SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (20A02504a) – ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS &

ANSWERS

UNIT-II
1. List and explain the essential qualities of a protective relay and also
explain what the advantages of static relays over electromechanical
relays.

Basic Functional Characteristics of Relay: The following requirements must

be considered while designing the protective relaying to protect the power
system components. They are
1. Selectivity and Discrimination: It is the ability of the protective system to
detect the point at which the fault occurs and selects the nearest circuit breaker
to clear the fault with minimum or no damage to the system.
A relay can able to discriminate between a fault in the protected
sectionand the normal condition and it should be able to distinguish whether a
fault lieswithin its zone or outside the zone. Also, it should be able to
discriminate between afault and transient condition like power surges and inrush
of a transformersmagnetizing current.
A protective relay must able to discriminate between those conditions
forwhich instantaneous tripping is required and those for which no operation or a
timedelay operation is required.
2. Reliability:The protective relaying must be ready to function correctly
andefficiently in operation at all times under any kind of fault and abnormal
conditionsof the power system for which it has been designed.
The failure of protective system must be able to failure of any one of
thedevices i.e. CT, PT, wiring, DC circuit and circuit breaker. To achieve a high
degree ofreliability, greater attention should be given to the design, installation
andmaintenance of the various devices. A typical value of reliability of a
protectivescheme is 95%.
3. Sensitivity: A protective relay should operate when the magnitude of the
currentexceeds the preset value. This value is called pick-up current. The relay
should notoperate when the current is below its pickup value. A relay should be
sufficientlysensitive to operate when the operating current just exceeds its pick
up value.
4. Stability: A protective system should remain stable even when a large
currentflowing through its protective zone due to an external fault, which does
not lie in its
zone. The concerned circuit breaker is supposed to clear the fault. But the
protectivesystem will not wait indefinitely if the protective scheme of the zone in
which faulthas occurred fails to operate. After a preset delay the relay will
operate to trip thecircuit breaker.
5. Speed: The protective system should be fast enough to isolate the faulty
elementof the system as quickly as possible to minimise damage to the
equipment, tomaintain the system stability and Decreases the development of
additional faults dueto one fault.
The operating time of a protective relay is usually one cycle. Half
cyclerelays also available. For distribution systems the operating time may be
more thanone cycle.

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Advantages of Static Relays over Electromechanical Relays:

 Low burden on CTs and PTs. The static relays consume less power.
 Fast response
 Long life
 High resistance to shocks and vibrations
 Less maintenance due to the absence of moving parts and bearings.
 Frequent operation causes no deterioration
 Quick resetting
 Compact size
 Greater sensitivity
 Logic circuits are used for complex relaying schemes.

2. What is universal torque equation? Using this equation derive the

characteristics of:(a) Impedance relay.(b) Reactance relay.(c) Mho
relay.

Universal torque equation of relay:

The universal torque equation explains the working of an
electrical relay. The relay has some arrangement of electromagnetic. These
electromagnetic consists current and voltage windings. The current through the
winding produces magnetic flux. And the torque is produced by the interaction of
the flux of the same winding or between the fluxes of both the windings.
Torque developed by current windings= K 1 I 2
Torque developed by current windings = K 2 v 2
If both the current and voltage windings are used, the torque developed
by the interaction between the fluxes is given by the equation = K 3 VIcos ( θ−τ )
Where θ is the angle between V and I and τ is the relay maximum torque
angle.
If the relay has current, voltage and the torque angle, the torque will be
developed, and it will be given as
2 2
T =K 1 I + K 2 v + K 3 VIcos ( θ−τ ) + K 4
where K1, K2, K3 are the tap setting or constant of V and I. The K 4 is the
mechanical restraint due to spring or gravity.
The operating characteristic of all types of relays is obtained by adding
and subtracting all the other constants and letting others be zero or by adding
other similar terms.
For example – In over current relay the K 2 = K3= 0 because of the absence
of the voltage windings. The torque equation becomes
2
T =K 1 I −K 4
The negative sign attributes to K 4 because the spring produces restraining
torque.
Similarly, for directional relay K 1 = K2 = 0 and the developed torque will be
given as
T =K 3 VIcos ( θ−τ )−K 4

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1. Impedance relays: An impedance relay

measures the impedance of the line at relay
location. When a fault occurs on the protected
line section, the measured impedance is the
impedance between the relay location and the
point where the fault has occurred. It is
proportional to the line length of the line.

Operating principle of impedance relay:

To realise the characteristics of an impedance relay, current is compared
with the voltage at the relay location. Current produces the operating torque and
voltage is responsible for restraining torque. The equation for the torque is given
by
2 2
T =K 1 I −K 2 V −K 3
Where K1, K2 and K3 are the constants.
K3 is torque due to the control spring which is very small so that it is
neglected. Then torque equation
2 2
T =K 1 I −K 2 V
For the operation of the relay
2 2 2 2
K 1 I > K 2 V or K 2 V < K 1 I

V K1
2

2
<
I K2
V
<K
I
Z< K
The Relay operates if the measured impedance Z is less than the given
constant K (predetermined or pick up value).
Operating characteristics of impedance relay:
Figure shows the operating
characteristics of an impedance relay in terms
voltage and current.
In case of electromagnetic relay, the
characteristics are slightly bent near the origin
due to the effect of the control spring. In case
of microprocessor based or static relay, the
characteristics will be straight line.

The below figure shows the relay

characteristics on R-X diagram, where Z = K
represents a circle and Z < K indicates the
area within the circle. Thus, the zone within
the circle is the operating zone of the relay. K
is equal to impedance of the line which is to be
protected. Φ is the angle between V & I. As the
operating characteristics is circle the relay

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operation is independent of the phase angle Φ. If a fault point is on the protected

section of the line, it will be lie within the circle. For this condition the relay will
operate and send a trip signal to the circuit breaker. The region outside the circle
is blocking zone.
2. Reactance relay:
A reactance relay measures the reactance of
the line at relay location, and it is not affected by
variations in resistance. Hence, its performance
remains unaffected by arc resistance during the
occurrence of fault. In case of fault on the protected
line, the measured reactance is the reactance
between the relay location and the point where the
fault has occurred.
The characteristics of the reactance relay on
R–X diagram is straight line, parallel to the R-axis as
shown in the figure.

Operating principle of reactance relay:

This relay consists of two elements an overcurrent element and a current-
voltage directional element. The overcurrent element produces operating torque
and current-voltage directional element produces restraining torque. The
operating torque is proportional to the I 2 and restraining torque proportional to
the VI cos(90- Φ).
The torque equation is
2
T =K 1 I −K 2 VIcos (90−Φ)−K 3
Where K1, K2 and K3 are the constants
K3 is torque due to the control spring which is very small so that it is
neglected. Then torque equation
2
T =K 1 I −K 2 VIsinΦ
For the operation of the relay
2 2
K 1 I > K 2 VIsinΦ or K 2 VIsinΦ< K 1 I

K 2 Vsin Φ< K 1 I

Vsin Φ K 1
<
I K2

ZsinΦ< K
X <K

The Relay operates if the measured

reactance X is less than the given constant K. The
reactance relay is a non-directional relay and high
speed relay. This relays are used for protection of
short transmission line against phase faults.

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3. MHO (Admittance) relay:

A MHO relay measures a component of admittance Y ∠Φ. But its

characteristics, when plotted on R-X diagram (impedance diagram) are a circle
passing through the origin. It is a directional relay as it detects the fault only in
the forward direction. It is also called admittance or angle admittance relay. It is
called a MHO relay because its characteristics are a straight line when plotted on
admittance diagram (G-B axes).
Operating principle of reactance relay:
In this relay operating torque is obtained by the volt-amperes element and
the controlling element is developed due to the voltage element. The operating
torque is proportional to the VIcos(Φ-) and restraining
torque proportional to the V2.
The torque equation is
2
T =K 1 VIcos(Φ−α )−K 2 V −K 3
Where K1, K2 and K3 are the constants
K3 is torque due to the control spring which is very
small so that it is neglected. Then torque equation
2
T =K 1 VIcos(Φ−α )−K 2 V
For the operation of the relay
K 1 VIcos(Φ−α )>¿or K 2 V 2< K 1 VIcos (Φ−α )

K 2 V < K 1 Icos(Φ−α)

V K1
<
I cos (Φ−α ) K 2

1
<K
Y cos(Φ−α )
MHO relays are used for protection of long transmission line against phase
faults.

3. (a) Explain the operating principle and construction of induction Disc

type relay with neat sketch.

Induction Disc type relay:

In this type of relays, an aluminium metal disc is allowed to rotate
between two electromagnets. The electromagnets are energised by AC current.
The torque is produced in the disc by the interaction of one of the magnetic
fields with the currents induced in the disc by another. These relays are mainly
classified as
i. Shaded pole Induction disc relay:
It consists of a pivoted Aluminum disc
free to rotate in the air gap of C shaped
electromagnet. One half of each pole is

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surrounded by a copper band known as shading ring. The electromagnet is

created by the relay coil that is wound around it.
The actuating quantity flowing in the coil produces flux in the
electromagnet. Effect of shading ring is to produce flux in the shaded portion of
the magnet (φs) which is displaced in phase and space from the flux in the
unshaded portion (φu). the flux φsinduced emf E1 in the disc at 900 to φs. The emf
E1 produces current I1 in the disc, which is lag behind E 1 by 900.
Interaction between I1 and φuproduces torque which is proportional to the
φuI1 cos∞, where I1cos∞ is component of I1 in phase with φu. greater the ∞,
greater the torque.
The torque equation is given by

2
τ =K 1 I 1−K 2
Where τ = net torque
K1,K2 = constants
I1 = current in operating coil
If the disc tends to rotate then the relay coil closes the trip circuit which
intern activates the circuit breaker then the faulty section is isolated.

(b) Derive an expression for the torque produced by an induction relay.

Production of torque in Induction Disc relays:

Induction relays mainly consists of a pivoted aluminium disc placed in two
alternating magnetic fields of same frequency but displaced in time and space.
The torque is produced in the disc by the interaction of one of the magnetic
fields with the currents induced in the disc by another. The two ac.
fluxes Ф1 and Ф2 differing in phase by an angle α induce e.m.f.s in the disc and
cause the circulation of eddy currents i 1 and i2 respectively These current lags
the respective fluxes by 90°.
Let Ф1 = Ф1max sin ωt
Ф2 = Ф2max sin (ωt - θ) where Ф1 and Ф2 are the instantaneous values of
fluxes and Ф2 lags Ф1 by an angle θ.
Assuming that the path in which the rotor currents
flow have negligible self inductance, the rotor currents will
be in phase with their voltages.
dФ1 d
i1   (Ф1max sin ωt)
dt dt
 Ф1max cos ωt
dФ2 d
And i2   (Ф2max sin (ωt - θ) )
dt dt
i2  Ф2max cos (ωt - θ)
Now, F1  Ф1 i2 and F2  Ф2 i1
Fig shows that the two forces are in phase opposition.
So net force F at the instant can be considered is
F  F2 – F 1
F  Ф2 i1 – Ф1 i2

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F  Ф2max sin(ωt- θ) Ф1max cos ωt– Ф1max sin ωt Ф2max cos (ωt - θ)
F  Ф1max Ф2max [sin (ωt - θ) cos ωt – sin ωt cos (ωt - θ)]
F  Ф1max Ф2max sin θ
F α Ф1 Ф2 sin θ ……………..(i)
Where Ф1 and Ф2 are the r.m.s. values of the fluxes.
The following points may be-noted from exp. (i)
 The net force is same at every instant.
 The greater the phase angle α between the fluxes, the
greater is the net force applied to the disc.
 Maximum force will be produced when the two fluxes are
90º out of phase.
 The direction of net force and hence the direction of motion of the disc depends
upon which flux is leading.

4. Explain the block diagram for over current relays and explain its time
current characteristics.

Overcurrent Relays:
A relay which operates when the actuating current exceeds a pick up
value.
Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay:
The block schematic diagram of the static instantaneous Overcurrent
relay is shown in the figure.
The current derived
from the CT is fed to the
input transformer which gives
a proportional output voltage.
The input transformer has an
air gap in the iron core to give
linearity in the current/voltage relationship up to the highest value of current
expected and is provided with tapping on its secondary winding to obtain
different current settings. The output voltage of the transformer is rectified
through a rectifier and then filtered at a single stage to avoid undesirable time
delay in filtering, so as to ensure high speed of operation. A limit made of a zener
diode is also incorporated in the circuit to limit the rectified voltage to safe
values even when the input current is very high under fault conditions. A fixed
portion of the rectified and filtered voltage (through a potential divider) is
compared against a preset pick-up value by a level detector and if it exceeds the
pick-up value, a signal through an amplifier is given to the output which issues
the trip signal. The output device may either be a static thyristor circuit or an
electromagnetic slave relay.

Definite Time Overcurrent Relay:

The operating time of overcurrent relays are constant irrespective of the
level of the fault current. In this case, an intentional time delay is introduced
through a timing
circuit. The figure

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below shows that the simplified block diagram of a definite time overcurrent
relay. The input current signal derived from the main CT is converted to a
proportional voltage signal by the input transformer and then rectified, filtered
and compared with the preset threshold value of the level detector (1). If the
voltage exceeds the preset threshold value, the level detector gives an output
voltage, thereby the charging of the capacitor C of the RC timing circuit starts.
As soon as the voltage across the capacitor exceeds the preset threshold
value (VT) of level detector (2), a signal through the amplifier is given and time
setting, respectively.

If VT is the threshold value of the level detector, the time T C required to

reach this voltage depends upon the charging time of the capacitor C of the RC
timing circuit, given by,
TC = RC loge [V / (V-VT)]
Where V is the voltage applied to the capacitor, V T is the threshold voltage.

Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relay:

The operating time of the inverse-time overcurrent relays decreases with
increasing fault current. For this relay with inverse-time characteristic, the
charging of the capacitor of the timing circuit takes place from a voltage
proportional to current.

The block diagram of the inverse-time overcurrent relay is shown in the

figure. The current signal is converted to a proportional voltage signal by the
input transformer and then rectified, filtered and compared with a reference
voltage of the level detector (1) set by the potentiometer P1. Under normal
conditions i.e., when the input current is low switch S 1 is ON, short circuiting the
capacitor C of the RC timing circuit and switch S2 is OFF. As soon as the input
voltage exceeds the preset reference voltage of the level detector (1), switch
S1 is switched OFF and switch S 2 is switched ON and the charging of capacitor C
of the timing circuits starts from a voltage proportional to the current. Switches
S1 and S2 are made of static components. When the voltage across the capacitor
C of the timing circuit exceeds the reference voltage of the level detector (2) as
set by potentiometer P3, a signal is given to the output device through an
amplifier. Finally, the output device issues the trip signal. Here the plug setting
multiplier is given by the transformer secondary tap and potentiometer P 1 and
the time multiplier setting is determined by potentiometers P2 and P3.

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Directional Overcurrent Relay:

The directional overcurrent relays incorporates a directional unit which
responds to power flow in a specified direction. The directional relay senses the
direction of power flow by means of a phase difference (Φ) between voltage (V)
and current (I). When Φ exceeds a certain relay operates. The directional relay is
a double actuating quantity relay with one input as current I from CT and the
other input as voltage V from PT.
The figure shows that the simplified block diagram of the directional
overcurrent relay. The inputs V and I are applied to phase comparator. A phase
shifter is added in
voltage input circuit
before applying it to
the phase comparator
to achieve the
maximum output of
the phase comparator
under fault conditions.
The output of the phase comparator is given to the level detector and then to the
output device through an amplifier. If the output of the phase comparator
exceeds the preset reference voltage of the level detector, the output device
issues the trip signal.

There are two main types of phase comparators used for the purpose. One
of these is the Hall Effect type comparator which has been used in USSR,
whereas all other countries have preferred the rectifier bridge type of
comparator due to its lower cost and the higher output obtainable as compared
to the Hall elements.

5. (a) Explain the significance of primary and backup protection.

Primary and Backup Protection:

A power system is divided into various zones for its protection.
There is suitable protective scheme for each zone. If a fault occurs in a particular
zone, it is the duty of the primary relays of that zone to isolate the faulty
element. The primary relay is the first line of defence. Due to any reason, the
primary relay fails to operate; there is a backup protective scheme to clear the
fault.
The backup relays are made independent of those factors which
might cause primary relays to fail. A backup relay operates after a time delay to
give the primary relay sufficient time to operate. When a backup relay operates,
a large part of the system is disconnected from the power source.

(b) What is the role of backup protection and what are the various
methods of providing backup protection?

Backup Protection:
The backup relays are made independent of those factors which
might cause primary relays to fail. A backup relay operates after a time delay to

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give the primary relay sufficient time to operate. When a backup relay operates,
a large part of the system is disconnected from the power source. There are
three types of backup relays:
Remote backup:it is the cheapest and simplest form of backup. They are
located at neighbouring station and backup the entire primary protective scheme
(relay, CT, PT, and CB etc). They are widely used backup for transmission lines.
Relay backup:it is a kind of local backup. Additional relay is provided for backup
that trips the same CB if primary relay fails. This operation takes place without
delay. The principles of operation are selected that are different from those of
primary; they are activated using separate CTs and PTs. They are costlier and
they are used where remote backup is not possible.
Breaker backup: it is also a kind of local back up where number of CBs
connected are more i.e., mainly Bus-bar system. When primary relay activates
but the CB fails the fault is treated as Bus-bar fault. So, all the CBs on that Bus-
bar should trip. If proper CB doesn’t open in specified time after the trip coil is
energized, after some time delay the main relay closes the contacts of the
backup relay resulting in opening of all other CBs.

6. (a) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of static relays.

Advantages:
 Low burden on CTs and PTs. The static relays consume less power.
 Fast response
 Long life
 High resistance to shocks and vibrations
 Less maintenance due to the absence of moving parts and bearings.
 Frequent operation causes no deterioration
 Quick resetting
 Compact size
 Greater sensitivity
 Logic circuits are used for complex relaying schemes.
Disadvantages:
 Static relays are temperature sensitive
 Static relays are sensitive to voltage transients
 Static relays need auxiliary power supply. This can however be easily supplied by
a battery or a stabilized power supply.

(b) An IDMT type over-current relay is used to protect a feeder through

500/1 A CT. The relay has a plug setting of 125% and TMS is 0.3. Find
the time of operation of the said relay if a fault current of 5000 A flows
through the feeder. Make use of the following characteristics.

Ans: PSM = Fault current in relay coil/ Pick up current

Fault current in relay coil = Primary Fault current/ CT ratio
= 5000/(500/1) = 10 A

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Pick up Current = rated secondary current in CT/ Current Setting

= 1x 1.25 =1.25
PSM = Fault current in relay coil/ Pick up current
= 10/1.25 = 8
From the above characteristics, for PSM of 8, Time is 3.2.
Actual time of operation of relay = Time in sec x TMS
= 3.2 x 0.3 = 0.96 sec

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