocity = = = + 0.08 m/s
time 250

11
Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
• You have now seen two ways to describe how fast something moves: average velocity and average speed, both
of which are measured over a time interval Δt.

• However, we can also describe how fast a particle is moving at a given instant—its instantaneous velocity (or
simply velocity) v.

∆𝑥
𝑣 = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡

• Velocity (v) is the derivative of position (x) with respect to time (t)

• v is vector (it has direction)

• To calculate the instantaneous velocity at a time = to:

1) Calculate the first derivative of the position equation with respect to time
2) Substitute the value of to at the result of derivation
12
• Using the instantaneous velocity, we can define the instantaneous speed or simply speed

• Speed is the magnitude of velocity; that is, speed is velocity but without any direction.

• For example, a velocity of +5 m/s and another velocity of −5 m/s both have an associated speed of 5 m/s.

• Speed is scalar (it has no direction), and it is always positive.

• Note: speed and average speed can be different.

13
Example: If a particle’s position is given by x = 4 − 12t + 3t2 − 5t3 (where t is in seconds and x is in meters),
a) what is its velocity at t = 2 s? b) what is the speed at this time?

Solution:
a)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 4 − 12t + 3t2 − 5t3

= 0 – 12 + 6t – 15 t2

At t = 2 s,

v = 0 – 12 + 6 (2) − 15 (2)2

= – 12 + 12 − 15 (4) = – 60 m/s

This result means that at the instant t = 2 s, the particle was moving with a velocity = 60 m/s in the negative
direction.

b) The speed at t = 2 s is the magnitude of the velocity at this instant:

𝑆 = 𝑣 = −60 = 60 m/s
14
Acceleration

• When a particle’s velocity changes, the particle is said to have acceleration

• Suppose an object is has a velocity v1 at time t1, and then changes its velocity to v2 at time t2 , then, the
average acceleration aavg is defined as

𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ∆𝑣
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡

• Also, there is instantaneous acceleration or simply acceleration a, which is defined as:

𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡

Or,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2𝑥
𝑎= = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

Acceleration is the first derivative of v with respect to t

OR
Acceleration is the second derivative of x with respect to t

15
• To calculate the instantaneous acceleration at a time = to:
1) Calculate the first derivative of the velocity equation with respect to time
OR
calculate the second derivative of the position equation with respect to time
2) Substitute the value of to at the result of derivation

• Acceleration is vector (it has direction)

• The SI unit of acceleration is m/s2

16
• Acceleration can be positive or negative.
• If the signs of the velocity and acceleration of a particle are the same, the speed of the particle increases. If
the signs are opposite, the speed decreases.

The signs of both a and v are opposite The signs of both a and v are the same
(one is positive but the other is negative) (both positive or both negative)
⟹ the speed is decreasing ⟹ the speed is increasing

17
Example: If a particle’s position is given by x = 4 − 12t + 3t2 − 5t3 (where t is in seconds and x is in meters),
what is its acceleration at t = 2 s?

Solution:
We can derive the velocity v from the last example (it is the same as taking the second derivative of the equation
given in the question),

𝑑𝑥 𝑑
We had: 𝑣 = = 𝑑𝑡 4 − 12t + 3t2 − 5t3
𝑑𝑡

⸫ v = – 12 + 6t – 15 t2

𝑑𝑣 𝑑
⟹ a= 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡 −12 + 6t – 15 t2

⸫ a = 6 – 30 t

At t = 2 s,

a = 6 − 30 (2)

= 6 − 60 = – 54 m/s2

18
Example: A car’s position is given by x = – 1.4 + 2.5 t4 + t3 (where t is in seconds and x is in meters), find:
a) its positions at t1 = 0.9 s, and t2 = 2 s,
b) average velocity between t1 = 0.9 s, and t2 = 2 s,
c) instantaneous velocities at t1 = 0.9 s, and t2 = 2 s,
d) average acceleration between t1 = 0.9 s, and t2 = 2 s, and
e) instantaneous accelerations at t1 = 0.9 s, and t2 = 2 s.

Solution:
a)
x1 at 𝑡1 = 0.9 s: 𝑥1 = −1.4 + 2.5 × 0.94 + 0.93 = 0.97 m
x2 at 𝑡2 = 2 s: 𝑥2 = −1.4 + 2.5 × 24 + 23 = 46.6 m

b)
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 46.6 − 0.97
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = = 41.48 m/s
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 2 − 0.9

19
c)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
First we calculate: 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 (– 1.4 + 2.5 t4 + t3) = 2.5 × 4𝑡 3 + 3𝑡 2 = 10𝑡 3 + 3𝑡 2
v1 at 𝑡1 = 0.9 s: 𝑣1 = 10 × 0.93 + 3 × 0.92 = 9.72 m/s
v2 at 𝑡2 = 2 s: 𝑣2 = 10 × 23 + 3 × 22 = 92 m/s

d)
∆𝑣 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 92 − 9.72
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = = 74.8 m/s2
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 2 − 0.9

e)
𝑑𝑣 𝑑
We calculate: a = = (10𝑡 3 + 3𝑡 2 ) = 10 × 3𝑡 2 + 3 × 2𝑡 = 30𝑡 2 + 6𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
a1 at 𝑡1 = 0.9 s: 𝑎1 = 30 × 0.92 + 6 × 0.9 = 29.7 m/s 2
a2 at 𝑡2 = 2 s: 𝑎2 = 30 × 22 + 6 × 2 = 132 m/s 2

20
Constant Acceleration:

• When an object is moving with a constant acceleration (this means its velocity is changing but not its acceleration),
in this case:

average acceleration = instantaneous acceleration

aavg = a

• We can describe this motion by a set of equations (equations

of motion with constant acceleration)

In these equations:
vo is the initial velocity
v is the final velocity
a is acceleration
t is time
xo is the initial position
x is the final position
21
Example: A car starts moving from rest with a constant acceleration of 2 m/s2. a) How long does the car take to
travel a distance of 200 m? b) What is the car’s final velocity at this point?

Solution:

⸪ the car starts moving from rest ⟹ vo = 0 m/s b) Now we know:

a = 2 m/s2
x = 200 m vo = 0 m/s
t=? a = 2 m/s2
x = 200 m
a) We can use the equation: t = 14.14 s
1
𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 To calculate v we can use the equation:
2
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡
1
200 = 0 × 𝑡 + × 2 × 𝑡 2
2 𝑣 = 0 + 2 × 14.14
200 = 0 + 𝑡 2 v = 28.28 m/s
𝑡 = 200 = 14.14 s

22
 Example: A car moving with a uniform velocity of 15 m/s is brought to rest in travelling a distance of 5 m.
Calculate the deceleration produced by brakes?
Solution:

⸪ the car is brought to rest ⟹ v = 0 m/s

vo = 15 m/s
x=5m
a=?
𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑜2 + 2𝑎𝑥
0 = 152 + 2 × 𝑎 × 5
0 = 225 + 10 𝑎
10 𝑎 = −225

225
𝑎=−
10
a = – 22.5 m/s2

We know from the question that the car velocity is in the positive direction (because velocity is positive). Thus, the
minus sign in the acceleration result means that the car was slowing down (decelerating) as mentioned in the question.
23
Free-Fall Acceleration

• If you eliminate the effects of air on its flight, you would find that the
object accelerates downward at a certain constant rate.

• That rate is called the free-fall acceleration, and its magnitude is

constant and represented by g
• g = 9.8 m/s2

24
⸪ the g value (acceleration) is constant
⸫ we can use for the free-fall motion the same equations of motion that we
just learned, only with the following changes:
y-axis
(1) The directions of motion are now along a vertical y axis instead of the x
axis, with the positive direction of y upward.
positive direction negative direction
(2) The free-fall acceleration is always negative because it is always (positive v and (negative v and
positive y) negative y)
downward on the y-axis, toward Earth’s center and so it has the value −g
in the equations Earth's surface

• When an object is moving under the affect of Earth’s gravity, we deal with
it as a “falling” object (in moving both upward and also downward). The
only difference between “falling” upward and falling downward is the
signs of the velocity v and the distance y.

25
The equation of motion for a free-falling object are:

Equation of free falling

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 − g𝑡
1
𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑜2 − 2𝑔(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 )
1
𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑣 𝑡
2
1 2
𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 = 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡
2

Remember: when you substitute g in the equations, you use g = 9.8 m/s2 (do not put g = – 9.8 m/s2)

26
Example: A man throws a ball up along a y axis, with an initial speed of 12 m/s.
a) How long does the ball take to reach its maximum height?
b) What is the ball’s maximum height above its release point?

Solution:

a) At the maximum height, the ball b) We can use the equation:

stops (for a short period of time)
before falling back again 𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑜2 − 2𝑔𝑦
02 = 122 − 2 × 9.8 × 𝑦
⟹ v = 0 m/s
We have: 0 = 144 − 19.6 𝑦
vo = 12 m/s −144
g = 9.8 m/s2 𝑦=
−19.6
y = 7.3 m
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 − 𝑔𝑡
0 = 12 − 9.8 𝑡
−9.8 𝑡 = −12
−12
𝑡 = −9.8 = 1.22 s
27
 Chapter 3

Vectors

1
 All physical quantities can be either

Vectors: have magnitude and direction Scalars: have only magnitude (no direction)
Examples: displacement, force, acceleration … Examples: distance, temperature, mass …

Vector
• Vectors are represented graphically as arrows: The length of the arrow is
proportional to the magnitude of the vector, and the direction (angel) of the
arrow represents the direction of the vector. θ (direction)

• Any vectors that have the same magnitude and the same direction are equal vectors.

2
In a diagram, you can move (shift) a vector to a new position if you don’t change its length and direction.

It is allowed to shift a
vector to a position parallel a
to itself.
a

3
 We can add vectors using two methods

Geometrically By components

4
Adding Vectors Geometrically
• Suppose you moved from A to B as shown by the red line in the figure.
Your displacement (which is a vector) is represented by the arrow for A
to B. Next, you moved from B to C as shown. What is your net
displacement? It is the vector for A to C.
• This is the way you can add vectors geometrically. AB + BC = AC
• We call AC the vector sum (or resultant) of the vectors AB and BC.
• We can represent the relation among the three vectors in the figure with
the vector equation:

𝑠Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ + 𝑏
This sum is not the usual algebraic sum (in vector sum, we add magnitudes
and also direction!)

5
• The method of adding vectors geometrically is called head-to-tail method. A C
It is done by the following steps: B
Assume you have 3 vectors A, B and C that you need to add.
1) On paper, sketch vector A to some scale and at the proper angle. B
2) Sketch vector B to the same scale, with its tail at the head of
A
vector A, again at the proper angle.
3) Repeat the same procedure for vector C.
B
4) The vector sum S is the vector that extends from the tail of A to the head
A
of C (the arrow represents the magnitude and direction of the resultant C). C

• This can be written as:

B
S=A+B+C
Or A
C
𝑆Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 + 𝐶Ԧ
S 6
Properties of Vector addition:

• 𝑎Ԧ + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎Ԧ (commutative law)

• (𝑎Ԧ + 𝑏) + 𝑐Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ + (𝑏 + 𝑐Ԧ ) (associative law)

7
• The vector −𝑏 is a vector with the same magnitude as 𝑏 but the opposite direction
This means:

𝑏 + −𝑏 = 0

• Thus, adding −𝑏 has the effect of subtracting 𝑏 . We use this property to define
the difference between two vectors: let 𝑑Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ − 𝑏:

𝑑Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ − 𝑏 = 𝑎Ԧ + (−𝑏) (vector subtraction)

8
Components of Vectors
y axis
• We can resolve any vector to its components ay a
• The components are the projections of the vector on each axis
θ
• For example, the vector a has x-axis component ax and y-axis component ay x axis
ax
• The components can be positive or negative (based on the direction of the vector
itself)

y axis y axis y axis

a
ay
ax ax
x axis x axis x axis
ax
ay ay

a a

9
How can you convert a vector to its component?

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑎𝑥
⟹ 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
a ay y axis
𝑎
ay a
𝑎𝑦 θ
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ⟹ 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ax
𝑎
θ
x axis
ax
Also, if you know the components of any vector then you can calculate the
magnitude and angle (direction) of the original vector:

𝑎= 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2

𝑎𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑎𝑥

Note: these equations are correct only if the angle θ is made with the positive x-axis.
If the angle is made with any other axis, you must recalculate these equations by the same method (see the
next example)
10
Example: An airplane leaves an airport and moves for 215 km away,
in a direction making an angle of 22° toward the east from due north.
How far east and north is the airplane from the airport?

Solution:

We need to find the x-axis and y-axis components of the displacement d:

dx = d sin θ = 215 × sin(22°) = 81 km

dy = d cos θ = 215 × cos(22°) = 200 km

This means that the airplane is 81 km east and 200 km north of the airport.

11
 Example: Vector C has the components: Cx = 10, and Cy = 5, find its magnitude and direction.

Solution:

The magnitude of the vector:

The direction:

𝐶= 𝐶𝑥2 + 𝐶𝑦2 𝐶𝑦
𝜃= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝐶𝑥
= 102 + 52
= 100 + 25 5
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
10
= 125
= 11.2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0.5
= 26.6°

12
UNIT VECTORS, ADDING VECTORS BY COMPONENTS

Unit Vectors
• A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of exactly 1 and points in a
particular direction.

• For each axis we have a particular unit vector:

x-axis has the unit vector 𝑖Ƹ

y-axis has the unit vector 𝑗Ƹ
z-axis has the unit vector 𝑘෠

• So, we can write the vector 𝑎Ԧ as:

𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘෠

13
Example: Calculate the magnitude and direction of the vector 𝑪 = 𝟓𝒊Ƹ − 𝒋Ƹ

Solution:

The components of the vector are:

Cx = 5
Cy = – 1

𝐶= 𝐶𝑥2 + 𝐶𝑦2
= (5)2 +(−1)2
= 26 = 5.1

𝐶𝑦 −1
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝐶 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = −11.3°
𝑥 5

14
Adding Vectors by Components:

If we have two vectors 𝑎Ԧ and 𝑏 :

𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗Ƹ

𝑏 = 𝑏𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗Ƹ

and we need to calculate 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ + 𝑏 we just add the components of each axis to each other:

𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 ෠𝑖 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗Ƹ

+
𝑏 = 𝑏𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗Ƹ

𝑟Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗Ƹ

15
 For example, if we have two vectors:
𝐴Ԧ = 3𝑖Ƹ + 4𝑗Ƹ − 2𝑘෠
and
𝐵 = −5𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑗Ƹ + 2𝑘෠

Then we can calculate 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 as following, Then we can calculate 𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵 as following,

𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 = 3 − 5 𝑖Ƹ + 4 + 3 𝑗Ƹ + −2 + 2 𝑘෠ 𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵 = 3 − −5 𝑖Ƹ + 4 − 3 𝑗Ƹ + −2 − 2 𝑘෠
= −2𝑖Ƹ + 7𝑗Ƹ + (0)𝑘෠ = 3 + 5 𝑖Ƹ + 4 − 3 𝑗Ƹ + −2 − 2 𝑘෠
= −2𝑖Ƹ + 7𝑗Ƹ = 8𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ − 4𝑘෠

16
 Multiplying Vectors

There are two ways to multiply a vector by another vector

Scalar product (dot product) Vector product (cross product)

the result is a scalar quantity the result is a vector quantity

𝑎Ԧ ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 = 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦

17
 The Scalar Product
There are 2 ways to calculate this type of product

If the vectors are expressed in magnitude-angle If the vectors are expressed in unit-vector
notation: notation:

𝑎Ԧ 𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘
𝑏 = 𝑏𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑏𝑧 𝑘 𝑖Ԧ ∙ 𝑖Ԧ = 𝑗Ԧ ∙ 𝑗Ԧ = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑘 = 1
θ
𝑏 then, 𝑖Ԧ ∙ 𝑗Ԧ = 𝑗Ԧ ∙ 𝑘 = 𝑖Ԧ ∙ 𝑘 = 0

𝑎Ԧ ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑎Ԧ ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑦 + (𝑎𝑧 𝑏𝑧 )

• ⸫ the result depends on the magnitude of a

and the magnitude of b and the angle Note that the result has no unit vectors because it is a
between them. scalar quantity (the final result will be just a number)

• the result can be positive or negative based

on the values of the vectors, and the angle
between them.
The commutative law applies to the scalar product
𝑎Ԧ ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑎Ԧ 18
Example: if you have two forces 𝑭𝟏 = 5 N Example: if you have two forces
and 𝑭𝟐 = 3 N and the angle between them is 𝑭𝒂 = 2 𝑖 Ƹ − 3 𝑗 Ƹ + 𝑘
40°, find 𝑭𝟏 ∙ 𝑭𝟐 𝑭𝒃 = 4𝑖Ƹ + 5𝑗Ƹ + 10𝑘
find 𝑭𝒂 ∙ 𝑭𝒃

Solution: Solution:
𝐹Ԧ2 𝐹Ԧ𝑎 ∙ 𝐹Ԧ𝑏 = (2×4) + (–3×5) + (1×10)
= 8 – 15 + 10
40°
=3N
𝐹Ԧ1

𝐹Ԧ1 ∙ 𝐹Ԧ2 = 5×3×cos(40°) = 11.5 N

19
 The Vector Product
The result of vector product of 𝒂 and 𝒃 is a third vector 𝒄 whose
magnitude can be calculated by two ways
If the vectors are expressed in magnitude-angle If the vectors are expressed in unit-vector
notation: notation:
𝑖Ԧ × 𝑖Ԧ = 𝑗Ԧ × 𝑗Ԧ = 𝑘 × 𝑘 = 0
𝑎Ԧ 𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘
𝑏 = 𝑏𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑏𝑧 𝑘 𝑖Ԧ
θ then we can use the matrix,
𝑖Ƹ 𝑗Ƹ 𝑘෠ 𝑗Ԧ 𝑘
𝑏 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑧

• ⸫ the result depends on the magnitude of a

and the magnitude of b and the angle 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 = [aybz − byaz] 𝑖Ƹ – [bzax − azbx] 𝑗Ƹ + [axby − bxay] 𝑘
between them.

• the result can be positive or negative based Note that the result has unit vectors because it is a vector quantity
on the values of the vectors, and the angle
between them.
The commutative law does not applies to the vector product
20
𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 = −𝑏 × 𝑎Ԧ
To determine the direction of the result vector 𝑐Ԧ (where 𝑐Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 ) we use the right-hand-rule:

1- point your right-hand fingers in the direction of 𝑎Ԧ (the first vector).

2- curl your fingers toward the direction of 𝑏 (the second vector).

3- the result vector 𝑐Ԧ is in the direction of your thumb.

𝑐Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏
21
Example: if you have two forces 𝑭𝟏 = 5 N Example: if you have two forces
and 𝑭𝟐 = 3 N and the angle between them is
40°, find 𝑭𝟏 × 𝑭𝟐 𝑭𝒂 = 2𝑖Ƹ − 3𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠

𝑭𝒃 = 4𝑖Ƹ + 5𝑗Ƹ + 10𝑘෠

Solution:
find 𝑭𝒂 × 𝑭𝒃
𝐹Ԧ2
40° Solution:
𝐹Ԧ1 𝐹Ԧ𝑎 × 𝐹Ԧ𝑏 = [aybz − byaz] 𝑖Ƹ − [bzax − azbx] 𝑗Ƹ + [axby − bxay] 𝑘෠

𝐹Ԧ1 × 𝐹Ԧ2 = 5×3×sin(40°) = 9.6 N = [(–3×10) – (5×1)] 𝑖Ƹ −[(10×2) – (1×4)] 𝑗Ƹ +[(2×5) – (4×–3)] 𝑘෠

= –35 𝑖Ƹ – 16 𝑗Ƹ + 22 𝑘෠
By using the right-hand-rule: the direction of the result
is “out of the page”

22