UNIT - 2

PLANT LAYOUT
Various arrangements of men, machine, and materials within the
plant area.
Objectives of good plant layout
 Material handling and transportation should be minimum.
 Raw materials and semi finished goods should move from one place to
another.(Eliminate bottle necks and congestion.)
 Suitable place should be allocated for every production centre.
 Movement of the workers should be minimum.
 No stoppage of work due to non arrival of semi finished goods.
 It should be flexible to accommodate changes in product design.
 It should be flexible for future expansion.
 It should occupy all 3 dimensions of the room.(x,y,z axis)
 Should lead to less production time and reduced capital cost.
PRINCIPLE OF GOOD PLANT LAYOUT.
 Principle of integration.
 Principle of minimum movement and handling.
 Principle of material flow.
 Principle of cubic space utilization.
 Principle of safe environment.
 Principles of flexibility
1. Principle of Integration:
All the production units like workers, machinery and material should be
integrated (allotting) and arranged in a good logical manner.
2. Principle of Minimum Material Movement and Handling:
 Material should be moved in bulk amount.
 Movement of workers and material should be minimum.
3. Principle of Material Flow
 Output (finished goods) at various work centers should be balanced.
  Avoid bottlenecks, congestion and back tracking.
4. Principles of Cubic Space Utilization
 Use x, y, z direction to occupy floor space and upto ceiling.
 Use boxes for stocking material.
 Use overhead handling (cranes) to save space.
5. Principles of Safe Environment
 Safety of workplace like ventilation, noise, fumes, dust, odors
(smell)hazards.
 Safety in Environment increases workers efficiency.
6. Principle of Flexibility
 For future expansion of production.
 Design change.
Advantages of good plant layout
 Reduced material handling.
 Improved resources (MMM) utility.
 Improved productivity.
 Reduced production time.
 Improved working condition.
 Better supervision (monitor)
 Reduced accidents.
 Reduced fatigue.
TYPES OF LAYOUT:
1. Product layout or line layout.
2. Process or functional layout.
3. Fixed position layout or constant position layout.
1. Product layout or line layout.
 This layout is suitable for mass production.
 This layout is also called as line layout.
 In this layout the machines are arranged as per the sequence of operation
(arranged in a single line.)
 The production will run by the arrangement of machines.
  E.g.:- 1. Automobile assembly
2. Manufacturing of cam shaft.
3. Bolt, Nut and Washer.

Advantages. Disadvantages.
 Less material handling.  More investment in machines.
 Less production time.  Less flexible.(For variety design)
 Production can easily be controlled.  If one machine breakdown then the
total production will be stopped.
 Less accident.
 Less utility of machines.
 Less skilled workers are needed.
 Manufacturing cost will be more
when volume of production is less.

2. Process Layout Or Functional Layout.

 This layout is suitable for batch production, or job order production.
 This layout is also called as functional layout.
 In this layout, group of machines are kept in one place.
 Variety of batch type production will be done at different work centers.
  E.g.: 1. Leather work.
2. Sheet metal work.
3. Moulds
4. Maintenance stops.

Advantages Disadvantages
 Layout is flexible.(Variety of products  Material handling is more.
can be done.)
 More skilled workers are required.
 Utilization of machine is more.
 Production time is high.
 Less investment on machines.
 Requires more floor space.
 Production will not be affected even if
 Less safety.
one machine breaks down.

3. Fixed position layout

 This layout is also called as constant position layout.
 This layout is suitable for unit production.
 In this layout the major component of the product are kept in a fixed position.
 All the resources (men, machine, and material) are brought to this place to
complete the job.

 E.g.: 1. Ship building

 2. Aircraft assembly
3. Boiler fabrication.
4. Dam construction.
5. Bridge construction.

Advantages. Disadvantages.
 Material movement is reduced.  Work is costly.
 Flexible to change the product.  High skilled workers are needed.
 More workers can be employed from  Supervision is difficult.
start to finish.

TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVING PLANT LAYOUT.

1. Flow diagram
2. String diagram
3. Templates
4. Models
Flow diagram
 It shows the path of movement of the materials.
 By studying the flow diagram the unwanted material movement, back
 tracking and congestion is found out.
String diagram
 String diagram shows the movement of the worker.
 It shows the total distance travelled by the worker.
 By analyzing string diagram the unwanted movement of the worker is found
out.
Templates
 Templates are 2 dimensional pieces made of cardboard or plastics.
 Templates are made to scales (1:50)
 Templates show the floor area, machine, trolley, trucks and equipments.
  In templates the outline plan of the shop floor is drawn in a drawing sheet.
 Templates are used for easily identifying the machines.

Advantages Disadvantages
 They are cheap.  Non-technical people cannot
understand easily.
 Technical people can easily
understand the arrangement.  Overhead facilities (top) cannot be
visualised.
 Duplicate copies can be made.

Models
 These are the 3 dimensional scale models of equipments or machines.
 Models are made of wood or plastics.
 Models are improving a layout used in templates.
 Most helpful to plan for the overhead (top) material handling equipments
like cranes, hoists etc.

Advantages  Easily shifted or altered.

 Even lay man can easily understand. Disadvantages
 Easily explained to the management.  Expensive.
 Can operate on overhead devices.  It is not easily carried to flames.

FIRE HYDRANT LOCATION

It a connection point by which firefighters can tap into a water supply. It is a component
of active fire protection. Underground fire hydrants have been used in Europe and Asia
since at least the 18th century. Above-ground pillar-type hydrants are a 19th-century
invention. The user attaches a hose to the fire hydrant, then opens a valve on the hydrant to
provide a powerful flow of water, on the order of 350 kPa (50 pounds per square inch gauge
(psig); this pressure varies according to region and depends on various factors including the
size and location of the attached water main). This user can attach this hose to a fire engine,
which can use a powerful pump to boost the water pressure and possibly split it into
multiple streams. One may connect the hose with a threaded connection, instantaneous
"quick connector" or a Storz connector. A user should take care not to open or close a fire
hydrant too quickly, as this can cause a water hammer, which can damage nearby pipes and
equipment. The water inside a charged hose line causes it to be very heavy and high water
pressure causes it to be stiff and unable to make a tight turn while pressurized. When a fire
hydrant is unobstructed, this is not a problem, as there is enough room to adequately
position the hose.
Most fire hydrant valves are not designed to throttle the water flow; they are
designed to be operated full-on or full-off. The valving arrangement of most dry-barrel
hydrants is for the drain valve to be open at anything other than full operation. Usage at
partial-opening can consequently result in considerable flow directly into the soil
surrounding the hydrant, which, over time, can cause severe scouring. Gate or butterfly
valves can be installed directly onto the hydrant orifices to control individual outputs and
allow for changing equipment connections without turning off the flow to other orifices.
These valves can be up to 12 inches in diameter to accommodate the large central "steamer"
orifices on many US hydrants. It is good practice to install valves on all orifices before
using a hydrant as the protective caps are unreliable and can cause major injury if they fail.
When operating a hydrant, a firefighter typically wears appropriate personal
protective equipment, such as gloves and a helmet with face shield worn. High-pressure
water coursing through a potentially aging and corroding hydrant could cause a failure,
injuring the firefighter operating the hydrant or bystanders. In most jurisdictions it is illegal
to park a car within a certain distance of a fire hydrant. In North America the distances are
commonly 3 to 5 m or 10 to 15 ft, often indicated by yellow or red paint on the curb. The
rationale behind these laws is that hydrants need to be visible and accessible in an
emergency.

CONSTRUCTION
Depending on the country, hydrants can be above or below ground. In
countries including Japan, the UK, Russia or Spain hydrants are accessible under a heavy
metal cover. In other countries, such as the US, and many parts of China, an accessible part
of the hydrant is above ground.
Hydrant installation in Ontario, Canada
In areas subject to freezing temperatures, at most, only a portion of the hydrant
is above ground. The valve is located below the frost line and connected by a riser to the
above-ground portion. A valve rod extends from the valve up through a seal at the top of the
hydrant, where it can be operated with the proper wrench. This design is known as a "dry
barrel" hydrant, in that the barrel, or vertical body of the hydrant, is normally dry. A drain
valve underground opens when the water valve is completely closed; this allows all water to
drain from the hydrant body to prevent the hydrant from freezing.
In warm areas, above-ground hydrants may be used with one or more valves in
the above-ground portion. Unlike with cold-weather hydrants, it is possible to turn the water
supply on and off to each port. This style is known as a "wet barrel" hydrant.
Both wet- and dry-barrel hydrants typically have multiple outlets. Wet barrel hydrant outlets
are typically individually controlled, while a single stem operates all the outlets of a dry
barrel hydrant simultaneously. Thus, wet barrel hydrants allow single outlets to be opened,
requiring somewhat more effort, but simultaneously allowing more flexibility.
A typical U.S. dry-barrel hydrant has two smaller outlets and one larger outlet.
The larger outlet is often a Store connection if the local fire department has standardized on
hose using Store fittings for large diameter supply line. The larger outlet is known as a
"steamer" connection, because they were once used to supply steam powered water pumps,
and a hydrant with such an outlet may be called a "steamer hydrant", although this usage is
becoming archaic. Likewise, an older hydrant without a steamer connection may be called a
"village hydrant."
FIRE SERVICE ROOMS
Is a structure or other area for storing firefighting apparatus such as fire
engines and related vehicles, personal protective equipment, fire hoses and other specialized
equipment. Fire stations frequently contain working and living space for the firefighters and
support staff. In large US cities, fire stations are often named for the primary fire companies
and apparatus housed there, such as "Ladder 49". Other fire stations are named based on the
district, neighborhood, town or village where they are located, or given a number. A fire
station will at a minimum have a garage for housing at least one fire engine. There will also
be storage space for equipment, though the most important equipment is stored in the
vehicle itself. The approaches to a fire station are often posted with warning signs, and there
may be a traffic signal to stop or warn traffic when apparatus are leaving or returning to the
station. Fire stations have often been built with a tower, for purposes that have changed with
time. A drill tower is used for practicing high-rise rescue, while a hose tower is used for
hanging hoses to dry to prevent rot. Historically, towers were lookouts for spotting fires.
 Activities at a fire station include regular inspection and cleaning of the
apparatus and equipment, and training drills in which the firefighters practice their skills.
Some fire companies also host public activities at the fire station during events such as a
"fire prevention week", and the facility may also be used for fund-raising by the "Fireman's
association", "fire buffs", or "fire auxiliary".
OCCUPIED STATIONS
If the station is occupied full-time by career firefighters, it will contain living
quarters and work areas, where they wait until a callout comes through. Career firefighters
are usually able to sleep during a night shift, so these stations will also have dormitories.
There will be an alarm system to alert them of an emergency call, and to give some
indication of where and what the emergency is. In some small fire departments, the only
alarm may be a telephone for receiving calls.

Many fire stations were built with the living quarters above the garage. This
arrangement is common for fire stations built in a crowded city. The fireman's pole was
invented to allow firefighters to quickly descend to the garage. In modern times, agencies
such as the National Fire Protection Association have argued that these pose a safety hazard.
[2]
Modern fire stations are often built with the living quarters on the same level as the
garage.

UNOCCUPIED STATIONS
Some fire stations are not regularly occupied, with the firefighting carried out
by volunteer or retained firefighters. In this case, the firefighters are summoned to the fire
station by siren, radio or pagers, where they will then deploy the fire engine. These fire
stations may still have office space for the firefighters, a library of reference and other
materials, and a "trophy wall" or case where the firefighters display memorabilia.
FACILITIES FOR SAFE EFFLUENT DISPOSAL AND TREATMENT
(TREATMENT, STORAGE AND DISPOSAL FACILITY)
TSDF is a highly useful option for waste generators who could not bear the
high costs involved in the infrastructural and land facilities required for the effective
management of their hazardous waste(s). The TSDF is established with the following
objectives:
 Ensuring safe treatment, storage and disposal of hazardous wastes
 Helping the hazardous waste generators in its near vicinity to avail the
facility for its designated purpose.
 The three functional areas covered under TSDF, viz., treatment, storage
and disposal are [Wentz, 1995]:
 Treatment: It refers to any process that changes the characterization or
composition of a hazardous waste so as to render it less hazardous or
that is capable of volume reduction or resource recovery.
 Storage: It refers to the temporary holding of hazardous wastes prior to
treatment or disposal.
 Disposal: It refers to the deposit of a hazardous waste that might either
safely re-enter the environment or be safely and securely disposed. An
ideal hazardous waste TSDF should meet [Wentz, 1995] the following
requirements:
 Confirming with the land use planning and zoning of the local area.
 Easily accessible in all weather conditions to the type of transportation
that will be used during the operation.
 Having secured safeguards against any potential air, surface water and
ground water pollution.
 Acceptability with respect to the sensitivities of the residents
 Located where the operation is not likely to induce adverse impact on
the environmentally sensitive resources.
 Large enough to accept and process hazardous wastes during the life of
the operation.
 Cost-effective and economically profitable, while complying with
applicable rules and regulations.
The facility sitting should also incorporate the protection of human health, environment and
property values in a community. The local public must be convinced that, a TSDF is needed
and all reasonable steps will be taken to make it compatible with the environment and the
location represents an equitable solution to a much larger problem. Landfill is the final
disposal option of the wastes after they are subjected to treatment as per the various
options . The landfill employed for hazardous waste disposal requires proper construction &
maintenance and continuous monitoring. It should be provided with a run-off control, Leach
collection and treatment, monitoring wells and a final cover over the entire landfill. The
landfill design, construction, maintenance and operation play a decisive role in the site
selection of a TSDF. In general, the TSDF should give importance to various aspects
[Wentz, 1995; Lakshmi, 1999] during the following periods of its operation:
 Operational period
 Closure period
 Post-closure period
Ambient air quality, surface/ground water and leach ate monitoring should be
carried out during the operational period of TSDF and continued till the end of post-closure
period. The ground water and leach ate monitoring, in specific, is required where landfills,
land treatment operations, surface impairments etc. are located. This monitoring is
necessary to determine the impact of TSDF on ground water resources. If ground water
contamination is suspected, steps should be taken to assess its magnitude and rectify the
problem. The closure period begins when the facility no longer accepts wastes.
During this period, TSDF must completely process all on-site wastes and
place a final cover over the landfill. The facility’s equipment, structures and soil must be
decontaminated or disposed off. A 30-year post closure period commences following the
closure of TSDF. Besides the monitoring of items mentioned earlier, during this period, an
overall monitoring scheme for the TSDF should also be included. The overall monitoring
scheme covers aspects such as, working areas, hygienic conditions, access roads and whole
geographical area of the facility for the cleanness, effectiveness and overall safety of TSDF.
A fully trained manpower should be recruited for conducting the
environmental monitoring and maintaining the records properly for ensuring any
inspections and/or measures to be taken for improving the overall functioning of TSDF.
Both the closure and post-closure requirements minimize the need for long-term
maintenance and ensure control of any potential leakage of contaminants into the
environment.
SITE CONSIDERATIONS
10 simple construction site safety rules
Wear your PPE at all times
When you enter the site make sure you have the PPE you need. PPE is
important, it’s your last line of defence should you come into contact with a hazard on
site. Hi-viz helps make sure you are seen. Safety boots give you grid and protect your
feet. Hard hats are easily replace, but your skull isn’t. It can't protect you if you don't
wear it. Wear your hard hat, safety boots and hi-viz vest as a minimum, along with any
additional PPE required for the task being carried out.

Do not start work without an induction

Each site has its unique hazards and work operations. No two sites are exactly the
same. Make sure you know what is happening so that you can work safely. Inductions
are a legal requirement on every construction site you work on.
Your induction is important. It tells you where to sign in. Where to go what to do and
what to avoid don’t start work without one
Keep a tidy site
Construction work is messy. Slips and trips might not seem like a major problem
compared to other high-risk work happening on the site but don’t be fooled.
According to HSE statistics slips and trips accounted for 30% of specified major
injuries on construction sites
Do not put yourself or others at risk
Actions speak louder than words especially on construction sites where one
wrong move could put you in harm’s way.
Set a good example think safe and act safely on site
You are responsible for your own behaviour. Construction sites are dangerous
places to work. Make sure you remain safety aware thoughout your shift.
Follow safety signs and procedures
Follow construction safety signs and procedures. These should be explained to
you in your induction (rule number 2).
Your employer should ensure a risk assessment is carried out for your activities
Make sure you read and understand it.
Control measures are put in place for your safety. Make sure they are in place and
working before you start.
Never work is unsafe areas
Make sure your work area is safe. Know what is happening around you. Be
aware. According to HSE statistics 14% of fatalities in construction were caused by
something collapsing or overturning, and 11% by being struck by a moving vehicle
(2014/15-2018/19).Don’t work at height without suitable guard rails or other fall
prevention. Don’t enter unsupported trenches. Make sure you have safe access. Don’t
work below crane loads or other dangerous operations.

Report defects and near misses

If you notice a problem, don’t ignore it’ report it to your supervisor immediately.
Fill out a near-miss report an incident report, or simply tell your supervisor. Whatever
the procedure in place on your site for reporting issues use it.
Action can only be taken quickly if the management has been made aware of the
problem. The sooner problems are resolved the less chance for an accident to occur.
 Never tamper with equipment
If somethings not working, or doesn't look right, follow rule number 7 and report
it. Don't try and force something, or alter something, if you're trained to or supposed
to.Never remove guard rails or scaffold ties. Do not remove machine guards. Do not
attempt to fix defective equipment unless you are competent to do so. Do not ever
tamper with equipment without authorization.

Use the right equipment

One tool does not fit all. Using the correct tool for the job will get it done quicker,
and most importantly, safer. Visually check equipment is in good condition and safe to
use before you start.
Only use 110v equipment on the site. 240v equipment is strictly prohibited
without prior authorization from management and will only be used if no 110v
alternative available and additional safety precautions are taken

If in doubt ask
Unsure what to do? Or how to do something safely? Or you think something is
wrong? Stop work, and ask. It takes 5 minutes to check, but it might not be so easy to
put things right if things go wrong. It's better to be safe than sorry. Mistakes on
construction sites can cost lives, don’t let it be yours If you need help or further
information speak to your supervisor

SITE SELECTION
The selection of an ideal site confirming with the above requirements is a
difficult task. However, a few guidelines are reported [Lakshmi, 1999] for selecting a best
site out of the available options. We propose that, the selection of a best site can be achieved
by following the sequential steps of the methodology given below: ¾ General evaluation
considering various features of the region/site such as climate, ecology, land use, logistics,
topography, soil properties, aesthetics etc. ¾ Site selection process through constraint
mapping featuring Remote sensing applications and ranking of the available sites using site
sensitivity indices ¾ Conducting Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies and other
techno-economic feasibility studies The details of each are summarized below:
 General evaluation of site selection
This mode of evaluation is based on a number of factors such as physical
features, ecological features, land use features, logistics, and climate and human values. The
wastes would remain in the site for a long duration. The physical features of the site (Table-1)
are useful in understanding the impact of the wastes on the local environment. The ecological
features are necessary to understand their potential changes due to the TSDF. The land that is
being used (i.e., land use pattern) for agricultural/mining purposes should be given priority
over TSDF. The employment potential generated and improvement in the access to both
transport facilities and other utilities such as Hospitals, fire services etc., due to the TSDF are
some of the likely benefits for the local public.
 Site selection criteria using constraint mapping
This method is used for eliminating unsuitable areas for narrowing down the
site selection. Selected exclusion factors can be used for this purpose [Lakshmi, 1999]. The
details of the site with respect to these features are mapped and superimposed over the base
map of the region. These factors should be imposed along with other factors such as
ecologically and otherwise sensitive areas, coastal areas, flood plains, highways, railways,
major settlements etc. Remote sensing applications can be helpful in preparing the maps with
specific objective as required by this method. The site can be selected from the regions
excluding the zone covered by these factors.
The exclusion factors are as follows:
• Seismic risk zones
• National parks/sanctuaries
• Surface and subsurface mining
• Coastal flood hazard areas
• Coastal wetlands
• Watersheds for public water supply
• Critical recharge areas and sole source aquifers
• Areas of high well yield

Purpose

The company must establish specific written procedures to protect the health and
safety of all employees. The purpose of this program is to relay vital safety
information to your employees. Please ensure that all of your employees understand
and follow the safety principles in this program.

Responsibility
The senior management is responsible for developing an In-Plant Rail Safety for
the practical safeguarding of employees involved with working in close proximity to
in-plant railway tracks. The company is committed to providing the leadership,
organization, training and resources needed to maintain a healthy and safe working
environment. All employees must make a personal commitment to safety and perform
their work in a manner that will prevent accidents to themselves and their fellow
workers.

Personal Protective Equipment

Approved personal protective equipment required when working near or around

railway tracks:

 Hard Hats
 Gloves
 Hearing protection
 Safety Glasses
 High Visibility Clothing - CSA Standard Z96-09 Class 1
 Safety Toe Work Boots

Best Practices

 Awareness training must be delivered to all employees near and or around in-
plant railway tracks.
 Never rely on others to protect you from train, engines, cars or any other on-track
equipment movement. Watch for yourself!
 Look before you step. Trains can approach with little or no warning. You may not
be able to hear them due to atmospheric conditions, terrain, noisy work
equipment, or passing trains on other tracks.
 You should always be escorted at client sites, especially near and or around in-
plant railway tracks.
 There should be no vehicles or equipment parked within 8 feet of the center
tracks. This will ensure that no railcar will come into contact with other
equipment.
 Never crawl under or climb over moving rail equipment. Equipment can move at
any moment in any direction so avoid potential pinch points.
 During maintenance operations on or near tracks, warning signs, flags, barriers or
lights will be placed in the work area. Some form of positive track protection
should be utilized, such as a switch that has been diverted and locked out.
 Workers should never walk inside the rails.
 Workers and wheeled equipment should only cross at designated marked
crossings.
  Absolutely no worker should cross if designated marked crossings are activated
or railcar movement can be seen.
 If designated crossing is not available, never cross between detached (uncoupled)
rail cars. Give yourself a distance of more than 10 feet to cross.
 The client site that you’re visiting is responsible for clearing the snow and ice
with specific details to marked crossings. The number one cause of personal
injury on customer tracks is slips, trips and falls.
 Stay clear of tracks whenever possible - Never stand, walk or sit on railway
tracks, between the rails or on the ends of ties.
 Stand 20 feet away from the tracks if possible, when rail equipment is passing
through.
 Stay away from track side devices such as track switches. Remotely operated
switch points can move unexpectedly.

SAFE LAYOUT FOR PROCESS INDUSTRIES

DESIGN FOR SAFETY
Plant layout is concerned with the spatial arrangement of processing
equipment, storage vessels, their interconnecting pipe work, workplace and warehouse.
This is an important aspect in the design of chemical and process plants, since a good
layout will ensure that the plant functions correctly, safely and efficiently. It considers the
design constraints arising from safety, environment, construction, maintenance, and
operation with an economical balance. Access to the plant and supply of maintenance,
construction and emergency services are all affected by the plant layout. Numerous
accidents, occupational diseases, explosions, and fires are preventable if suitable measures
and code of standards are taken into consideration right from the earliest planning, design,
and the initial project stage.
Efficiency and safety in industrial operations can be greatly increased by
careful planning of the location, design, and layout (of a new plant or of an existing one)
in which major alterations is to be made.
Plant layout will be based on factors like: a) new site development or addition
to previously developed site. b) Type and quantity of products to be produced, c) Possible
future expansion, d) Operational convenience and accessibility, e) Type of process and
product control, f) Economic distribution of utilities and services, g) Type of building and
building code requirements, h) Guidelines related to health and safety, j) Waste-disposable
problems, k) Space available and space requirement, m) Auxiliary equipment, and n)
Roads and railroad.
 The guidelines relate to safety, health, welfare and provisions related to
hazardous processes which can be incorporated in the plant layout and have a statutory
binding on the industry.
BUILDING, EQUIPMENT AND PROCESSES
Major factors determining the size, shape and type of buildings and structures
are the nature of the processes and materials, maintenance, mechanical handling
equipment, requirement for gravity flow, equipment needing specially strong foundations;
access for construction; commissioning, operation; space for future expansion, escape and
fire fighting, containment of accidents; environmental impact, and working conditions.
These can vary greatly.
Catastrophes resulting in large loss of life and heavy property damage are
often due to inadequate planning-stage consideration of the physical and chemical
properties of dangerous substances and their processing methods. Hence, code of practice
should be strictly followed. Zoning/Division criteria should be considered at the planning
stage. HAZOP and risk assessment should be undertaken. After this analysis, the best
possible layout will emerge with major emphasis on safety.
High hazard processes should be located in small isolated buildings of limited
occupancy, or in areas cut off by fire-resistant materials appropriate to the hazard
involved. Buildings can be designed so that internal explosions will produce minimum
damage and minimum broken glass. Lower hazard operations can justify larger units.
Even less serious injuries resulting from poor housekeeping facilities and congestion
of workplaces can be reduced substantially by per-planning for safety. Layout of
equipment and buildings shall be such that production lines do not cross, and that
operators have enough working space. This saves time, increases production, and helps
prevent accidents. Pipe rack layout should also consider extra space to accommodate
future modified lines and approaching space between overhead lines for ease of access
during attending leaks etc. Safety standards should be followed strictly especially, for
staircases in building, crane gang ways, railing and fencing as provided in Factories Act,
1948. Spatial arrangement of processing equipment, storage vessels and their
interconnecting pipelines should be given utmost importance.
Personnel facilities, such as lunchrooms and health services and disaster
services are essential for reasons of health and treatment of injuries. They can be planned
and located for maximum effectiveness. As far as possible, fire station and medical facility
like ambulance should be located adjacent to each other, so that in case of emergency call,
both the fire tender and ambulance will rush together, to the emergency spot
SITE PLANNING
Safety is a prime consideration in plant sitting. Selection of a site involves
consideration of a number of factors, such as possible hazards to the community and their
relationships to climate and terrain, space requirements, type and size of buildings,
necessary facilities, availability of raw material, cooling water, transportation, market,
labor supply, population density near the site and means of effluent disposal. Ground water
survey can be undertaken to ensure the availability of water for industrial requirement. Of
the factors listed, those of direct concern to the safety professional are given below. While
the safety professional is not directly responsible for specialized plant and process
engineering and design, still it is his duty to keep the engineers and architects as safety
conscious as possible, and to anticipate potential safety hazards and try to have them
designed out of the system before the construction stage begins.
LOCATION, CLIMATE AND TERRAIN
Location As far as safety of the public is concerned; the most important
feature is the distance between the site and built-up areas. Sites range from rural to urban,
with population densities varying from virtually zero to high. Separation between a hazard
and the public is beneficial in mitigating the effects of a major accident. An area of low
population density around the site will help reduce causalities. Plants producing or using
highly flammable or toxic substances in bulk should be located so as not to cause damage
to a city or town, either generally or in case of disaster or some unexpected happening.
Climate Study of the climate of the area may be required. It may reveal that, if
a certain site is selected, the prevailing winds will cause noxious fumes or dusts to settle
on a neighboring community or plant, thereby doing severe harm to people or property or
creating a nuisance. The prevailing winds may also determine the best location for
processing equipment in relation to administration offices; especially their air-conditioning
air intakes; drainage and waste disposal problems shall also be anticipated. Winter
conditions or interrelation should be considered to protect the plant against severe winter
conditions. The behavior of airborne emissions of all types should be carefully considered.
Although the prevailing wind is the main factor other possible troublesome wind
conditions should be taken into account.
The effect of weather conditions such as inversions should also be considered.
Location of air intake towers for air separation units should take into account, the wind
directions, flare header locations (as hydrocarbon emissions from flare stacks can be
sucked into the process causing severe accidents), and also the cooling tower locations to
avoid corrosion of equipment and reduce moisture ingress into the compressors etc.
In a hurricane, floor or seismic prone area, plans and specifications should
include suitable protective measures, and safety factors shall be designed into the
operation. NOTE — National Building codes give data on climatic changes and seismic
zones with factor of safety to be taken while designing the building and equipment
foundations.
Terrain if site plans call for bridges over steams, ditches, and other hazards, be
sure they are adequately protected by industrial fence or by handrails 1 m high and
intermediate rails. A typical layout is given in
Size of a site is determined by both present space requirements and possible
future expansion. In the past the growth of business and population has resulted in serious
crowding, and the resulting congestion of buildings and other facilities has increased fire,
accident and health hazards.
Site Services the site central services such as the boiler house, power station,
switches station, pumping stations, utilities station, etc., and should be placed in suitable
locations. They should not be put out of action by events as fire or floor and, if possible
not by other accidents such as explosion, and that they should not constitute sources of
ignition for flammables. For example, factors in sitting the boiler house are that it should
not constitute a source of ignition, that emissions from stack should not give rise to
nuisance. New developments may figure in the size of the plant site. Some companies
anticipating increased use of air transportation are allowing space for landing fields or
heliports as they acquire new property. Plans for such installations should include all
necessary safety precautions.
Fire prevention codes specify minimum distance between buildings according
to their size, type and occupancy. Laws governing storage of explosives and of highly,
flammable materials specify minimum distances between manufacturing and storage
facilities for various quantities of, such materials, as well as minimum distance between
the above from adjoining property.
Ample space for outdoor storage areas is essential. When the area for storing such
materials as steel, pipe, and timber adjacent to shops proves insufficient, space has to be
provided elsewhere. This necessitates added handling and transportation and increases
both cost and accident risk.
 Parking lots are best located inside the plant fence for convenience, protection,
and safety. Since a considerable area may be necessary to accommodate employees and
visitor cars, space requirements are important in site planning.
The site layout must accommodate the systems for handling the liquid
effluents, gaseous emissions, solid wastes, storm water and fire water. For liquid effluents,
one arrangement is to have three separate systems: an open sewer system for clean storm
water and two closed sewer systems, one for domestic sewage and one for aqueous
effluent from the plant and for contaminated storm water. Process effluents are collected in
a common sewer, and closely controlled. The traditional sewer is the gravity flow type.
This should have gradient and be self-cleaning. Measures should be taken to avoid
flooding on process and storage plots. Drains should be designed to handle the corrosive
materials, and mixtures of materials, which may be discharged into them. In some cases,
well-located disposal area for solid waste shall also be provided when a site is being laid
out. Separate bins for paper, wood, and metal be provided inside the premises, adjacent to
road, in hazard free zone, for ease of lifting the material into a vehicle. Gaseous emissions
should be burned or discharged from a tall stack so that fumes do not affect to the site or
the public.
A flare stack may have to be located to a distant site, because flare stacks
radiate intense heat, light, and can be very noisy. Scale relief models of the site in addition
to maps can be of much help to the planner in per-designed, and will help in spotting
potential safety problems.
Introduction

While nuclear energy continues to be a top producing, clean source of energy for the
global community, its reputation as a safe and reliable energy source has been marred
from multiple instances of disaster. Opponents to nuclear energy are quick to rule out
the idea that nuclear reactor meltdowns such as Chernobyl are simply described by
the Black Swan Theory, which describes when an event with a major impact occurs
despite having a disproportionately low chance of occurrence. Proponents of nuclear
energy do not agree with the notion that disasters involving nuclear energy production
are anything but rare, relying on statistical data as well as increasing technological
precautions to bolster their claims.

Disasters

While proponents of nuclear energy might conclude that it is the safest form of
energy, when nuclear reactor disasters do occur, they are often extremely dangerous.

1. Chernobyl

Located in Ukraine: April 26, 1986. Perhaps the most commonly known nuclear
disaster, the Chernobyl plant meltdown is considered to be one of the most
devastating in history. The meltdown was ultimately caused by haphazard
experimentation with one of the plant's four reactors, which lead to a power surge,
ultimately causing the several ton steel lid to be exploded off of the reactor. This crisis
lead the Soviet government (and later, the Russian government) to evacuate nearly
115,000 people from the immediate surrounding areas, as well as 220,000 more
civilians in the following years. The explosion and released of radioactive materials
caused heavily-populated areas of Belarus, the Russian Federation, and Ukraine to be
contaminated. Two workers were killed within the first couple hours after the reactor
meltdown, though due to "non-radiological causes." The effects of the radiation
released were quite severe, killing 28 of the 600 workers on site in the four months
following the meltdown. An additional 106 workers were exposed to enough radiation
to contract acute radiation sickness. In the following years, 200,000 workers charged
with cleanup duties were exposed to doses of between 1 and 100 rem while the
normal yearly dose of radiation for a U.S. civilian is closer to 0.6 rem. In total, over
600,000 workers were needed to fully clean up the explosion site. The government
continues to monitor the related health effects on the workers on site and those that
aided in cleanup. Perhaps the most long-lasting effect of the explosion was seen in the
increase in thyroid cancer in nearby citizens. Affecting youth more severely, the
increase in thyroid cancer among those exposed to radiation skyrocketed from 0.03-
0.05 cases to 4 cases per 100000 by 1995.

2. Three Mile Island

Located in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: March 28, 1979. Noted as the most significant
nuclear plant accident in the United States, the accident at Three Mile Island has had
lasting impacts on the American public's view of nuclear energy. The series of events
that lead the reactor overheat began with the plant experiencing a failure in a non-
nuclear portion of the plant. This failure, either mechanical or electrical in nature,
caused the main water pumps to stop sending water to the steam generators to be used
to remove heat from the core of the reactor. With the increase in temperature of the
steam generator and the reactor, both automatically shut down as a function
precautionary protocol put in place. This trigged a relief valve to open in order to
release the increasing pressure in the reactor. The valve malfunctioned and became
stuck open, despite the pressure in the reactor having fallen back to an adequate level.
Following this, a third instrumental failure occurred as the instruments used to display
reactor function in the control room incorrectly indicated to operating personnel that
the valve was closed. With this incorrect information, the operators took steps to
ultimately reduce the amount of water being sent to cover the core of the reactor, thus
causing its temperature to rise dramatically and the reactor to overheat. As the
meltdown was well contained within the reactor, the nearly 2 million people living in
the surrounding areas to the power plant were argued to have been exposed to an
average radiation dose of only about 1 millirem more than their usual background
dose. This is less than that received from a chest X-ray and about 100 times less than
the area's natural radioactive background dose. Though the ultimate human and
environmental impact was low, the event marred nuclear energy's clean and safe
image for many Americans moving forward, proving to be a difficult obstacle for
present day nuclear energy advocates to overcome.

3. Saint Laurent

Located at Loir-et-Cher, France: October 17, 1969 and March 13, 1980. At the time of
the first incident, the nuclear plant's infrastructure was comprised of "two gas-cooled,
graphite moderated reactors (GCR)". Mishandling of uranium, the prime ingredient
used in the nuclear reactant process, caused the reactors to experience a partial
meltdown, rendering the plant useless for over a year. It took this long for workers to
clean and refurbish the damaged reactor, working in an extremely dangerous and
radioactive environment. Many surmise that this accident is what ultimately brought
an end to the GCR nuclear program in France, though doing little to alter the country's
further development in the area of nuclear energy. Little more than ten years later, one
of the two GCRs experienced another severe meltdown, putting it out of commission
for over two years for cleaning and repair.

Precautions

With accidents such as Chernobyl, Three Mile Island, and Saint Laurent, it isn't
difficult to imagine why trying to establish nuclear energy as a viable fuel source on
national and international scales is quite controversial. Understandably, nobody wants
to live in the next potential evacuation zone. Nobody wants another Chernobyl.
Despite the level of devastation that some of these nuclear accidents have caused,
nuclear power plants as a whole have very little risk in releasing radioactive materials
into the neighboring communities. Due to numerous varying and overlapping safety
measures, increasingly well-trained reactor operators, thorough testing and
maintenance, as well as the regulations put in place by the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC), power plants pose little threat of catastrophic meltdown.

While "no industrial activity ... is risk free," innovations in technology and understand
of nuclear energy processing has made the design of power plants to be extremely
safe, operating without any major effects on the "public health and safety and the
environment." Fuel Cladding is one safety used to ensure that the nuclear reactors run
in a safe manner. This process involves "sealed metal tubes in which ceramic pellets
of uranium fuel" are held. The next safety measure is an almost twelve inch thick
heavy steel reactor tube in combination with a piping system for water cooling. To
safely enclose all of this, nuclear plants use containment buildings which are
buildings built with concrete and steel, often several feet thick encapsulating the
reactor. Its sole purpose is to help lessen the effect of a nuclear accident if any nuclear
material were to be released.

Because many of the plant's barrier systems require electricity, nuclear plants are
prepared for emergency situations with backup diesel generators to help power all
necessary systems to keep the reactor running properly. In addition to this safety
measure, there are regulations for appropriate operation of nuclear plants. Operators
are required by law to operate the nuclear plants in a manner that is safe, following
proper operation procedures, testing requirements and maintenance, as well as only
operating under safe conditions.

The NRC, wanting to ensure the safe practice of all United States nuclear plants,
wrote a policy statements underlining the organizations ultimate goals and
expectations with regard to properly operating a power plant. In the policy statement,
the NRC issued a statement that "the risk of cancer fatalities to the population near a
nuclear power plant should not exceed 0.1% of the sum of cancer fatality risks from
all other causes." Overall, the NRC wanted to establish a safer future for nuclear
energy by setting forth guidelines and requirements for safe operation. These included
increased testing and maintenance measures, as well as increased transparency in
regards to the probabilistic risk assessment of nuclear activity.

Conclusion

While no industrial or fuel plant is guaranteed to be safe, opponents of the clean and
efficient fuel source might argue that no other plant has the capacity to do harm to the
public health and environment like a nuclear plant does. The NRC has made strides to
establish increased and effective safety measures to ensure the bright future of nuclear
energy, but for many, the question still lingers whether the next Chernobyl is an
inevitability or an avoidable tragedy. Nuclear plant meltdowns have been caused by a
variety of reasons throughout history, from mechanical failure to human error, leaving
many to also question if nuclear energy can truly be made safe. It is also believed that
increase in nuclear power plants may also lead to an increase in nuclear weapon
production. These questions and concerns are both serious in nature and asked with
valid concern. With that said, the efficiency, cleanness, and sustainability of nuclear
power makes it difficult to imagine a better future fuel source. Nuclear power plants
typically yield a very high capacity factor, which is the ratio of the electrical energy
produced comparable to the electrical energy that could have been produced at full
operational power. It provides a realistic alternative to displace and eventually replace
our rapid use of fossil fuels. Despite opposition, it seems to be the sustainable energy
source of the future.
METAL POWDERS MANUFACTURING
1 Introduction
The beginning of the XXI century was marked by the development of new
approaches and requirements for manufactured equipment. The most popular
technologies of the past – technologies based on extractive processing processes, such
as turning, milling, and drilling – are becoming a thing of the past. Using extractive
technologies caused the metal utilization rate to reduce – more than half of the billet
mass was consumed in the chips. Moreover, significant human and energy resources
were spent. Extractive technologies are being replaced by new – additive technologies
based on prototyping parts by laser fusing of metal powders. These technologies can
reduce the material consumption of products by two or more times, simplify the
technological process of their production, and solve environmental safety issues.
Nowadays additive technologies are among the fastest growing technological
processes – the annual growth rate of the use of 3D printing reaches, and in some
years exceeds 20%. At the beginning of the century, the Russian Federation had the
development rate of additive technologies was at the level of the highest world
indicators. However, in the last decade, the intensity of development of additive
technologies in the Russian Federation is gradually slowing down. One of the main
reasons for this slowdown is the virtual absence of the indigenous production base of
raw materials for additive machines i.e. metal powders. Currently, more than 70% of
the required amount of metal powders are supplied from abroad i.e. the countries of
the European Union, Canada, the United States and China. [1,2] However, the policy
of sanctions imposed on our country by a number of Western countries, makes it
difficult to obtain the necessary volume of powder product. Despite the difficulties
that have arisen in the Russian Federation, there is a steady demand for both additive
machines and raw materials for the production using 3D printing methods. The main
consumers of additive products in the Russian Federation are the most high-tech
industries: aircraft and shipbuilding, space, medicine, and energy engineering. There
has been the most common distribution of additive technologies in the experimental
and experimental-industrial developments of these industries. These industries require
production of one or more experimental products in the shortest possible time and
conduct their accelerated tests. In these industries, additive prototyping based on 3D
models can significantly speed up and reduce the cost of introducing new machines
and mechanisms into production, including eliminating the production of complex
tooling (molds, dies, etc.) necessary for the production of a prototype. In our view, the
further expansion of additive manufacturing at domestic enterprises should be linked
to phasing out of external suppliers of the powder product. First of all, this applies to
the pilot plant production. The creation period of a prototype is comparable to the
purchase period of the powder
necessary for its production, and the creation of their own powder production
facilities on the base of a plant. The powder production can rely on the plasma
spraying of metal powders since the plasma spraying equipment is relatively cheap,
does not require the allocation of specialized premises and highly qualified personnel.
Currently, the Russian Federation has developed a number of plasma atomizers that
fully meet the world level. These include atomizers designed and manufactured at
Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University. These atomizers are easily
reconfigured for the powder production of various chemical and granulometric
compositions (necessary for 3D printing), and have a high level of sphericity. This
paper presents the main technological parameters of the powder production of nickel -
Inconel 718 and titanium - Ti-6Al-4V alloys and the research results of these powders,
confirming the possibility of their use in additive machines of various types. The
choice of materials was guided by the fact that these alloys are currently used as
widely as possible in additive manufacturing. Due to the high stability of In conel 718
mechanical properties at elevated temperatures this alloy is used extensively in gas
turbines, jet engines, nuclear reactors and high-pressure vessels. Inconel 718 is used
in oil and gas extraction and subsequent processing of raw hydrocarbon due to its high
resistance in aggressive environments. However, in the application of this alloy, it is
difficult to obtain products of complex shape. It happens due to its low pressure work
ability because of extremely narrow temperature-speed range of plastic deformation
and the complexity of mechanical processing due to the high tendency of this material
to harden. One of the most effective manufacturing technologies for this alloy is the
technology of layer-by-layer or direct laser fusing of powders in 3D printers [3]. The
Ti-6Al-4V alloy is also widely used in products obtained by additive growing
methods. It is used in products requiring the highest possible corrosion resistance and
specific strength at a minimum density, so it is widely used in the aerospace industry,
bioengineering, and medical technology.

FIREWORKS AND MATCH WORKS

The word safety refers to freedom from danger, injury and damage, and to personal
security. According to the Factory’s Act, the safety is most important to the
employees. Under the act fencing machinery, dust, working without safety materials is
not safe for the employees. If the factory gives safety to the employees they will work
peacefully in the workplace. It will affect the employees health and their well-being
also. Many health issues will come because of the safety issues in fireworks and it
will affect their livelihood also. The study is mainly focused to know the safety
measures among the employees in fireworks. It is therefore essential to identify and
examine the causes of industrial accidents and take steps to control them. Many
disciplines are concerned with this safety approach. Industrial engineering is one field
which deals with design of efficient work place, equipment and industrial layout
design. Improper handling of fireworks could lead to all sorts of serious injuries and
lasting consequences such as eye trauma and burns. It’s important to take time to learn
how to stay safe and happy in the presence of fireworks companies. This research
study aims at exploring the safety of the employees in the fireworks. The word well-
being refers to being comfortable in their place. Safety leads to well being. Well being
is the experience of health, happiness, and prosperity.

. NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OFTHE STUDY The safety and well-being are
important to the employees. It includes having good mental health, high life
satisfaction and a sense of meaning or purpose. Well-being is something sought by
just about everyone, because it includes so many positive things feeling happy,
healthy, socially connected, and purposeful. Industrial safety’s main focus is
employee well-being. If the safety is perfect in the industry the employee’s well-being
is also perfect. The majority of fireworks industry is in Sivakasi. So the study is taken
among the Sivakasi fireworks employees. So the researcher has taken the study on
Industrial safety and well-being of the fireworks employees in Sivakasi.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main aim of the study is to analyze the industrial safety and well being of
firework employees in Sivakasi. The main objective of this study is to know about
safety measures and well being among firework employees in Sivakasi.
METHOD OF STUDY
The study conducted in Virudhunagar district especially in Vijayarangapuram. The
total number of population 250 in Vijayarangapuram area, from that researcher select
the 30 respondents by using Simple Random Sampling. Survey method is used for the
study. In order to gather information on the effectiveness of fireworks industries
researcher conducted survey among the fireworks employees. The researcher used
Interview Schedule as the tool for data collection.