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UNIT V

5.1.1 IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS

Four most commonly used switching converter types: Buck: used the reduce a DC voltage to
a lower DC voltage. Boost: provides an output voltage that is higher than the input. Buck-
Boost (invert): an output voltage is generated opposite in polarity to the input. Flyback: an
output voltage that is less than or greater than the input can be generated, as well as

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multiple outputs.Converters: Push-Pull: A two-transistor converter that is especially efficient
at low input voltages. Half-Bridge:A two-transistor converter used in many off-line
applications. Full-Bridge: A four-transistor converter (usually used in off-line designs) that

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can generate the highest output power of all the types listed. Application information will be
provided along with circuit examples that illustrate some applications of Buck, Boost, and
Flyback regulators.

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5.2.1 Switching Fundamentals
The law of inductance
If a voltage is forced across an inductor, a current will flow through that inductor (and this
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current will vary with time). The current flowing in an inductor will be time-varying even
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if the forcing voltage is constant. It is equally correct to say that if a time-varying current is
forced to flow in an inductor, a voltage across the inductor will result. The fundamental law
that defines the relationship between the voltage and current in an inductor is given by the
equation:
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v = L (di/dt)
Two important characteristics of an inductor that follow directly from the law of inductance
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are:
1) A voltage across an inductor results only from a current that changes with time. A
steady (DC) current flowing in an inductor causes no voltage across it (except for the tiny
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voltage drop across the copper used in the windings).

2) A current flowing in an inductor can not change value instantly (in zero time), as this
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would require infinite voltage to force it to happen. However, the faster the current is
changed in an inductor, the larger the resulting voltage will be. Note: Unlike the current
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flowing in the inductor, the voltage across it can change instantly (in zero time). The
principles of inductance are illustrated by the information contained in Figure.

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The important parameter is the di/dt term, which is simply a measure of how the current
changes with time. When the current is plotted versus time, the value of di/dt is defined as

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the slope of the current plot at any given point. The graph on the left shows that current which
is constant with time has a di/dt value of zero, and results in no voltage across the inductor.

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The center graph shows that a current which is increasing with time has a positive di/dt value,
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resulting in a positive inductor voltage. Current that decreases with time (shown in the right-
hand graph) gives a negative value for di/dt and inductor voltage. It is important to note that a
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linear current ramp in an inductor (either up or down) occurs only when it has a constant
voltage across it.
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5.2.2 Transformer Operation:

A transformer is a device that has two or more magnetically-coupled windings. The
basic operation is shown in Figure. The action of a transformer is such that a time-varying
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(AC) voltage or current is transformed to a higher or lower value, as set by the transformer
turns ratio. The transformer does not add power, so it follows that the power (V X I) on either
side must be constant. That is the reason that the winding with more turns has higher voltage
but lower current, while the winding with less turns has lower voltage but higher current.The
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dot on a transformer winding identifies its polarity with respect to another winding, and
reversing the dot results in inverting the polarity Example of Transformer Operation: An
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excellent example of how a transformer works can be found under the hood of your car, where
a transformer is used to generate the 40 kV that fires car‘s spark plugs.

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5.2.3 Spark Firing Circuit:

The "coil" used to generate the spark voltage is actually a transformer, with a very high

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secondary- to-primary turns ratio. When the points first close, current starts to flow in the
primary winding and eventually reaches the final value set by the 12V battery and the current

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limiting resistor. At this time, the current flow is a fixed DC value, which means no voltage is
generated across either winding of the transformer.
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When the points open, the current in the primary winding collapses very quickly, causing a large
voltage to appear across this winding. This voltage on the primary is magnetically coupled to (and
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stepped up by) the secondary winding, generating a voltage of 30 kV - 40 kV on the secondary

side. As explained previously, the law of inductance says that it is not possible to instantly break
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the current flowing in an inductor (because an infinite voltage would be required to make it
happen).
This principle is what causes the arcing across the contacts used in switches that are in
circuits with highly inductive loads. When the switch just begins to open, the high voltage
generated allows electrons to jump the air gap so that the current flow does not actually stop
instantly. Placing a capacitor across the contacts helps to reduce this arcing effect. In the
automobile ignition, a capacitor is placed across the points to minimize damage due to arcing when
the points "break" the current flowing in the low-voltage coil winding (in car manuals, this capacitor

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is referred to as a "condenser").

5.2.4 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):

All of the switching converters that will be covered in this paper use a form of output voltage
regulation known as Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). Put simply, the feedback loop adjusts
(corrects) the output voltage by changing the ON time of the switching element in the converter.

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As an example of how PWM works, we will examine the result of applying a series of square wave
pulses to an L-C filter (see Figure).

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The series of square wave pulses is filtered and provides a DC output voltage that is equal to the
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peak pulse amplitude multiplied times the duty cycle (duty cycle is defined as the switch ON time
divided by the total period). This relationship explains how the output voltage can be directly
controlled by changing the ON time of the switch.
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Switching Converter Topologies The most commonly used DC-DC converter circuits will now be
presented along with the basic principles of operation.
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5.2.5 Buck Regulator:

The most commonly used switching converter is the Buck, which is used to down-convert a DC
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voltage to a lower DC voltage of the same polarity. This is essential in systems that use distributed
power rails (like 24V to 48V), which must be locally converted to 15V, 12V or 5V with very little
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power loss. The Buck converter uses a transistor as a switch that alternately connects and
disconnects the input voltage to an inductor (see Figure).

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The lower diagrams show the current flow paths (shown as the heavy lines) when the switch is on

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and off. When the switch turns on, the input voltage is connected to the inductor. The difference
between the input and output voltages is then forced across the inductor, causing current through

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the inductor to increase. During the on time, the inductor current flows into both the load and the
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output capacitor (the capacitor charges during this time).
When the switch is turned off, the input voltage applied to the inductor is removed. However, since
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the current in an inductor can not change instantly, the voltage across the inductor will adjust to
hold the current constant. The input end of the inductor is forced negative in voltage by the
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decreasing current, eventually reaching the point where the diode is turned on. The inductor
current then flows through the load and back through the diode. The capacitor discharges into the
load during the off time, contributing to the total current being supplied to the load (the total load
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current during the switch off time is the sum of the inductor and capacitor current).
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The shape of the current flowing in the inductor is similar to previous figure. As explained, the
current through the inductor ramps up when the switch is on, and ramps down when the switch is
off. The DC load current from the regulated output is the average value of the inductor current.
The peak-to-peak difference in the inductor current waveform is referred to as the inductor ripple
current, and the inductor is typically selected large enough to keep this ripple current less than 20%

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to 30% of the rated DC current.

5.2.6 Continuous vs. Discontinuous operation

In most Buck regulator applications, the inductor current never drops to zero during
Full-load operation (this is defined as continuous mode operation). Overall performance is usually
better using continuous mode, and it allows maximum output power to be obtained from a given
input voltage and switch current rating. In applications where the maximum load current is fairly

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low, it can be advantageous to design for discontinuous mode operation. In these cases, operating
in discontinuous mode can result in a smaller overall converter size (because a smaller inductor

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can be used).Discontinuous mode operation at lower load current values is generally harmless, and
even converters designed for continuous mode operation at full load will become discontinuous as

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the load current is decreased (usually causing no problems).

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5.2.7Boost Regulator:
The Boost regulator takes a DC input voltage and produces a DC output voltage that is
higher in value than the input (but of the same polarity). The Boost regulator is shown in Figure,
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along with details showing the path of current flow during the switch on and off time. Whenever the
switch is on, the input voltage is forced across the inductor which causes the current through it to
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increase (ramp up).

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When the switch is off, the decreasing inductor current forces the "switch" end of the inductor to
swing positive. This forward biases the diode, allowing the capacitor to charge up to a voltage that
is higher than the input voltage. During steady-state operation, the inductor current flows into both
the output capacitor and the load during the switch off time. When the switch is on, the load
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current is supplied only by the capacitor.

5.2.8 Output Current and Load power:

An important design consideration in the Boost regulator is that the output load current and the
switch current are not equal, and the maximum available load current is always less than the
current rating of the switch transistor. It should be noted that the maximum total power available
for conversion in any regulator is equal to the input voltage multiplied times the maximum
average input current (which is less than the current rating of the switch transistor). Since the

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output voltage of the Boost is higher than the input voltage, it follows that the output current must
be lower than the input current.

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5.2.9 Buck-Boost (Inverting) Regulator:
The Buck-Boost or Inverting regulator takes a DC input voltage and produces a DC output voltage

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that is opposite in polarity to the input. The negative output voltage can be either larger or smaller
in magnitude than the input voltage. The Inverting regulator is shown in Figure.

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When the switch is on, the input voltage is forced across the inductor, causing an increasing
current flow through it. During the on time, the discharge of the output capacitor is the only
source of load current. This requires that the charge lost from the output capacitor during the on
time be replenished during the off time. When the switch turns off, the decreasing current flow in
the inductor causes the voltage at the diode end to swing negative. This action turns on the diode,
allowing the current in the inductor to supply both the output capacitor and the load. As shown, the
load current is supplied by inductor when the switch is off, and by the output capacitor when the
switch is on.

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5.2.9 Flyback Regulator:

The Flyback is the most versatile of all the topologies, allowing the designer to create one or more
output voltages, some of which may be opposite in polarity. Flyback converters have gained
popularity in battery-powered systems, where a single voltage must be converted into the required
system voltages (for example, +5V, +12V and -12V) with very high power conversion efficiency.

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The basic single-output flyback converter is shown in Figure.

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The most important feature of the Flyback regulator is the transformer phasing, as shown by
the dots on the primary and secondary windings. When the switch is on, the input voltage is
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forced across the transformer primary which causes an increasing flow of current through it.
Note that the polarity of the voltage on the primary is dot-negative (more negative at
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the dotted end), causing a voltage with the same polarity to appear at the transformer secondary
(the magnitude of the secondary voltage is set by the transformer seconday-to-primary turns ratio).

The dot-negative voltage appearing across the secondary winding turns off the diode, reventing
current flow in the secondary winding during the switch on time. During this time, the load
current must be supplied by the output capacitor alone. When the switch turns off, the decreasing
current flow in the primary causes the voltage at the dot end to swing positive. At the same time,
the primary voltage is reflected to the secondary with the same polarity. The dot-positive voltage

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occurring across the secondary winding turns on the diode, allowing current to flow into both the
load and the output capacitor. The output capacitor charge lost to the load during the switch on
time is replenished during the switch off time. Flyback converters operate in either continuous
mode (where the secondarycurrent is always >0) or discontinuous mode (where the secondary
current falls to zero on each cycle).

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5.2.10Generating Multiple Outputs:

Another big advantage of a Flyback is the capability of providing multiple outputs .In
such applications, one of the outputs (usually the highest current) is selected to provide PWM
feedback to the control loop, which means this output is directly regulated. The other secondary
winding(s) are indirectly regulated, as their pulse widths will follow the regulated
winding.The load regulation on the unregulated secondaries is not great (typically 5 - 10%), but is

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adequate for many applications. If tighter regulation is needed on the lower current secondaries, an
LDO post-regulator is an excellent solution. The secondary voltage is set about 1V above the

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desired output voltage, and the LDO provides excellent output regulation withvery little loss of
efficiency.

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The Push-Pull converter uses two to transistors perform DC-DC conversion.The converter operates
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by turning on each transistor on alternate cycles (the two transistors are never on at the same time).
Transformer secondary current flows at the same time as primary current (when either of the
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switches is on). For example, when transistor "A" is turned on, the input voltage is forced across
the upper primary winding with dot-negative polarity. On the secondary side, a dot-negative
voltage will appear across the winding which turns on the bottom diode.This allows current to flow
into the inductor to supply both the output capacitor and the load. When transistor "B" is on, the
input voltage is forced across the lower primary winding with dot-positive polarity.

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The same voltage polarity on the secondary turns on the top diode, and current flows into the

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output capacitor and the load. An important characteristic of a Push-Pull converter is that the
switch transistors have to be able the stand off more than twice the input voltage: when one
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transistor is on (and the input voltage is forced across one primary winding) the same magnitude
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voltage is induced across the other primary winding, but it is "floating" on top of the input voltage.
This puts the collector of the turned-off transistor at twice the input voltage with respect to ground.
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The "double input voltage" rating requirement of the switch transistors means the Push-Pull
converter is best suited for lower input voltage applications. It has been widely used in converters
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operating in 12V and 24V battery-powered systems.

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Figure shows a timing diagram which details the relationship of the input and output pulses. It is
important to note that frequency of the secondary side voltage pulses is twice the frequency of

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operation of the PWM controller driving the two transistors. For example, if the PWM control
chip was set up to operate at 50 kHz on the primary side, the frequency of the secondary pulses
would be 100 kHz. This highlights why the Push-Pull converter is well-suited for low voltage
converters. The voltage forced across each primary winding (which provides the power for
conversion) is the full input voltage minus only the saturation voltage of the switch. If MOS-FET
power switches are used, the voltage drop across the switches can be made extremely small,
resulting in very high utilization of the available input voltage. Another advantage of the Push-

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Pull converter is that it can also generate multiple output voltages (by adding more secondary
windings), some of which may be negative in polarity. This allows a power supply operated from

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a single battery to provide all of the voltages necessary for system operation. A disadvantage of
Push-Pull converters is that they require very good matching of the switch transistors to prevent

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unequal on times, since this will result in saturation of the transformer core (and failure of the
converter).

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Output Capacitor ESR effects:
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The primary function of the output capacitor in a switching regulator is filtering. As the converter
operates, current must flow into and out of the output filter capacitor. The ESR of the output
capacitor directly affects the performance of the switching regulator. ESR is specified by the
manufacturer on good quality capacitors, but be certain that it is specified at the frequency of
intended operation.

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General-purpose electrolytes usually only specify ESR at 120 Hz, but capacitors intended for high-
frequency switching applications will have the ESR guaranteed at high frequency (like 20 kHz to

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100 kHz). Some ESR dependent parameters are: Ripple Voltage: In most cases, the majority of
the output ripples voltage results from the ESR of the output capacitor. If the ESR increases (as it

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will at low operating temperatures) the output ripple voltage will increase accordingly.

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Efficiency: As the switching current flows into and out of the capacitor (through the ESR), power
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is dissipated internally. This "wasted" power reduces overall regulator efficiency, and can also
cause the capacitor to fail if the ripple current exceeds the maximum allowable specification for
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the capacitor.
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Loop Stability: The ESR of the output capacitor can affect regulator loop stability. Products such
as the LM2575 and LM2577 are compensated for stability assumingthe ESR of the output
capacitor will stay within a specified range. Keeping the ESR within the "stable" range is not
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always simple in designs that must operate over a wide temperature range. The ESR of a typical
aluminum electrolytic may increase by 40X as the temperature drops from 25°C to -40°C.
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In these cases, an aluminum electrolytic must be paralleled by another type ofcapacitor with a
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flatter ESR curve (like Tantalum or Film) so that the effective ESR (which is the parallel value of
the two ESR's) stays within the allowable range. Note: if operation below -40°C is necessary,
aluminum electrolytics are probably not feasible for use.

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5.2.11 Bypass Capacitors:

High-frequency bypass capacitors are always recommended on the supply pins of IC

devices, but if the devices are used in assemblies near switching converters bypass capacitors are
absolutely required. The components which perform the high-speed switching (transistors and
rectifiers) generate significant EMI that easily radiates into PC board traces and wire leads. To
assure proper circuit operation, all IC supply pins must be bypassed to a clean, low-inductance
ground.

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5.2.12 LINEAR REGULATORS


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 All electronic circuits need a dc power supply for their operation. To obtain this dc
voltage from 230 V ac mains supply, we need to use rectifier.
 Therefore the filters are used to obtain a ―steady‖ dc voltage from the pulsating one.

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 The filtered dc voltage is then applied to a regulator which will try to keep the dc output
voltage constant in the event of voltage fluctuations or load variation.
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We know the combination of rectifier & filter can produce a dc voltage. But the problem with
this type of dc power supply is that its output voltage will not remain constant in the event of
fluctuations in an ac input or changes in the load current(IL).
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 The output of unregulated power supply is connected at the input of voltage regulator circuit.
 The voltage regulator is a specially designed circuit to keep the output voltage constant.
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 It does not remain exactly constant. It changes slightly due to changes in certain parameters.

Factors affecting the output voltage:

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i) IL (Load Current)
ii) VIN (Input Voltage)
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iii) T (Temperature)
IC Voltage Regulators:
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They are basically series regulators with all the basic blocks present inside the IC.
Therefore it is easier to use IC voltage regulator instead of discrete voltage regulators.
Important features of IC Regulators:

1. Programmable output
2. Facility to boost the voltage/current
3. Internally provided short circuit current limiting
4. Thermal shutdown
5. Floating operation to facilitate higher voltage output

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5.2.13 Classifications of IC voltage regulators:

IC Voltage Regulator

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Fixed Volt Reg. Adjustable O/P Volt Reg Switching Reg
Positive/negative

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 Fixed & Adjustable output Voltage Regulators are known as Linear Regulator.
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A series pass transistor is used and it operates always in its active region.
Switching Regulator:
1. Series Pass Transistor acts as a switch.
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2. The amount of power dissipation in it decreases considerably.

3. Power saving result is higher efficiency compared to that of linear.
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Adjustable Voltage Regulator:

Advantages of Adjustable Voltage Regulator over fixed voltage regulator are,
1. Adjustable output voltage from 1.2v to 57 v
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2. Output current 0.10 to 1.5 A

3. Better load & line regulation
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4. Improved overload protection

5. Improved reliability under the 100% thermal overloading
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Adjustable Positive Voltage Regulator (LM317):

 LM317 series adjustable 3 terminal positive voltage regulator, the three terminals are
Vin, Vout & adjustment (ADJ).
 LM317 requires only 2 external resistors to set the output voltage.
 LM317 produces a voltage of 1.25v between its output & adjustment terminals. This voltage is
called as Vref.
 Vref (Reference Voltage) is a constant, hence current I1 flows through R1 will also be
constant. Because resistor R1 sets current I1. It is called ―current set‖ or ―program resistor‖.

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 Resistor R2 is called as ―Output set‖ resistors, hence current through this resistor is the sum of
I1
 LM317 is designed in such as that Iadj is very small & constant with changes in line voltage &
load current.
 The output voltage Vo is, Vo=R1I1+(I1+Iadj)R2 ------------- (1)

Where I1= Vref/R1

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Vo =(Vref/R1)R1 + Vref/R1 + Iadj R2
= Vref + (Vref/R1)R2 + Iadj R2

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Vo = Vref [1 + R2/R1] + Iadj R2 ------------- (2)

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R1 = Current (I1) set resistor
R2 = output (Vo) set resistor e
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Vref = 1.25v which is a constant voltage between output and ADJ terminals.
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 Current Iadj is very small. Therefore the second term in (2) can be neglected.
 Thus the final expression for the output voltage is given by
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Vo= 1.25v[1 + R2/R1] -------------- (3)

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Eqn (3) indicates that we can vary the output voltage by varying the resistance R2.
The value of R1 is normally kept constant at 240 ohms for all practical applications.
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Practical Regulator using LM317:

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 If LM317 is far away from the input power supply, then 0.1μf disc type or 1μf tantalum

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capacitor should be used at the input of LM317.
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 The output capacitor Co is optional. Co should be in the range of 1 to 1000μf.
 The adjustment terminal is bypassed with a capacitor C2 this will improve the ripple rejection
ratio as high as 80 dB is obtainable at any output level.
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 When the filter capacitor is used, it is necessary to use the protective diodes.
 These diodes do not allow the capacitor C2 to discharge through the low current point of the
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regulator.
 These diodes are required only for high output voltages (above 25v) & for higher values of
output capacitance 25μf and above.
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5.2.14 IC 723 – GENERAL PURPOSE REGULATOR

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Disadvantages of fixed voltage regulator:

1. Do not have the shot circuit protection
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2. Output voltage is not adjustable

These limitations can be overcomes in IC723.

Features of IC723:

1. Unregulated dc supply voltage at the input between 9.5V & 40V

2. Adjustable regulated output voltage between 2 to 3V.
3. Maximum load current of 150 mA (ILmax = 150mA).
4. With the additional transistor used, ILmax upto 10A is obtainable.
5. Positive or Negative supply operation
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6. Internal Power dissipation of 800mW.

7. Built in short circuit protection.
8. Very low temperature drift.
9. High ripple rejection.

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The simplified functional block diagram can be divided in to 4 blocks.

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1. Reference generating block
2. Error Amplifier
3. Series Pass transistor
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4. Circuitry to limit the current

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1. Reference Generating block:

The temperature compensated Zener diode, constant current source & voltage reference
amplifier together from the reference generating block. The Zener diode is used to generate a
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fixed reference voltage internally. Constant current source will make the Zener diode to
operate at affixed point & it is applied to the Non – inverting terminal of error amplifier. The
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Unregulated input voltage ±Vcc is applied to the voltage reference amplifier as well as error
amplifier.
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2. Error Amplifier:

Error amplifier is a high gain differential amplifier with 2 input

(inverting & Non-inverting). The Non-inverting terminal is connected to
the internally generated reference voltage. The Inverting terminal is
connected to the full regulated output voltage.

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Fig: Functional block diagram of IC723

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Fig : Pin diagram of IC723

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3. Series Pass Transistor:
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Q1 is the internal series pass transistor which is driven by

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the error amplifier. This transistor actually acts as a variable resistor

& regulates the output voltage. The collector of transistor Q1 is
connected to the Un-regulated power supply. The maximum collector
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voltage of Q1 is limited to 36Volts. The maximum current which can

be supplied by Q1 is 150mA.
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4. Circuitry to limit the current:

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The internal transistor Q2 is used for current sensing & limiting. Q2 is

normally OFF transistor. It turns ON when the IL exceeds a predetermined limit.

 Low voltage , Low current is capable of supplying load voltage which is equal to or
between 2 to 7Volts.

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Vload = 2 to 7V
Iload = 150mA

5.2.15 IC723 as a LOW voltage LOW current :

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Fig: Typical circuit connection diagram

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 R1 & R2 from a potential divider between Vref & Gnd.

 The Voltage across R2 is connected to the Non – inverting terminal of the regulator IC
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R
Vnon-inv = Vref 2
R1  R2

 Gain of the internal error amplifier is large

Vnon-inv = Vin

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 Therefore the Vo is connected to the Inverting terminal through R3 & R SC must also be

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equal to Vnon-inv

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R
Vo = Vnon-inv = Vref 2
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R1  R2
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R1 & R2 can be in the range of 1 KΩ to 10KΩ & value of R3 is given by
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R1R2
R3 = R1ll R2 =
R  R2
 Rsc (current sensing resistor) is connected between Cs & C L. The voltage drop across Rsc
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is proportional to the IL.

 This resistor supplies the output voltage in the range of 2 to 7 volts, but the load current
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can be higher than 150mA.

 The current sourcing capacity is increased by including a transistor Q in the circuit.
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R2
 The output voltage , Vo =
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R1  R2 Vref

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5.2.16 IC723 as a HIGH voltage LOW Current:

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Fig: Typical circuit connection diagram
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 This circuit is capable of supplying a regulated output voltage between the range of 7 to
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37 volts with a maximum load current of 150 mA.

 The Non – inverting terminal is now connected to Vref through resistance R3.
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 The value of R1 & R2 are adjusted in order to get a voltage of Vref at the inverting
terminal at the desired output.
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R2
Vin = Vref = Vo
R1  R2
R1  R2 Vref
Vo =
R2
Or
R1
Vo = [1 + ] Vref
R2

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 Rsc is connected between C L & Cs terminals as before & it provides the short circuit
current limiting
0.6
Rsc =
ILimit

 The value of resistors R3 is given by ,

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R1R2
R3 = R1 ll R2 =
R  R2

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IC723 as a HIGH voltage HIGH Current:

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Fig: Typical circuit connection diagram


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An external transistor Q is added in the circuit for high voltage low current regulator to
improve its current sourcing capacity.
 For this circuit the output voltage varies between 7 & 37V.

 Transistor Q increase the current sourcing capacity thus IL(MAX) ia greater than 150mA.
 The output voltage Vo is given by ,

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R1+ R2
Vo= ------------ Vref
R2

0.6

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 The value of Rsc is given by Rsc =
ILimit

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5.3.1 SWITCHING REGULATOR:

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An example of general purpose regulator is Motorola‘s MC1723. It can be
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used in many different ways, for example, as a fixed positive or negative output voltage
regulator, variable regulator or switching regulator because of its flexibility.
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To minimize the power dissipation during switching, the external transistor used must be
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a switching power transistor.

To improve the efficiency of a regulator, the series pass transistor is used as a switch
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rather than as a variable resistor as in the linear mode.

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 A regulator constructed to operate in this manner is called a series switching regulator.

In such regulators the series pass transistor is switched between cut off & saturation at a
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high frequency which produces a pulse width modulated (PWM) square wave output.
 This output is filtered through a low pass LC filter to produce an average dc output
voltage.
 Thus the output voltage is proportional to the pulse width and frequency.

 The efficiency of a series switching regulator is independent of the input &
output differential & can approach 95%

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Fig : Basic Switching regulator

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A basic switching regulator consists of 4 major components,

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1. Voltage source Vin
2. Switch S1
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3. Pulse generator Vpulse

4. Filter F1
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1. Voltage Source Vin:

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It may be any dc supply – a battery or an unregulated or a regulated voltage. The

voltage source must satisfy the following requirements.
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 It must supply the required output power & the losses associated with the
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switching regulator.

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 It must be large enough to supply sufficient dynamic range for line & load
regulations.
 It must be sufficiently high to meet the minimum requirement of the regulator system
to be designed.
 It may be required to store energy for a specified amount of time during power
failures.

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2. Switch S1:

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It is typically a transistor or thyristor connected as a power switch & is operated in the
saturated mode. The pulse generator output alternately turns the switch ON & OFF

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3. Pulse generator Vpulse:
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It provides an asymmetrical square wave varying in either frequency or pulse width called
frequency modulation or pulse width modulation respectively. The most effective frequency
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range for the pulse generator for optimum efficiency 20 KHz. This frequency is inaudible to
the human ear & also well within the switching speeds of most inexpensive transistors &
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diodes.

 The duty cucly of the pulse wave form determines the relationship between the
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input & output voltages. The duty cycle is the ratio of the on time ton, to the period
T of the pulse waveform.
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Duty cycle =
ww

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ton ton  toff

ton
= = ton f.
T

Where ton = On-time of the pulse waveform

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toff=off-time of the pulse wave form

T = time period = ton + toff

= 1/frequency or
T = 1/f

 Typical operating frequencies of switching regulator range from 10 to 50khz.

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 Lower operating frequency improve efficiency & reduce electrical noise, but
require large filter components (inductors & capacitors).

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4. Filter F1:

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It converts the pulse waveform from the output of the switch into a dc voltage.
Since this switching mechanism allows a conversion similar to transformers, the switching
regulator is often referred to as a dc transformer.
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The output voltage Vo of the switching regulator is a function of duty cycle & the
input voltage Vin.
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Vo is expressed as follows,

ton
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Vo = Vin
T
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 This equation indicates that, if time period T is constant, Vo is directly proportional to

the ON-time, ton for a given value of Vin. This method of changing the output
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voltage by varying ton is referred to as a pulse width modulation.

 Similarly, if ton is held constant, the output voltage Vo is inversely proportional to
the period T or directly proportional to the frequency of the pulse waveform. This
method of varying the output voltage is referred to as frequency modulation (FM).
 Switching regulator can operate in any of 3 modes

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AD623 Instrumentation Amplifier
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and its application as load
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weight measurement
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• An Instrumentation amplifier is an integrated circuit (IC) used to amplify a signal,

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which is a type of differential amplifier because it amplifies between two input
signal.
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• In industries, physical quantities are converted into electrical signals using
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transducers and the signal is amplified for signal processing. For this, an

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instrumentation amplifier is used instead of an Opamp.
• The importance of an instrumentation amplifier is that it can reduce unwanted

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noise that is picked up by the circuit. The ability to reject noise or unwanted

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signals common to all IC pins is called the CMRR.

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• Always the input of an instrumentation amplifier is the output from the
transducers and will a small signal. Instrumentation amplifiers don’t need input
impedance that makes this amplifier suits for measurement purposes.
•
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Amplify the signal from a load cell using an

AD 623 instrumentation amplifier. . in
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e e r
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. in
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e e r
• The AD623 is an instrumentation amplifier based on the 3-op amp in-
amp circuit, modified to ensure operation on either single- or dual-

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power supplies, even at common-mode voltages at, or even below,
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the negative supply rail (or below ground in single-supply operation).

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• Other features include rail-to-rail output voltage swing, low supply
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current, microsmall outline packaging, low input and output voltage
offset, microvolt/dc offset level drift, high common-mode rejection,

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and only one external resistor to set the gain.

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The fig shown is a three-opamp instrumentation amplifier. In

this circuit, a non inverting amplifier is connected to both
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inputs of the differential amplifier.
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• The two amplifiers at the left side are connected together to form a
combined Non-inverting amplifier are gain buffers with Rgain is removed.
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• The amplifier at the right side is a standard differential amplifier.The Rgain
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resistor increases the differention mode gain of the buffer pair amplifiers,
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this increase the CMRR of the amplifier. The gain of the circuit is:

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• The Rgain resistor increases the differention mode gain of the buffer pair
amplifiers, this increase the CMRR of the amplifier.

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Main features
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•High CMRR:

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The CMRR should be infinity by idealy.

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• The ability of amplifier to ignore the large common signal and amplify the small signal.

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A good instrumentation amplifier must amplify only the differential input, completely rejecting common mode inp

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High input impedence: Idealy the input impedence should be infinity.

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The sensor connected to the amplifier cannot provide energy to amplifier,

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so the amplifier input must have a high input impedence to avoid overloading of sensor.

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DC coupled: Industrial low frequency requires a DC coupled amplifier.
This means no capacitor must be used at the input side.

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Low output impedence: The output impedance of a good instrumentation amplifier must be
very low (ideally zero), to avoid loading effect on the immediate next stage.
Differential input: The noise generated at the senors is induced into both the inverting and non-inverting

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terminals of differential input and it is subtracted from itselt by the op-amp.
Single ended output: The output of the instrumentation amplifier is single ended and designed to match with
displays and following amplifier.

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Higher slew rate: The slew rate of the instrumentation amplifier will be as high as possible to provide
maximum undistorted output voltage swing.
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Applications:
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e e r
• Strain gauge bridge interface for pressure and temperature sensing.
• A variety of low side and high side current sensing application
• Medical instrumentation, used in ECG connection
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• Current/voltage monitoring
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• Audio application involving weak audio signal
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• High speed signal conditioning
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