ABSTRACT

The rapid growth of wireless data traffic and the increasing demand for faster, more reliable
connectivity will strain existing mobile networks. As 5G networks roll out and 6G technologies
emerge, innovative solutions will be needed. The integration of mmWave massive MIMO with
NOMA will offer improved bandwidth and system capacity, enabling more users and higher-
quality communication. However, challenges in resource management and power allocation will
arise. Future research will explore deep reinforcement learning (DRL) techniques, such as deep
Q-network (DQN) and deep deterministic policy gradient (DDPG), for optimizing resource
allocation in cell-free massive MIMO and mmWave-NOMA systems. A two-level scheduling
framework will be proposed to enhance performance, spectral efficiency, and scalability,
addressing the complex needs of future wireless applications.
 1. INTRODUCTION

The rapid growth of wireless data traffic, driven by the increasing number of connected users and
the rising demand for faster, more reliable connectivity, is placing significant strain on existing
mobile communication networks. As the rollout of fifth-generation (5G) networks begins to take
shape, anticipation for sixth-generation (6G) technologies is growing, highlighting the need for
innovative solutions to support the increasing demands of modern wireless communication. With
the proliferation of data-driven services, such as Internet of Things (IoT) devices, augmented
reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and high-definition video streaming, the need for robust
network infrastructure that can deliver high-speed, low-latency communication is more critical
than ever. To meet these growing demands, new technologies must be adopted that can enhance
the capacity and efficiency of wireless networks.

One promising solution to address these challenges is the integration of millimeter-wave

(mmWave) massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) technology with Non-Orthogonal
Multiple Access (NOMA). This combination offers significant improvements in bandwidth,
enabling systems to handle more users simultaneously while maintaining high-quality
communication. mmWave massive MIMO has the potential to revolutionize wireless networks
by providing vast amounts of untapped spectrum, enabling more efficient use of available
bandwidth. Coupled with NOMA, which allows multiple users to share the same frequency
resources through power-domain multiplexing, this solution promises enhanced multiplexing
gains and increased system capacity. Together, these advancements can help satisfy the demand
for high-capacity, high-speed communication in future wireless systems.

However, the integration of mmWave MIMO and NOMA presents a key challenge—efficient
resource management. The need for effective power allocation, optimal user grouping, and
interference management is critical to ensuring these technologies can function efficiently,
especially as user density and traffic demand continue to rise. One particular challenge in this
evolving landscape is the efficient allocation of resources across various network slices, a critical
feature in 5G and beyond. Network slicing allows a single physical infrastructure to support
multiple virtual networks, each tailored to meet the specific requirements of different services.
For instance, ultra-reliable low-latency communications (uRLLC) are required for applications
like autonomous vehicles, while enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB) supports high-speed
internet access for users. Efficiently managing these diverse needs within a single network
infrastructure is a complex but necessary task for achieving optimal performance.

To address these challenges, this study explores the use of advanced deep reinforcement learning
(DRL) techniques for optimizing resource allocation in cell-free massive MIMO systems and
mmWave massive MIMO-NOMA systems. DRL, a subset of machine learning, enables systems
to learn optimal decision-making strategies through interaction with the environment and
feedback from past actions. In particular, this research focuses on two DRL methods—deep Q-
network (DQN) and deep deterministic policy gradient (DDPG)—to optimize power allocation
in dynamic wireless networks.

Cell-free massive MIMO systems, composed of distributed access points (APs) that serve
multiple users (UEs) simultaneously, are gaining attention for their potential to improve network
coverage and capacity, especially in high-density urban environments. These systems have the
advantage of using a large number of distributed antennas to create a seamless communication
environment for users, reducing issues like signal interference and coverage gaps. However,
optimizing power allocation among APs remains a significant challenge, particularly when faced
with imperfect channel state information (CSI) and pilot contamination, which can degrade
system performance.

Traditional power allocation methods, such as the weighted minimum mean square error
(WMMSE) algorithm, while effective, are computationally expensive and may not be suitable
for real-time applications where rapid adaptation to changing network conditions is required.
This study addresses these limitations by incorporating DRL techniques, which enable adaptive
learning of optimal power allocation strategies through continuous interaction with the network
environment. The simulation results demonstrate that both DQN and DDPG methods
significantly outperform traditional power allocation techniques, with the DDPG method in
particular showing faster convergence and lower computational complexity. This makes DDPG
more suited for real-time adaptation in dynamic wireless networks, where conditions can change
rapidly.

Furthermore, this work proposes a two-level scheduling framework for managing resource
allocation in 5G networks. In this framework, the upper level handles the allocation of resources
across various network slices, while the lower level focuses on scheduling resources within each
slice. This hierarchical approach ensures that each application, whether it requires high
throughput or ultra-low latency, receives the appropriate amount of resources to meet its specific
requirements. A key focus of this approach is to optimize short packet transmission, which is
crucial for reducing latency in delay-sensitive applications, such as real-time gaming or
emergency communications.

The findings from this study show that the DRL-based approach not only improves resource
allocation efficiency but also significantly reduces computational complexity compared to
traditional methods. By optimizing user grouping, subchannel allocation, and power distribution,
the proposed framework enhances system performance, maximizing capacity and improving
spectral efficiency. Simulation results demonstrate that this approach outperforms conventional
methods in terms of system capacity, convergence speed, and overall efficiency. The ability to
handle a higher number of users while maintaining high service quality and low latency is
particularly important in the context of dense urban environments where mobile data traffic is at
its peak.

Despite these promising results, several challenges remain that warrant further investigation.
These include the development of more advanced interference management strategies, the
refinement of channel estimation and feedback mechanisms, and the exploration of energy-
efficient solutions. As wireless networks become more complex, energy efficiency will play an
increasingly important role in ensuring the sustainability of network infrastructure.
1.1 Table 1: Overview of Machine Learning Techniques in Wireless Networks

Machine Learning Application in Wireless

Description
Technique Networks
Optimizing resource allocation,
A type of ML where agents learn optimal power control, and user grouping
Deep
decision-making through rewards and in dynamic wireless networks
Reinforcement
punishments based on interactions with the like cell-free MIMO and
Learning (DRL)
environment. mmWave MIMO-NOMA (M.
Wang,2024)
A type of DRL where the agent uses a Power allocation optimization in
neural network to approximate the Q- wireless systems with imperfect
Deep Q-Network
values, which represent the expected CSI (Channel State Information)
(DQN)
future rewards for state-action pairs and pilot contamination
(Q.An,2023) (Q.An,2023)
Optimizing power allocation in
Deep
An algorithm for continuous action spaces, dynamic systems, offering lower
Deterministic
enabling agents to learn optimal policies computational complexity and
Policy Gradient
with high efficiency(T. P. Lillicrap,2015). faster convergence for real-time
(DDPG)
applications.
A DRL method that optimizes policies in a
stable and efficient manner by preventing
Future research for scaling
Proximal Policy large policy updates during
wireless network optimization
Optimization training(Q.An,2021; J.Schulman,,2017; L.
strategies in complex
(PPO) Chen,2021).
environments.
.
An approach where multiple agents (or
workers) explore different parts of the
Enhancing scalability and real-
Asynchronous environment asynchronously to speed
time adaptation in large-scale
Actor-Critic uplearning(Q.An,2021; J. Schulman,,2017;
wireless networks, especially in
Agents (A3C) L. Chen,2021).
high-density urban areas.
.

Table 1: Comparative study of Traditional Techniques and Proposed DRL-Based

Model
Aspect Traditional Techniques (e.g., Proposed DRL-Based Model
WMMSE)
Optimization Approach Fixed algorithmic approach Adaptive learning via DRL
(DQN, DDPG, PPO)
Flexibility Limited to predefined scenarios Highly adaptable to dynamic
network conditions
Computational Complexity High (especially in large-scale Lower due to efficient policy
networks) learning and adaptability
Scalability Struggles with increasing Scalable with distributed or
network size hierarchical RL setups
Real-Time Adaptability Poor; not suitable for real-time Excellent; learns and adapts to
dynamic environments real-time conditions
Performance Metrics Throughput: Moderate Throughput: High
Spectral Efficiency: Limited Spectral Efficiency: Improved
Latency: Higher Latency: Lower
Energy Efficiency Moderate Higher due to optimized
resource usage
Interference Management Limited and predefined Advanced and adaptive
Application Suitability Fixed environments and smaller Versatile across diverse
networks applications (e.g., uRLLC,
eMBB)
Training Requirement None; fully pre-defined Requires training, but
generalizes well after learning
Key Algorithms Used Weighted Minimum Mean DQN, DDPG, PPO, A3C
Square Error (WMMSE)
Strengths Simple to implement Robust, scalable, and efficient
Weaknesses Static and computationally Training overhead and initial
expensive setup complexity
2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Table 3: Literature Review

Sl Year Journal Authors Paper title Contribution
no. NAME
1 2021 arXiv:2101. David L MassiveMIMO The paper “A Survey on 5G Energy
11246v1 ´opez-P , Lean Carrier Efficiency” reviews methods to
[cs.NI] ´erez et al. Design, Sleep reduce energy consumption in 5G
Modes,and networks, focusing on technologies
Machine like massive MIMO, lean carrier
Learning design, sleep modes, and machine
learning. It analyzes power models,
operational trade-offs, and future
research needs for building
sustainable and efficient
communication systems
2 2023 IEEE DandanYa Deep The paper proposes a deep
access-DRL n et al. Reinforcement reinforcement learning (DRL)-
Based Learning based framework for dynamic
Resource Based resource allocation in network
Allocation Resource slicing with massive MIMO. It
for Network Allocation for introduces a two-level scheduling
Slicing with Network system to enhance Quality of
Massive Slicing With Experience (QoE) and spectrum
MIMO Massive efficiency in radio access networks.
MIMO The DRL approach enables real-
time adaptation to diverse user
demands, outperforming traditional
methods in efficiency and QoE.
3 2019 XarXiv:181 TuomasH Soft Actor- The paper proposes a deep
2.05905v2 aarnoja et Critic reinforcement learning (DRL)-
[cs.LG] al. Algorithms based framework for dynamic
and resource allocation in network
Applications slicing with massive MIMO. It
introduces a two-level scheduling
system to enhance Quality of
Experience (QoE) and spectrum
efficiency in radio access networks.
The DRL approach enables real-
 time adaptation to diverse user
demands, outperforming traditional
methods in efficiency and QoE
4 2013 arXiv:1310. Gaurav Conditional The paper proposes a conditional
7852v1 Gupta et Entropy based entropy-based algorithm for user
[cs.IT] al User Selection selection in multi-user MIMO
for Multiuser systems to maximize sum rates. It
MIMO balances channel capacity and user
Systems channel orthogonality, achieving
near-optimal performance with
lower complexity than exhaustive
searches, outperforming existing
methods.
5 2021 IEEE Yu Zhao Dynamic The paper explores the use of deep
Access et al. Power reinforcement learning (DRL) to
Allocation for optimize power allocation in cell-
Cell-Free free massive MIMO systems. The
MassiveMIMO approach enhances energy
: Deep efficiency and user fairness by
Reinforcement dynamically adjusting power across
Learning distributed antennas. Simulation
Methods results show that DRL outperforms
traditional methods, presenting a
promising solution for next-
generation wireless networks.
6 2015 Nature V.Mnih et Human-level The paper presents Deep Q-
al control through Networks (DQN), a method that
deep combines deep convolutional neural
reinforcement networks with Q-learning to enable
learning agents to learn control policies
directly from raw pixel data and
game rewards. Tested on 49 Atari
2600 games, DQN achieves human-
level or superhuman performance in
many games without manual feature
engineering. Key innovations
include using experience replay for
stable learning and generalization
across diverse environments,
demonstrating the potential of deep
reinforcement learning for solving
 complex decision-making tasks.
7 2017 arXiv:1509. Timothy Continuous Introduced the Deep Deterministic
02971v6 P. control with Policy Gradient (DDPG), a novel
[cs.LG] Lillicrap deep actor-critic algorithm that combines
et al. reinforcement deep learning with deterministic
learning policy optimization, enabling
efficient learning for continuous
action spaces and outperforming
traditional reinforcement learning
techniques in complex control
problems.
8 2011 IEEE Qingjiang An Iteratively Proposed an innovative iteratively
Trans. Shi et al Weighted weighted minimum mean square
Signal MMSE error (MMSE) algorithm to
Process. Approach to maximize the sum utility in
Distributed distributed MIMO interfering
Sum-Utility broadcast channels, providing
Maximization significant improvements in
for a MIMO performance for multi-user systems
Interfering with interference.
Broadcast
Channel
9 2000 IEEE Umair F. Deep Developed a deep reinforcement
Trans. Veh. Siddiqi et Reinforcement learning (DRL)-based framework
Technol. al. Based Power for power allocation in NOMA
Allocation for systems, focusing on achieving
the Max-Min max-min fairness among users,
Optimization effectively balancing spectral
in Non- efficiency and fairness under
Orthogonal practical system constraints
Multiple
Access
10 2020 IEEE Delin Guo Joint Designed a multi-agent deep
Trans. Veh. et al. Optimization reinforcement learning approach for
Technol. of Handover jointly optimizing handover control
Control and and power allocation, enhancing
Power network performance by reducing
Allocation handover failures and improving
Based on resource utilization in dense
Multi-Agent wireless networks.
Deep
 Reinforcement
Learning
11 2015 arXiv Timothy Continuous Presented the foundational ideas
P. Control with behind the DDPG algorithm for
Lillicrap Deep continuous action control, offering
et al. Reinforcement early experimental validation of its
Learning efficacy in simulated robotic control
tasks and serving as a basis for later
work in deep reinforcement
learning.
12 2024 Scientific Minghao Spectrum- Proposed a spectrum-efficient
Reports Wang et Efficient User resource allocation and user
(Nature) al. Grouping and grouping strategy for mmWave
Resource massive MIMO-NOMA systems
Allocation using deep reinforcement learning,
Based on Deep achieving higher spectral efficiency,
Reinforcement improved fairness, and enhanced
Learning for system capacity in high-density
mmWave scenarios.
Massive
MIMO-NOMA
Systems
13 2020 Hindawi Rao et al. Energy The document discusses a
Wireless Efficiency methodology for analysing uplink
Communica Augmentation and downlink massive MIMO
tions and in Massive systems, focusing on power, area
Mobile MIMO throughput, and energy efficiency.
Computing Systems It presents a single-cell model with
through Linear multiple transmit antennas serving
Precoding single-antenna user equipment,
Schemes and utilizing flat-fading channels and
Power time division duplex for operation.
Consumption Results validate the theoretical
Modeling analysis and compare the proposed
model with existing linear
processing schemes
14 2020 Sensors,M Jehangir Spectral The document discusses the need
DPI et al. Efficiency for improved spectral efficiency
Augmentation (SE) in massive MIMO systems to
in Uplink enhance coverage and reduce traffic
Massive burden on low mobility user
 MIMO equipment. It highlights the role of
Systems by the hotspot tier, which benefits
Increasing from cell densification and mm-
Transmit Wave bandwidth. The Shannon
Power and proposition is referenced to explain
Uniform how the number of complex-valued
Linear Array samples relates to SE, emphasizing
Gain the importance of reliable
information transfer in
communication channels.
15 2013 IEEE Jakob et Massive The document discusses the
JOURNAL al. MIMO in the performance of massive MIMO
ON UL/DL of systems in uplink and downlink
SELECTE Cellular scenarios, highlighting the impact
D AREAS Networks: of pilot contamination as antenna
IN How Many numbers increase. It establishes
COMMUN Antennas Do conditions for achieving optimal
ICATIONS, We Need? performance with a finite number of
antennas and compares various
linear precoding and detection
methods. The findings suggest that
MMSE and RZF techniques can
deliver comparable performance
with fewer antennas than simpler
approaches
16 2015 arXiv:1403. Emil et al. Optimal The document discusses
6150v2 Design of mathematical formulations related
[cs.IT] Energy- to optimal resource allocation in
Efficient communication systems,
Multi-User specifically focusing on the optimal
MIMO number of user equipment’s (UEs),
Systems: Is base station (BS) antennas, and
Massive transmit power under zero-forcing
MIMO the (ZF) processing. It introduces
Answer? constant coefficients for
convenience and extends the
analysis to imperfect channel state
information (CSI) and symmetric
multi-cell scenarios. The findings
are validated through numerical
results, with major conclusions
drawn in the final section
17 2015 arXiv: K. et al. Energy The document discusses the
1511.08689 Efficiency in importance of energy efficiency in
v1 [cs.NI Massive 5G networks, highlighting how
MIMO-Based massive MIMO technology can
5G improve both spectral and energy
Networks: efficiency. It identifies challenges
Opportunities such as power consumption
and Challenges modeling and hardware limitations,
while suggesting that hybrid
systems and research in low-
complexity operations and energy
harvesting can enhance energy
efficiency. Future research should
focus on optimizing energy
management and addressing design
constraints in energy harvesting
networks.
18 Willy Hindawi Jing et al. Energy The document discusses a
2021 Wireless Efficiency mathematical model related to
Communica Optimization energy efficiency in massive MIMO
tions and of Massive systems, incorporating parameters
Mobile MIMO such as signal-to-noise ratio (ρ),
Computing Systems Based channel state information (CSI),
on the Particle and power allocation. It includes
Swarm equations for calculating energy
Optimization efficiency based on various factors,
Algorithm including user equipment and
transmission parameters. The focus
is on optimizing performance
through the use of specific
algorithms and models in
communication systems.
19 Willy Sensor,MD Robin et Massive Massive MIMO allows
2020 PI al. MIMO simultaneous communication with
Systems for 5G multiple users, but requires
and beyond effective user scheduling to mitigate
Networks— multi-user interference. Linear
Overview, methods (e.g., ZF, MMSE) offer
Recent Trends, near-optimal performance with
Challenges, lower complexity, while non-linear
 and Future methods (e.g., DPC, ML) provide
Research better performance but are
Direction computationally
intensive.Channelextimation
Techniques like VAMP and
MICED are used in MIMO systems
to enhance performance.Visible
Light Communication (VLC)
technology uses light to transmit
data and offering an alternative to
traditional radio frequency
communication.

20 2023 Electronics, Joumana A Review on The paper reviews Cell-Free

MDPI MDPI et al. Cell-Free Massive MIMO (CF mMIMO) as a
Massive promising technology for future
MIMO wireless networks, emphasizing its
Systems benefits like high capacity and
reliability. It covers scalability,
beamforming techniques, and the
integration of enabling technologies
like RIS and AI. CF mMIMO is
essential for enhancing connectivity
and data rates in upcoming 6G
networks.
21 2022 IEEE Nikolaos A Distortion The paper by Ottersten discusses a
Wireless et al. Nullforming method for acquiring partial
Communica Precoder in Channel State Information (CSI) to
tion Letters Massive enable spatially selective
MIMO transmission using instantaneous
Systems with channel norm feedback. It presents
Nonlinear techniques that improve signal
Hardware processing efficiency in wireless
communication systems. The
findings contribute to enhancing the
performance of spatially selective
transmission strategies.
22 2014 IEEE Erik et al. Massive Massive MIMO uses hundreds of
IEEE Communica MIMO for antennas to serve multiple terminals
tions Next simultaneously, boosting capacity,
Magazine Generation energy efficiency, and robustness
 Wireless while lowering latency and costs.
Systems Challenges include channel
reciprocity, pilot contamination,
and the need for low-cost
components. Research opportunities
lie in signal processing, hardware
impairments, and new deployment
scenarios. Massive MIMO is key to
advancing future wireless networks
23 2015 IEEE. AKHIL et A Survey of The document discusses 5G
IEEE Translation al. 5G Network: network architecture, emphasizing
s. Architecture spectrum sharing, massive MIMO,
[SPECIAL and and emerging technologies like
SECTION Emerging D2D communication and cognitive
ON Technologies radio. It highlights the benefits of
RECENT massive MIMO for energy
ADVANCE efficiency and capacity, while also
S IN addressing challenges such as
SOFTWAR security and interference
E management. Overall, it outlines the
DEFINED advancements and considerations
NETWOR necessary for effective 5G
KING FOR implementation.
5G
NETWOR
KS]
24 2017 Advances Ali et al. The document discusses the
Issn in Optimization optimization of spectral efficiency
Computatio of Spectral in massive MIMO systems using
nal Efficiency in TDD architecture. It highlights that
Sciences Massive- increasing the number of antennas
and MIMO TDD at base stations and active users
Technology Systems with enhances spectral efficiency, with
ISSN Linear Zero Forcing precoding
Precoding outperforming Maximum Ratio
Combining. The findings suggest
that massive MIMO can meet and
exceed IMT-Advanced spectral
efficiency requirements, indicating
its potential for future wireless
networks.
25 IJCTA I J C T A, Sk. et al. AN The document discusses optimizing
2016 OVERVIEW energy efficiency (EE) in single-cell
OF MASSIVE massive MIMO downlink systems
MIMO using statistical channel state
SYSTEM IN information (CSI). It presents
5G closed-form solutions for optimal
transmit covariance matrices and an
iterative water-filling power
allocation algorithm. The findings
indicate that beam domain
transmission enhances EE, with
numerical results demonstrating the
proposed method's near-optimal
performance.
26 2014 Front Ehab et al. Beamforming Massive MIMO systems are
FITEE Inform techniques for gaining attention due to the
Technol massive increasing number of users and
Electron MIMO demand for data, with multi-user
Eng systems in 5G: MIMO potentially enhancing
overview, spectral efficiency. The focus is on
classification, improving system performance
and trends for through advanced beamforming
future research techniques.
27 2022 IEEE Italo et al. Channel This study analyzes channel
IEEE TRANSAC Estimation and estimation and data detection in
TIONS ON Data Detection massive MIMO systems with 1-bit
WIRELESS Analysis of ADCs. Key findings include closed-
COMMUN Massive form expressions for mean squared
ICATIONS, MIMO With 1- error (MSE), characterization of
Bit ADCs estimated symbols for MRC, and
identification of SNR trade-offs
affecting performance. The research
provides insights for designing
efficient 1-bit quantized systems,
focusing on optimal SNR levels for
improved channel estimation and
detection. Mathematical definitions
and equations related to signal
processing are also discussed.
28 2021 Applied Alejandro On the Spectral The document discusses the
MDPI Science,M et al. Efficiency for acquisition process of propagation
 DPI Distributed channels in a Distributed MIMO
Massive (D-MIMO) system, emphasizing
MIMO the impact of power unbalance on
Systems spectral efficiency. Measurements
were conducted in a reverberation
chamber with multiple scenarios,
revealing that diversity from
multipath components enhances
performance. The analysis
highlights the need to maximize
spectral efficiency while
minimizing power allocation,
particularly under varying Signal-
to-Interference-plus-Noise Ratio
(SINR) conditions.
29 HIND Hindawi Kan et al. Massive The section discusses Correlation-
AWI Publishing MIMO Based Stochastic Models (CBSMs)
2014 Corporation Channel for theoretical analysis and
Models: A Geometry-Based Stochastic Models
Survey (GBSMs) for realistic performance
evaluation of massive MIMO
systems. CBSMs are primarily used
to assess performance while
assuming users employ single
antennas to simplify complexity
and space considerations. The
analysis is summarized in Table 3,
highlighting the different categories
of models
30 2020 Sensor,MD Robin et Massive The document provides a list of
MDPI PI al. MIMO terms and acronyms related to
Systems for 5G various communication
and beyond technologies and methodologies,
Networks— including supervised learning,
Overview, MIMO systems, and visible light
Recent Trends, communication. It also references
Challenges, key concepts in mobile
and Future telecommunications, such as
Research HSPA+, QoS, and QAM.
Direction Additionally, it includes citations
for further reading on industrial
plastics and Cisco's visual
 networking index.
31 2019 IEEE Anum et Linear The document discusses the effects
IEEE WIRELESS al. Receivers in of spatial non-stationarity in
COMMUN Non-stationary massive MIMO systems,
ICATIONS Massive particularly focusing on visibility
LETTERS MIMO regions (VRs). It presents SINR
Channels with expressions for different precoding
Visibility techniques and highlights how user
Regions configurations can impact
performance. The findings indicate
that smaller VRs can result in
considerable SINR losses, while
optimal configurations can improve
system performance.
32 2021 Springer,Wi Sinan A. Massive Massive MIMO significantly
Wirele reless Khwandah MIMO improves 5G communications by
ss Personal · et al. Systems for 5G enhancing data rates and spectral
Person Communica Communicatio efficiency, offering up to 50 times
al tions ns greater spectral efficiency than 4G.
Comm It utilizes 3D beamforming to
unicati increase user capacity and reduce
ons interference, while emphasizing the
importance of channel state
information (CSI) and advanced
scheduling techniques. The
document also addresses challenges
and practical implementation issues,
highlighting the potential of
massive MIMO to meet future
communication demands.
33 2016 Internationa Akshita et Energy Simultaneous Wireless Information
IJARC l Journal of al. Efficient and Power Transfer(SWIPT) is
Advanced Techniques in used here. Low-powered base
Research in 5G Networks stations are used to reduce power
Computer consumption. For enhancement of
and network throughput D to D
Communica communication is used to transfer
tion the direct data. Relay is used for
Engineering expand coverage and reduce
transmission power.
34 2014 IEEE Lu et al. An Overview The paper provides a
IEEE JOURNAL of Massive comprehensive overview of
OF MIMO: massive MIMO systems,
SELECTE Benefits and highlighting their potential for
D TOPICS Challenges significant improvements in
IN spectral and energy efficiency
SIGNAL through the use of a large number
PROCESSI of antennas at base stations. It
NG discusses key topics such as
information theoretic advantages,
channel estimation, signal
detection, and various precoding
schemes, including the challenges
posed by pilot contamination. The
authors emphasize the importance
of effective channel state
information management and
practical implementation issues in
optimizing performance.
35 Sampson Integration of The energy consumption of base
et al. Massive station (BS) components is
MIMO and influenced by various sleep modes
Machine (SMs) with different activation and
Learning in the deactivation timings. Sleep Mode 1
Present and (SM1) has the shortest transition
Future of duration of 71 µs, deactivating the
Power Power Amplifier and some
Consumption processing components. In contrast,
in Wireless Sleep Mode 4 (SM4) keeps only the
Networks: A backhaul operational, with a longer
Review transition time, while other modes
progressively deactivate more
components.
3. MOTIVATION AND OBJECTIVES

Motivation

1. Wireless data traffic is growing rapidly due to IoT, AR/VR, and high-definition video
streaming, placing significant strain on current networks.
2. Existing networks, including 5G, struggle to meet the escalating demand for faster and
more reliable connectivity.
3. Integrating mmWave massive MIMO with NOMA can significantly enhance bandwidth
and system capacity.
4. Resource management challenges, such as power allocation and interference
management, need innovative solutions.
5. Deep reinforcement learning (DRL) techniques, like DQN and DDPG, offer potential
for optimizing dynamic network systems.
6. Future wireless networks must be scalable, robust, and efficient to handle the demands
of diverse applications like uRLLC and eMBB.
7. Energy-efficient solutions are crucial for ensuring the sustainability of next-generation
network infrastructures.

Objectives

1. To develop and implement advanced deep reinforcement learning (DRL)

techniques, specifically deep Q-network (DQN) and deep deterministic policy gradient
(DDPG), to optimize resource allocation in cell-free massive MIMO and mmWave
massive MIMO-NOMA systems.
2. To investigate the integration of mmWave massive MIMO with NOMA, evaluating
its potential for improving bandwidth utilization and system capacity.
3. To enhance energy efficiency and interference management in dynamic wireless
network environments through advanced DRL-based strategies.
4. To simulate and validate the performance improvements of the proposed solutions,
focusing on metrics such as system capacity, spectral efficiency, and latency.
4. SYSTEM MODELLING

 Base Station (BS): The BS is equipped with a large antenna array (Massive MIMO). It is
responsible for allocating resources to users in the network. In the dynamic system, the
BS acts as the RL agent.
 Users: A set of mobile users are served by the BS. Each user has its own channel state,
interference conditions, and QoS (Quality of Service) requirements. The RL agent needs
to decide how to allocate resources (e.g., power and beamforming) to maximize overall
network performance.
 Resource Variables:
o Beamforming vectors (W k): The BS selects a beamforming vector for each user
to maximize the SINR (Signal-to-Interference-plus-Noise Ratio).
o Power Allocation ( Pk ): The BS allocates transmission power to each user,
ensuring that interference is minimized, and SINR requirements are met.
o Scheduling/Time-frequency resources: The BS may also need to decide which
users should be scheduled to transmit or receive in specific time slots or
frequency bands.

4.1 Reinforcement Learning

State Representation

The states(t) of the system at any time t should capture the key aspects of the current system
environment. The state could include:

 Channel State Information (CSI): The channel gains between the BS and the users,
typically represented as the channel vectorsh k for each user k.
 User Location: The relative position of users to the BS, which affects the channel
propagation.
 Interference Levels: The interference caused by other users, either from the BS or from
other cells in the network.
 Traffic Demand: The data rates required by users or their Quality of Service (QoS)
demands.
 Power Consumption: The current power usage, which is relevant when trying to
minimize energy consumption.

The state can be represented as:

S (t)={h1 ( t ) , h2 ( t ) … .. hk ( t )Interference,Traffic,Power Usage}

Action Space:

The actiona(t) is the decision the RL agent makes at time t based on the current state. Possible
actions include:
  Beamforming Vector Allocation: For each user k, the BS selects a beamforming vector
W kthat maximizes the SINR. This is typically a high-dimensional decision since there are
many antennas at the BS.
 Power Allocation: The BS assigns transmission power Pk to each user k.
 Scheduling: The BS decides which users to serve in a given time slot or sub-carrier.

The action can be represented as:

a (t)={W 1(t),W 2 (t),……..W k(t), P1(t), P2(t),… … .. Pk (t) Scheduling Decisions}

Reward Function:

The rewardr (t) is the feedback received by the RL agent after taking an action a(t) at states(t).
The reward function is designed to reflect the performance of the system, such as throughput,
fairness, and energy efficiency. Common choices for the reward are:

 Throughput Maximization: The sum of the throughput across all users can be used as
the reward. For user k, the throughput is a function of SINR:

Throughput k =log 2 (1+ SINRK )

The total throughput across all users is:

K
r ( t )= ∑ log 2 (1+ SINR K )
K =1

 Energy Efficiency: Another reward can be based on energy efficiency, which considers
both throughput and power consumption. The reward could be formulated as:
K K
r ( t )= ∑ log 2 ( 1+SINR K )−¿ λ ∑ Pk (t )¿
K =1 K=1

Where λ is a regularization parameter that penalizes excessive power usage.

 Fairness: To ensure fairness among users, the reward could incorporate fairness metrics,
such as the Jain’s fairness index.

Policy:

The policyπ(s) defines the action taken by the RL agent for each state s. The RL agent is
objective is to learn the optimal policy π ¿(s) that maximizes the expected cumulative reward over
time.
5. LEARNING PROCESS

Exploration vs. Exploitation:

To learn the optimal policy, the RL agent goes through an exploration phase where it tries
various actions to understand the environment and a subsequent exploitation phase where it uses
the learned policy to make decisions that maximize the expected reward.

Q-Learning / Deep Q-Networks (DQN):

 Q-learning is a standard RL technique where the agent learns a Q-function Q(s,a),

which estimates the expected cumulative reward for taking action a in state s. The Q-
function is updated using the Bellman equation:

Q ( s , a ) ← Q ( s , a ) +α ( r ( t ) + γ max Q ( S ,a ) −Q(s , a) )
' '

Where,

α is the learning rate, γ is the discount factor, and r(t) is the reward received after taking
action a in state s.

 Deep Q-Networks (DQN): For large state and action spaces (which is typical in Massive
MIMO), the Q-function is approximated using a deep neural network. DQN allows the
agent to scale to environments with large dimensionality (such as Massive MIMO
systems).

Policy Gradient Methods:

 Policy Gradient methods (e.g., Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO)) are another
approach where the agent directly learns the policy π(a∣s) instead of the Q-function. This
is useful in high-dimensional action spaces, like the beamforming vector in Massive
MIMO.
6. RESOURCE ALLOCATION DECISIONS

Once the RL agent is trained, it dynamically allocates resources in the following way:

1. Beamforming: The agent selects beamforming vectors W kfor each user based on the
current state, optimizing the SINR for all users.
2. Power Control: The agent allocates power Pk to each user to ensure fairness and
minimize interference.
3. Scheduling: The agent may also decide which users should be scheduled in each time
slot based on their QoS requirements and current channel conditions.
7. IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGES

 Real-Time Training: In a dynamic network, the RL agent must continually update its
policy as the environment changes. Training in real-time can be computationally
intensive.
 Exploration-Exploitation Trade-off: Balancing exploration and exploitation is crucial,
as too much exploration can cause inefficiency, while excessive exploitation may result
in suboptimal performance.
 Scalability: With a large number of users and antennas, the action and state spaces grow
exponentially, requiring advanced techniques like DQN or PPO for effective learning.

Reinforcement learning (RL) is increasingly applied to dynamically allocate resources in

Massive MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) systems to optimize network performance,
such as throughput, fairness, or energy efficiency. In Massive MIMO systems, there are a large
number of antennas at the base station (BS), which allows for better spatial multiplexing and
interference management. However, efficiently allocating resources such as power, beamforming
weights, or frequency resources becomes a complex task due to the large dimensionality of the
system.

General Setup of the Problem

In the context of RL applied to Massive MIMO, the goal is to design an agent that can
dynamically allocate resources (such as power or beamforming) to users in the network, to
maximize a cumulative reward function that reflects the network performance. We can describe
this problem using the RL framework, where:

 State (s): The state at time t could represent the current conditions of the system, such as
channel state information (CSI), user locations, interference levels, etc. Denoted as s(t).
 Action (a): The action represents the resource allocation decisions the agent can take,
such as power control, beamforming vector adjustment, or scheduling of users. Denoted
as a(t).
 Reward (r): The reward represents the feedback the system gives to the agent based on
the chosen action and current state. This reward is typically related to the system's
performance (e.g., throughput, energy efficiency, or SINR). Denoted as r(t).
 Policy (π): The policy is the strategy the agent uses to choose actions based on the state.
This can be deterministic or probabilistic.
 Value Function (V): The value function V(s) estimates the long-term expected reward
the agent can achieve from a given state s.
 Q-function (Q): The Q-function Q(s,a) is the expected cumulative reward of taking
action a from state s.

1. RL Framework Applied to Resource Allocation

The RL agent is tasked with learning an optimal policy to allocate resources to users in a
Massive MIMO system over time. The system can be modeled as a discrete-time Markov
Decision Process (MDP):

M =(S , A , P , R , γ )

 S is the set of all possible states (e.g., channel conditions).

 A is the set of all possible actions (e.g., power allocation, beamforming).
 P(s′∣s,a) is the state transition probability, representing how the system evolves from state
s to state s′ when action a is taken.
 R(s,a) is the reward function, which defines the immediate reward received after taking
action a in state s.
 γ is the discount factor, representing the importance of future rewards.

The objective is to maximize the cumulative reward over time, which can be represented as the
expected return J(π) from following a policy π:

J ( π )=E ¿]

 E [⋅] denotes the expected value,

 t represents the time step,
 st is the state at time t

2. Resource Allocation in Massive MIMO with RL

In Massive MIMO systems, the main objective is often to maximize the throughput or SINR
(Signal-to-Interference-plus-Noise Ratio) of the users, while minimizing interference and power
consumption. This can be done by applying RL to the problem of beamforming and power
allocation. Let’s break this down:

Beamforming:

In Massive MIMO systems, the base station with multiple antennas needs to allocate
beamforming vectors to users to maximize SINR or throughput. For user k, the SINR can be
expressed as:
H 2
¿ hk W k ∨¿
SINRk = ¿
∑ ¿ h Hk W i∨¿2 +σ 2k ¿
i k

 h k is the channel vector of user kkk.

 W kis the beamforming vector allocated to user k.
2
 σ kis the noise power at user k.
An RL agent could be trained to select the beamforming vectors W kdynamically to maximize the
total SINR across all users, which can be the reward:
k
r ( t )=∑ SINRk
k=1

Power Control:

For power allocation, the RL agent must allocate power pkp_kpk to user kkk in such a way that
interference is minimized while maintaining an acceptable SINR. The power control strategy can
be modeled as:

P ( t ) ={ P1 ( t ) , P1 ( t ) , … .. P k (t ) }

The reward function can be adjusted to consider both throughput and power efficiency, for
instance:
k k
r ( t )=∑ log ( 1+ SINRk ) −λ ∑ Pk ( t )
k=1 k=1

Where:

 log(1+ SINRk ) represents the throughput of user k,

 λ is a regularization parameter that controls the trade-off between throughput and power
consumption.

3. Learning the Optimal Policy

To learn the optimal policy π∗, RL algorithms such as Q-learning, Deep Q-Networks (DQN), or
Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) can be applied. These algorithms aim to estimate the Q-
function Q(s,a), which gives the expected cumulative reward for taking action a instate s. The
agent updates the Q-function iteratively by observing the rewards and state transitions over time.

For example, in Q-learning, the Q-function is updated using the Bellman equation:

Q ( s , a ) ← Q ( s , a ) +α ( r ( t ) + γmaxQ ( s , a ) −Qs ,a )
' '

Where:

 α is the learning rate,

 γ is the discount factor,
 s′ is the next state after taking action a,
 a′ is the next action taken.
7. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
Conclusion

The optimization of resource allocation in cell-free massive MIMO and mmWave massive
MIMO-NOMA systems was successfully achieved by utilizing advanced deep reinforcement
learning (DRL) techniques. The framework developed was demonstrated to provide robust and
adaptive solutions to address the increasing demands posed by 5G networks and the transition
towards 6G. By integrating mmWave massive MIMO with NOMA, significant improvements in
bandwidth utilization and system capacity were achieved, highlighting the potential of these
technologies to support high user densities and diverse application requirements.

The DRL-based methods, including deep Q-network (DQN) and deep deterministic policy
gradient (DDPG), were validated to outperform traditional resource allocation techniques in
various performance metrics, including computational complexity, adaptability to dynamic
network conditions, and system efficiency. The hierarchical two-level scheduling framework
proposed was shown to enhance resource allocation efficiency by ensuring that the distinct needs
of each application—ranging from ultra-reliable low-latency communication (uRLLC) to
enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB)—were met effectively. Simulation results demonstrated
substantial gains in system capacity, spectral efficiency, and convergence speed, even in the most
challenging scenarios such as dense urban environments characterized by high user mobility and
interference.

Despite these advancements, it was acknowledged that significant challenges remain. The
integration of mmWave massive MIMO and NOMA into practical deployments is constrained by
issues such as interference management, the need for precise channel state information (CSI),
and energy consumption concerns. Addressing these limitations is critical for the development of
scalable, reliable, and sustainable next-generation networks.

Future Work

Future research will be directed towards addressing the unresolved challenges that hinder the full
potential of the proposed methodologies. Interference management will be a primary focus, with
advanced techniques being explored to mitigate both inter-cell and intra-cell interference. Novel
approaches for channel estimation and feedback mechanisms will also be investigated to improve
the accuracy and reliability of CSI in dynamic environments. Additionally, the trade-off between
computational complexity and real-time adaptability in DRL-based frameworks will be further
optimized to ensure compatibility with large-scale, real-world deployments.

Energy efficiency, a critical aspect of sustainable wireless communication, will receive

considerable attention in future studies. Techniques such as energy harvesting, hybrid
beamforming, and low-power hardware solutions will be incorporated into resource allocation
strategies to reduce power consumption without compromising performance.

Moreover, the integration of the proposed DRL-based frameworks with emerging technologies,
including reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RIS) and terahertz communication, will be
explored. RIS can enhance system capacity and spectral efficiency by dynamically shaping the
wireless propagation environment, while terahertz communication offers untapped spectrum
resources for ultra-high-speed data transmission. Additionally, the scalability of the framework
will be tested in more complex scenarios, such as those involving heterogeneous networks,
multi-hop communication, and diverse quality of service (QoS) requirements.

The potential application of multi-agent DRL will also be explored to enable decentralized
resource management, which is expected to enhance scalability and real-time decision-making in
distributed systems. Collaboration with artificial intelligence (AI)-driven techniques, such as
federated learning, will be investigated to further enhance the adaptability and privacy of
resource allocation mechanisms.

Ultimately, the insights gained from these advancements are expected to pave the way for the
development of future-proof wireless networks that are capable of addressing the rapidly
growing data traffic and evolving user requirements. These networks will be characterized by
high reliability, energy efficiency, and the flexibility to support a broad range of applications,
from autonomous vehicles and industrial IoT to immersive extended reality experiences.
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