Inverse of a Matrix 1

MATRICES AND THEIR INVERSES

Section 2.2 discussed some of the similarities between the algebra of real numbers and the algebra of matrices.
This section further develops the algebra of matrices to include the solutions of matrix equations involving
matrix multiplication. To begin, consider the real number equation ax = b. To solve this equation for x, multiply
both sides of the equation by a −1 (provided a ≠ 0).

ax = b
(a −1a )x = a −1b
(1)x = a −1b
x = a −1b
The number a −1 is the multiplicative inverse of a because a −1a = 1 (the identity element for multiplication). The
definition of the multiplicative inverse of a matrix is similar.

Definition of the Inverse of a Matrix

An n × n matrix A is invertible (or nonsingular) when there exists an n × n matrix B such that
AB = BA = In
where In is the identity matrix of order n. The matrix B is the (multiplicative) inverse of A. A matrix that
does not have an inverse is noninvertible (or singular).

Nonsquare matrices do not have inverses. To see this, note that if A is of size m × n and B is of size n × m
(where m ≠ n), then the products AB and BA are of different sizes and cannot be equal to each other. Not all
square matrices have inverses. (See Example 4.) The next theorem, however, states that if a matrix does have an
inverse, then that inverse is unique.

THEOREM Uniqueness of an Inverse Matrix

If A is an invertible matrix, then its inverse is unique. The inverse
A isof denoted by
A−1.

PROOF
If A is invertible, then it has at least one inverse B such that
AB = I = BA.
Assume that A has another inverse C such that
AC = I = CA.
Demonstrate that B and C are equal, as shown on the next page.
AB = I
C(AB) = CI
(CA)B = C
IB = C

B=C
Consequently B = C, and it follows that the inverse of a matrix is unique.

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 Inverse of a Matrix 2

The Inverse of a Matrix

Show that B is the inverse of A, where

[−1 −2
] [11 ]
2
A= and B= .
−1 1 −1

SOLUTION
Using the definition of an inverse matrix, show that B is the inverse of A by showing
that AB = I = BA.
−1 −2 −1 + 2 2−2
[−1 ][1 ] [ ] [ ]
2 1 1 0
AB = = =
1 −1 −1 + 1 2−1 0 1
REMARK
−2 −1 −1 + 2 2−2
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
1 2 1 0
BA = = = Recall that it is not always true
1 −1 −1 1 −1 + 1 2−1 0 1
that AB = BA, even when both
products are defined. If A and
B are both square matrices and
AB = In , however, then it can
be shown that BA = In . (The
proof of this is omitted.) So,
in Example 1, you need only
check that AB = I2.

Finding the Inverse of a Matrix

Find the inverse of the matrix

[−1 ]
1 4
A= .
−3

SOLUTION
To find the inverse of A, solve the matrix equation AX = I for X.

][xx x12
[−11 ] [ ]
4 1 0
11
=
−3 21 x22 0 1

[−xx + 4x21 x12 + 4x22

] [ ]
1 0
11
=
11 − 3x21 −x12 − 3x22 0 1
Equating corresponding entries, you obtain two systems of linear equations.
x11 + 4x21 = 1 x12 + 4x22 = 0
−x11 − 3x21 = 0 −x12 − 3x22 = 1
Solving the first system, you find that x11 = −3 and x21 = 1. Similarly, solving the
second system, you find that x12 = −4 and x22 = 1. So, the inverse of A is

[−31 −4
X = A−1 =
1
. ]
Use matrix multiplication to check this result.

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 Inverse of a Matrix 3

Generalizing the method used to solve Example 2 provides a convenient method

for finding an inverse. Note that the two systems of linear equations
x11 + 4x21 = 1 x12 + 4x22 = 0
−x11 − 3x21 = 0 −x12 − 3x22 = 1
have the same coefficient matrix. Rather than solve the two systems represented by

[−11 ] [−11 ]
4 1 4 0
and
−3 0 −3 1
separately, solve them simultaneously by adjoining the identity matrix to the coeficient
matrix to obtain

[−11 ]
4 1 0
.
−3 0 1
By applying Gauss-Jordan elimination to this matrix, solve both systems with a single
elimination process, as shown below.

[0 ]
1 4 1 0
1 1 1 R2 + R1 → R2
−3 −4 R1 + (−4)R2 → R1
[10 ]
0
1 1 1
Applying Gauss-Jordan elimination to the “doubly augmented” matrix [A I], you
obtain the matrix [I A−1].
−3 −4
[−11 ] [10 ]
4 1 0 0
−3 0 1 1 1 1
A I I A−1
This procedure (or algorithm) works for an arbitrary n × n matrix. If A cannot be row
reduced to In, then A is noninvertible (or singular). This procedure will be formally justified in the next
section, after introducing the concept of an elementary matrix. For
now, a summary of the algorithm is shown below.

Finding the Inverse of a Matrix by Gauss-Jordan Elimination

Let A be a square matrix of order n.
1. Write the n × 2n matrix that consists of A on the left and the n × n identity matrix I on the right to
obtain [A I]. This process is called adjoining matrix I to matrix A.
2. If possible, row reduce A to I using elementary row operations on the entirematrix [A I]. The result
will be the matrix [I A−1]. If this is not possible, then A is noninvertible (or singular).
3. Check your work by multiplying to see that AA−1 = I = A−1A.

Recall Hooke’s law, which states that for relatively small

LINEAR deformations of an elastic object, the amount of deflection is
ALGEBRA directly proportional to the force causing the deformation. In
APPLIED a simply supported elastic beam subjected to multiple forces,
deflection d is related to force w by the matrix equation
d = Fw
where F is a flexibility matrix whose entries depend on the
material of the beam. The inverse of the flexibility matrix,
F −1, is the stiffness matrix. In Exercises 61 and 62, you are
asked to find the stiffness matrix F −1 and the force matrix w
for a given set of flexibility and deflection matrices.
nostal6ie/Shutterstock.com

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 Inverse of a Matrix 4

Finding the Inverse of a Matrix

See LarsonLinearAlgebra.com for an interactive version of this type of example.

Find the inverse of the matrix.

[ ]
1 −1 0
A= 1 0 −1
−6 2 3

SOLUTION
Begin by adjoining the identity matrix to A to form the matrix

[ ]
1 −1 0 1 0 0
[A I] = 1 0 −1 0 1 0 .
−6 2 3 0 0 1

Use elementary row operations to obtain the form

[I A−1]
as shown in the video.

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 Inverse of a Matrix 5

A Singular Matrix

Show that the matrix has no inverse.

[ ]
1 2 0
A= 3 −1 2
−2 3 −2

SOLUTION
Adjoin the identity matrix to A to form

[ ]
1 2 0 1 0 0
[A I] = 3 −1 2 0 1 0
−2 3 −2 0 0 1
and apply Gauss-Jordan elimination to obtain

[ ]
1 2 0 1 0 0
0 −7 2 −3 1 0 .
0 0 0 −1 1 1
Note that the “A portion” of the matrix has a row of zeros. So it is not possible to
rewrite the matrix [A I] in the form [I A−1]. This means that A has no inverse, or is noninvertible (or
singular).

Finding Inverses of 2 × 2 Matrices

If possible, find the inverse of each matrix.

−1 −1
[−2 ] [−6 ]
3 3
a. A = b. B =
2 2

SOLUTION
a. For the matrix A, apply the formula for the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix to obtain
ad − bc = (3)(2) − (−1)(−2) = 4. This quantity is not zero, so A is invertible.
Form the inverse by interchanging the entries on the main diagonal, changing the
signs of the other two entries, and multiplying by the scalar 14, as shown below.

[ ]
1 1

[ ]
2 1 2 4
A−1 = 14 = 1 3
2 3 2 4

b. For the matrix B, you have ad − bc = (3)(2) − (−1)(−6) = 0, which means that
B is noninvertible.

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 Inverse of a Matrix 6

PROPERTIES OF INVERSES
Theorem 2.8 below lists important properties of inverse matrices.

THEOREM 2.8 Properties of Inverse Matrices

If A is an invertible matrix, k is a positive integer, and c is a nonzero scalar, then
A−1, Ak, cA, and AT are invertible and the statements below are true.
1. (A−1)−1 = A 2. (Ak)−1 = A−1A−1 . . . A−1 = (A−1)k

k factors
1
3. (cA)−1 = A−1 4. (AT )−1 = (A−1)T
c

PROOF
The key to the proofs of Properties 1, 3, and 4 is the fact that the inverse of a matrix is
unique (Theorem 2.7). That is, if BC = CB = I, then C is the inverse of B.
Property 1 states that the inverse of A−1 is A itself. To prove this, observe that
A A = AA−1 = I, which means that A is the inverse of A−1. Thus, A = (A−1)−1.
−1

1
Similarly, Property 3 states that A−1 is the inverse of (cA), c ≠ 0. To prove this,
c
use the properties of scalar multiplication given in Theorems 2.1 and 2.3.

(cA) (1c A ) = (c1c )AA

−1 −1 = (1)I = I

(1c A )(cA) = (1c c)A

−1 −1A = (1)I = I

1 1
So A−1 is the inverse of (cA), which implies that (cA)−1 = A−1. Properties 2 and 4
c c
are left for you to prove. (See Exercises 63 and 64.)

For nonsingular matrices, the exponential notation used for repeated multiplication
of square matrices can be extended to include exponents that are negative integers. This
may be done by defining A−k to be

A−k = A−1A−1 . . . A−1 = (A−1)k.

k factors

Using this convention you can show that the properties AjAk = Aj +k and (Aj )k = Ajk are true for any integers j
and k.

  
−1
Let A = [11 2
3 ] and B = [21 −1
. ]

Find (AB )−1, A−1B −1, and B −1A−1.


Make a conjecture about the inverse of a product of two nonsingular

matrices. Then select two other nonsingular matrices of the same
order and see whether your conjecture holds.

See LarsonLinearAlgebra.com for an interactive version of this type of exercise.

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 Inverse of a Matrix 7

The Inverse of the Square of a Matrix

Compute A−2 two different ways and show that the results are equal.

[2 ]
1 1
A=
4

SOLUTION
One way to find A−2 is to find (A2)−1 by squaring the matrix A to obtain

[103 ]
5
A2 =
18
and using the formula for the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix to obtain

[ ]
9
−5 − 54
[ ]
1 18 2
A2 −1
( ) = = .
4
−10 3 − 52
3
4

Another way to find A−2 is to find (A−1)2 by finding A−1

[ ]
−1 2 − 12
[ ]
1 4
A−1 = =
2
−2 1 −1
1
2

and then squaring this matrix to obtain

[ ]
9
2 − 54
( A−1 2 ) = .
− 52
3
4

THEOREM The Inverse of a Product

If A and B are invertible matrices of order n, then AB is invertible and
(AB)−1 = B−1A−1.

PROOF
To show that B−1A−1 is the inverse of AB, you need only show that it conforms to the
definition of an inverse matrix. That is,
(AB)(B−1A−1) = A(BB −1)A−1 = A(I)A−1 = (AI)A−1 = AA−1 = I.
In a similar way, (B−1A−1)(AB) = I. So, AB is invertible and its inverse is B−1A−1.

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 Inverse of a Matrix 8

Finding the Inverse of a Matrix Product

Find (AB)−1 for the matrices

[ ] [ ]
1 3 3 1 2 3
A= 1 4 3 and B= 1 3 3
1 3 4 2 4 3

using the fact that A−1 and B−1 are

[ ] [ ]
7 −3 −3 1 −2 1
A−1 = −1 1 0 and B−1 = −1 1 0 .
2
−1 0 1 3 0 − 13

SOLUTION
Using Theorem 2.9 produces

(AB)−1 = B−1A−1

[ ][ ]
1 −2 1 7 −3 −3
= −1 1 0 −1 1 0
2
3 0 − 13 −1 0 1

[ ]
8 −5 −2
= −8 4 3 .
5 −2 − 73

THEOREM Cancellation Properties

If C is an invertible matrix, then the properties below are true.
1. If AC = BC, then A = B. Right cancellation property
2. If CA = CB, then A = B. Left cancellation property

PROOF
To prove Property 1, use the fact that C is invertible and write
AC = BC
(AC)C−1 = (BC)C−1
A(CC−1) = B(CC−1)
AI = BI
A = B.

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 Inverse of a Matrix 9

SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS
For square systems of equations (those having the same number of equations as variables),
you can use the theorem below to determine whether the system has a unique solution.

THEOREM Systems of Equations with Unique Solutions

If A is an invertible matrix, then the system of linear equations Ax = b has a
unique solution x = A−1b.

PROOF
The matrix A is nonsingular, so the steps shown below are valid.
Ax = b
A−1Ax = A−1b
Ix = A−1b
x = A−1b
This solution is unique because if x1 and x2 were two solutions, then you could apply
the cancellation property to the equation Ax1 = b = Ax2 to conclude that x1 = x2.

Solving Systems of Equations

Using an Inverse Matrix
Use an inverse matrix to solve each system.
a. 2x + 3y + z = −1 b. 2x + 3y + z = 4 c. 2x + 3y + z = 0
3x + 3y + z = 1 3x + 3y + z = 8 3x + 3y + z = 0
2x + 4y + z = −2 2x + 4y + z = 5 2x + 4y + z = 0
SOLUTION

[ ]
2 3 1
First note that the coefficient matrix for each system is A = 3 3 1 .
2 4 1

[ ]
−1 1 0
Using Gauss-Jordan elimination, A−1 = −1 0 1 .
6 −2 −3

[ ][ ] [ ]
−1 1 0 −1 2
a. x = A−1b = −1 0 1 1 = −1 The solution is x = 2,
y = −1, and z = −2.
6 −2 −3 −2 −2

[ ][ ] [ ]
−1 1 0 4 4
b. x = A−1b = −1 0 1 8 = 1 The solution is x = 4,
y = 1, and z = −7.
6 −2 −3 5 −7

[ ][ ] [ ]
−1 1 0 0 0
The solution is trivial:
c. x = A−1b = −1 0 1 0 = 0
x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0.
6 −2 −3 0 0

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