Humanum

Międzynarodowe Studia Społeczno-Humanistyczne

Wydawca / Publisher: 31 (4) 2018
Instytut Studiów issn 1898-8431
Międzynarodowych
i Edukacji HUMANUM Copyright © 2018 by
www.humanum.org.pl Humanum
All rights reserved

konrad Harasim
Instytut Psychologii
UMCS w Lublinie, Poland

Determinants of psychological
well-being
Summary
The psychological well-being and its perception became a wave of post-existentialism and the de-
velopment of the concept of positive psychology, one of the key research problems of contemporary
psychology. One can not ignore the dichotomous division of the concept of mental well-being - de-
rived from ancient reflection on happiness - into hedonistic and eudaemonist theories (Ryff, 1989).
The hedonistic perspective, whose representative was Epicurus, treated happiness as pleasure. On the
other hand, the basis of eudaemonic reasoning - represented by Aristotle - was a moral, meaningful
life. Eudaymonia is a composition of everything that a man needs for a happy life - with happiness
being not the same as pleasure, but without happiness life will not be pleasant. The article presents the
main theories of human mental well-being, along with an indication of the directions of research in
which they can be used.

Key words: Psychology of the quality of life; mental well-being; subjective well-being
of post-existentialism.

IntroductIon

T
here is a tendency in psychology to preferentially study factors contributing to
dysfunctional human behavior, rather than to study healthy, normal mental
functioning, and factors enhancing psychosocial well-being (Ryff and Singer,
1998: 1-28). Psychological research has often focused more on the effects of negative
affect and mental illness rather than on well-being. Myers (2000: 56-67) pointed out
that the number of publications on negative impact exceeded the number of positive
publications by 14: 1. The emergence and dynamic development of positive psychology
is a turning point, the focus has been on the strengths and resources of individuals
that enable them to survive and development (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000:
5-14). Although previous research has associated the idea of mental health with the
absence of negative conditions such as depression or anxiety, proponents of positive

HUMANUM Międzynarodowe Studia Społeczno-Humanistyczne

97
 Harasim K.: Determinants of psychological well-being

psychology say that well-being is more than just the antithesis of malaise (Ryff,
1989: 1069-1081; Kahneman, 2003: 3-25; Cloninger , 2006: 71-76). In other words,
just as physical health is more than no illness, so is mental well-being more than
no psychological pathology. These scientists therefore postulate that mental health
should be understood as the presence of well-being rather than the absence of illness.
Psychological well-being is treated in psychology as a constitutive element of quality
of life, expressed in a subjective aspect, determining the individual’s satisfaction with
personal life, or also treated as a synonymous term. Most psychological theories focus
on subjective approach, in which quality of life is understood as psychological well-
being units (Veenhoven, 1996; Derbis, 2000; Zalewska, 2003; Diener, Lucas, Oishi,
2008; Czapiński, 2008). In this perspective, various aspects of life are assessed from
the perspective of the individual who performs the assessment process using their
own individual criteria. This assessment includes both cognitive judgments about
the sense of satisfaction and fulfillment, as well as emotional responses to occurring
events. In this sense, psychological well-being is a broad concept that enables people to
make judgments about their lives, instead of relying on external quality assessments
of their own lives.

HedonIsm or eudAJmonIsm?
In the psychological literature on the quality of life and psychological well-being, we
encounter many concepts having different reach and impact. They all aim to build
the theoretical foundations of quality of life. The issue of human psychological well-
being is undeniably a topos in philosophy, where this well-being was positioned as
both the path and purpose of life. Psychology on this aspect of the development of
the individual, bent relatively recently – the focus was on research oscillating around
pathogenesis or measuring human functioning in specific situations. This situation
undoubtedly had its source in the accepted research paradigms and in particular
in mapping the methodology of the sciences, comparing social sciences to natural
sciences. For this reason, such aspects of human existence as love, happiness, will to
live, pain of existence, dignity and well-being were ignored by explorers of the social
structure. Campbell’s postulates (1976) became a significant breakthrough in which
he argued that socioeconomic research did not provide reliable answers to questions
about the quality of life in society. At that time, humanistic psychology flourished.
Subjectivity as a category of perception, understanding and also as a predictor of
human actions has become the object of research to inquire experts from various
fields of psychology.

Preliminary well-being research focused on subjective well-being, which is the level

of happiness, positive impact, lack of negative affect and life satisfaction (e.g. Diener,
1994: 103–157). Welfare research can be divided into two broad themes: hedonistic
well-being, which focuses on experiencing and maximizing happiness or pleasure,
and avoiding pain, and eudaimonic well-being, which focuses on updating human
potential (Ryan and Deci, 2001: 141–166). Although the terms subjective well-being
and psychological well-being are sometimes used interchangeably (Wright and
Cropanzano, 2004: 338–351); more correctly subjective well-being (SWB) reflects
global assessment of quality of life and emotional value and refers to hedonistic well-
being, while psychological well-being (PWB) is best used to describe the state of

Instytut Studiów Międzynarodowych i Edukacji HUMANUM www.humanum.org.pl

98
 Humanum, ISSN 1898-8431, 31 (4) 2018, s. 97-104

preparation to overcome life’s challenges refers to eudaimonistic well-being (Keyes,

Shmotkin and Ryff, 2002: 1007-1022). Proponents of the concept of mental well-being
emphasize the need to appreciate the tension between positive and negative aspects
of life. The abolition of the primacy of negative experiences over positive ones (or
vice versa) has a positive effect on the functioning of the individual. This is due to
the activation of positive and negative emotions that allow individuals to understand
and master stressful and traumatic experiences (Larsen, Hemenover, Norris and
Cacioppo, 2003: 221-225).

Although subjective well-being may change depending on life experiences, PWB

emphasizes more stable and adaptive aspects of human functioning (Ryan and
Deci, 2001: 158). PWB can sometimes be increased by adversity, because personal
development is determined differently by positive and negative experiences -
disappointment, obstacles and failures (Ryff, 2014: 1-12). Self-knowledge, i.e.
awareness of one’s own limitations and resources, can be increased, and certainly
modified (Ryff, 2014: 8). PWB is therefore not caused by life free from challenges
or obstacles, but lives despite these limitations (Ryff and Singer, 2008: 13-39). In an
attempt to define PWB, Ryff and Singer (1998: 1-28) studied philosophical arguments
about optimal human functioning, from Aristotle to Bertrand Russell. The result
of their research is that health is the general presence of positive in both mind
and body. Ryff (1989: 1075) recognized the need for the theoretical reasoning of
PWB and outlined a model of psychological well-being that draws and integrates
psychological theories of functioning, including Maslow’s theory of self-realization
(1968), Allport (1961) concept of maturity, the psychosocial stage model of Erikson
(1959), in Roger (1961), Jahoda’s positive mental health criteria (1958), as well as
Nichomachean Aristotle’s ethics (after: Ryff and Singer, 2008: 13-38). Ryff (1989)
conceptualized that there are often six dimensions in literature regarding life
development, mental health and personal development. These dimensions are self-
acceptance, positive relationships with others, personal development, purpose in life,
environmental mastery and autonomy. These dimensions are responsible for well-
being, which includes positive self-assessments; belief that life has a purpose and
meaning; belief in continuous personal self-development; successful interpersonal
relationships; harmonious relations with the environment (Ryff, 1989: 1073). They
form the basis of the multi-dimensional PW model B Ryff and have their sources
in guiding psychological theories (Ryff and Singer, 2008: 28). The dimension of
self-acceptance derives from the Greek postulate about the necessity of getting to
know oneself, i.e. exploring self-motivation for action and feelings related to it.
However, contemporary psychology theorists have also taken into account the
need for a positive self-perception. Jahoda (1958) defined it as a central feature of
mental health, Maslow (1968) saw it as a feature of self-realization, Rogers (1961)
as a sign of optimal functioning, and Allport (1961) as a sign of maturity. Erikson
(1959) emphasized the importance of self-acceptance, both for the current self and
the past self. Jung also emphasized the need to accept the shadow, i.e. the dark side
of his own self. Self-accepting people admit that the self contains both positive and
negative aspects, but maintains a positive attitude towards themselves, trying to
clearly see their actions, emotions and motivations. Self-acceptance is therefore a
richer concept than self-assessment because it involves awareness and acceptance of
both strengths and weaknesses (Ryff, 1989: 1075). The unit’s actions are generated by
an objective that should be considered from existential perspectives. Frankl (1959:

HUMANUM Międzynarodowe Studia Społeczno-Humanistyczne

99
 Harasim K.: Determinants of psychological well-being

18) seeks meaning through adversity. Although Frankl proposed a will to mean in
dark or difficult situations, other theorists emphasized the importance of well-being,
avoiding stressful situations. For example, Jahoda (1958) emphasized the importance
of personal beliefs that give a sense of meaning and purpose in life, and Allport
(1961: 11) argued that maturity includes understanding the purpose of life, including
a sense of intentionality and direction. Russell (1930/1958) proposed a concept of joy
in which the individual actively engages and conceptualizes his own life. Maturity
should result in a sense of understanding of the purpose and meaning of life (after:
Ryff, 1989: 1076). Personal development concerns self-realization, which Maslow
(1968) sees as realizing human potential - conceptualized, as a dynamic process of
continuous personal development, ability to improve self, which contributes to the
increase of personal efficiency and self-knowledge (Ryff and Singer, 2008: 22) . Rogers
(1961) saw a fully functioning person as open to experience and development-oriented
rather than reaching a steady state. Erikson (1959) also emphasized continuous
growth through subsequent periods of life. The need for growth and development
is therefore crucial for optimal psychological functioning (Ryff, 1989: 1079). Positive
relationships with others, as a dimension of psychological well-being, come from
the descriptions of many psychological theorists who focus their research around
the interpersonal sphere. These positive interpersonal relationships - also with other
dimensions - are a key element necessary for healthy development (Ryff and Singer,
2008). The ability to build and maintain proper relations with the environment is the
key to optimal satisfaction of one’s own needs (Ryff, 1989). Jahoda (1958) defined this
skill as a key to mental health. One of the criteria for Allport’s maturity (1961) was
the ability to participate in spheres outside of himself. Theoreticians of the course of
life psychology, such as Erikson (1959), emphasized the importance of the ability to
manipulate and control one’s own environment, as well as the actions and changes of
the surrounding world through various physical and mental activities. Thus, positive
psychological functioning included active participation and moderation of one’s own
environment. This is synonymous with constructions such as self-efficacy; however,
the emphasis on creating an environment suitable for personal possibilities and
needs is special for progressive coexistence with the environment (Ryff, 2013: 10-28).
On the other hand, autonomy (i.e. internal location of control), i.e. independence and
self-determination, in which one assesses himself according to personal standards
rather than others, is, according to Ryff (1989), another equivalent component of
psychological well-being. Maslow (1968) described self-developers as demonstrating
autonomous functioning, and Jung (1933) emphasized the process of individuation,
in which he no longer complies with the collective rights, fears and beliefs of others.
In contrast, Erikson (1959) emphasized the process of turning inward in later years
of development, which includes gaining freedom from everyday social norms. It is
expected that PWB will be an important construct to consider as part of research
on the identification of factors affecting the well-being of an individual, as well as
on specific ways in which these determinants contribute to its increase or decrease.
A number of studies suggest that in strengthening mental well-being, it is especially
important to focus on existential personal resources. For example, coherence (sense
of sense) and a sense of well-being despite adversity (e.g. hope, optimism, resilience)
are issues e existential, and these personal resources seem to buffer the impact of
modernity requirements (Kalimo et al., 2003; Mäkikangas and Kinnunen, 2003;
Tremblay & Messervey, 2011; van den Broeck et al., 2011). Rooting psychological

Instytut Studiów Międzynarodowych i Edukacji HUMANUM www.humanum.org.pl

100
 Humanum, ISSN 1898-8431, 31 (4) 2018, s. 97-104

well-being in the existential perspective remains indisputable - regardless of the

acceptance of the optics of this issue (hedonistic / eudaimonistic). Most of the factors
determining mental well-being can be grouped into several general categories:
genetic, psychological, social, economic. They coincide with those that decide about
the individual’s decision to commit suicide. Therefore, by performing a considerable
simplification, I will present selected theoretical models regarding mental well-being.

models And modelIng oF suBJectIve And oBJectIve

WelFAre
1) Sequential-temporal model of psychological well-being of E. Diener et al.
Diener (2005) defines psychological well-being as a unitary construct that
changes over time. It consists of four stages:
a) Life events and circumstances;
b) Emotional response to these events;
c) Memories of emotional reactions;
d) Sady regarding life.

2) A model of maintaining happiness S. Lyubomirsky, K.M. Sheldona, D. Schkade

(2007)
The axis of the model is the individual level of happiness over a period of time,
which is defined as the constant level of happiness. The authors focus on a triad
of factors: factors moderating the current level of happiness or the circumstances
of life (individual innate potential - 10%); situational and context factors, i.e. the
potential level of happiness (occurring in the life of the individual - 50%) and
volitional factors, i.e. conscious activity (regarding the activities undertaken by
the individual - 40%).

3) Transactional model of quality of life A. Zalewska (2003)

This concept is based on defining the quality of life as a system of attitudes of
the individual towards their own life in the general sense and individual spheres
of this life. These attitudes are also a degree of satisfaction and consist of two
components: emotional and cognitive assessments. Emotional assessment
consists of the intensity of various affective states: mood, mood, emotional
satisfaction. Cognitive assessment, on the other hand, is manifested by means of
cognitive-value judges, which contribute to what a given individual thinks and
what attitude he has to a given situation. Zalewska clearly states: “the separation
of emotional and cognitive assessments and it is assumed that the characteristics
of a person modify the significance of external and internal factors, as well as
the processing of emotional and cognitive information” (Zalewska, 2009).

4) Homeostatic model of mental well-being of R. A. Cummins (1997)

Cummins’ approach is characterized by the designation of a broad and detailed
catalog of factors underlying human well-being. This well-being is as subjective
as it is objective and in both aspects the same ranges are distinguished:
standard of living, health, life achievements, relations with others, personal
safety, relationships with society and security for the future (Cummis 2005,

HUMANUM Międzynarodowe Studia Społeczno-Humanistyczne

101
 Harasim K.: Determinants of psychological well-being

p. 5). Cummis distinguishes three determinants of quality of life: first-

order determinants (personality: neuroticism / extraversion), second-order
determinants (internal buffers: control / self-assessment / optimism) and third-
order determinants (environmental: empirical input - individual experience).
The threat to homeostatic balancing are negative environmental influences -
they determine the well-being of the individual.

5) Onion theory of happiness by J. Czapiński (1994)

Czapiński assumed that the happiness structure model has a layer structure
and that “the condition for the persistence of a positive attitude towards life
is (...) that the deepest layer is intact” (Czapiński, 1994, p. 192). In this model,
the layer closest to śdordka is genetically conditioned. Each subsequent layer is
the result of living conditions, experiences, relationships or random events. The
structure consists of three layers: the will to live (the deepest, stable, low-prone
to changing conditions); general contentment of life (the so-called general sense
of well-being, for which it manifests itself in emotions or cognitive orchards);
partial satisfaction (they concern individual spheres of an individual’s activity,
e.g. work, income, family).

6) Model of three ways of achieving Seligman’s happiness (Seligman, 2002).

In turn, this theoretical approach is based on three dimensions of happiness:
a pleasant life (striving to experience positive emotions about the past, present
and future; engaged life (the use of skills and abilities to accumulate positive
experiences) and meaningful life (transcendental approach to set goals).

7) C.D. Ryff (1989) The Ryff concept is part of the eudaimonistic understanding
of psychological well-being. As part of this approach, six aspects of well-being
were identified: autonomy, a sense of having a goal in life, positive interpersonal
relationships, self-acceptance, personal development and control over the
environment.
The latter model became the theoretical basis for formulating methodological
assumptions for the problems of own research.
The Ryff model (1989) is based on six dimensions of psychological well-being,
where as the key one she adopted self-acceptance, which she defines as “positive
attitude towards self, positive self-perception and acceptance of both positive and
negative self-features” (Wojciechowska, 2005). Self-acceptance is responsible for
maintaining sued self-assessment in difficult, conflicting, unforeseen situations
(Keyes, Waterman, 2003). The next place is personal development, understood
as the ability and motivation to self-improvement as well as a tendency to look
for opportunities for further development. The next dimension is the purpose
of life, which arises from the belief that “there is a direction in one’s own life,
perceiving the ability to set and carry out life tasks, even when circumstances do
not favor it” (Wojciechowska, 2005). Equally important is the control over the
environment, which is responsible for effectively dealing with the surrounding
dawn, the achievements and skills associated with the organization of this world
as well as such use of this world to meet its own needs. The fifth dimension
is autonomy and concerns the level of independence that the individual
attributes to himself - this is important in situations of social expectations of
subordination or submission. The last component is positive relationships with

Instytut Studiów Międzynarodowych i Edukacji HUMANUM www.humanum.org.pl

102
 Humanum, ISSN 1898-8431, 31 (4) 2018, s. 97-104

others, understood as the ability to establish and maintain positive interpersonal

relationships.

summArY
Expressing far-reaching wishfulness, one should postulate that both subjective well-
being and psychological well-being should be the object of interactions and not
only of research. The need to strengthen mental well-being - as parallel to the main
therapeutic activities, was highlighted in the Florence Declaration, the European Pact
for Mental Health and Well-being and repeatedly in WHO documents. A multitude
of theoretical approaches, a multitude of specific theoretical models gave rise to the
construction of diversified research tools. Well-being was correlated with a number
of other attributes of the individual, from identity through self-esteem to coping with
anxiety. Thus, well-being has become a field of research, not impact.

lIterAturA
1. Brzezińska A., Stolarska M., Zielińska J. (2002), Poczucie jakości życia w okresie
dorosłości [w:] K. Appelt i J. Wojciechowska (red.), Zadania i role społeczne
okresu dorosłości, 103–126. Poznań: Wydawnictwo Fundacji Humaniora.
2. Campbell, A. (1976). subjective measures of well-being. American psychologist,
31, 117-124.
3. cloninger, c. r. (2006). the science of well-being: an integrated approach to
mental health and its disorders. World psychiatry, 5, 71-76.
4. Czapiński J. (2002). Ekonomia szczęścia i psychologia bogactwa, „Nauka”, 1,
51-88.
5. Derbis R., Miejsce zamieszkania a poczucie jakości życia bezrobotnych. Forum
psychologiczne, 1999, 1: 45-59.
6. diener, e. (1994). Assessing subjective well-being: progress and opportunities.
social Indicators research, 31, 103-157.
7. Diener, E., Suh, E. M., & Oishi, S. (1997). Recent findings on subjective well-
being. Indian Journal of clinical psychology, 24, 25–41.
8. Frankl, v. (1959/2006). man’s search for meaning. (I. lasch, trans.). Boston:
Beacon press.
9. Kahneman, d. (2003). objective happiness. In d. Kahneman, e. diener and
n. schwarz (eds.), Well-Being: the Foundations of Hedonic psychology. new
York: russell sage, 3– 25.
10. Kalimo, r., pahkin, K., mutanen, p., & topipinen-tanner, s. (2003). staying well
or burning out at work: work characteristics and personal resources as long-
term predictors. Work & stress, 17, 109-122.
11. Keyes, c. l., shmotkin, d., & ryff, c. d. (2002). optimizing well-being: the
empirical encounter of two traditions. Journal of personality and social
psychology, 82, 1007- 1022.
12. larsen, J. t., Hemenover, s. H., norris, c. J., & cacioppo, J. t. (2003). turning
adversity to advantage: on the virtues of the coactivation of positive and
negative emotions. A psychology of human strengths: Fundamental questions
and future directions for a positive psychology, 211-225.
13. lyubomirsky, s. (2011). Hedonic adaptation to positive and negative
experiences. In: s. Folkman (ed.), the oxford handbook of stress, health, and
coping(pp. 200 –224). new York: oxford university press.
14. myers, d. g. (2000). the funds, friends, and faith of happy people. American
psychologist, 55, 56-67.
15. russell, J. A. & carroll, J. m. (1999). on the bipolarity of positive and negative
affect. psychological Bulletin, 125, 3-30.
16. ryan, r. m., & deci, e. l. (2001). on happiness and human potentials: A review of
research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual review of psychology,
52, 141-166.

HUMANUM Międzynarodowe Studia Społeczno-Humanistyczne

103
 Harasim K.: Determinants of psychological well-being

17. ryff, c.d. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? explorations on the meaning
of psychological well-being. Journal of personality and social psychology 57,
1069– 1081.
18. ryff, c. d. (2013). eudaimonic well-being and health: mapping consequences
of self- realization. In A. s. Waterman (ed.) the Best Within us: positive
psychology perspectives on eudaimonia, pp. 77–98. York, pA: maple press.
19. ryff, c. d. (2013). psychological well-being revisited: Advances in the science
and practice of eudaimonia. psychotherapy and psychosomatics, 83, 10-28.
20. seligman, m. e. p., & csikszentmihalyi, m. (eds.). (2000). positive psychology
[Special issue] American Psychologist, 55(1).
21. Sheldon, K.M., and Lyubomirsky, S. (2007). Trwały wzrost poziomu szczęścia:
perspektywy, praktyki i zalecenia. In: p.A. linley, s. Joseph (eds.) psychologia
pozytywna w praktyce(pp. 87-111). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo naukowe pWn.
22. tremblay, m. A. & messervey, d. (2011). the Job demands-resources model:
Further evidence for the buffering effect of personal resources; Journal of
Industrial psychology, 37, 10-19.
23. van den Broeck, A., vansteenkiste, m., de Witte, H., & lens, W. (2008). explaining
the relationships between job characteristics, burnout, and engagement: the
role of basic psychological need satisfaction. Work & stress, 22, 277-294.
24. veenhoven r. (1984), conditions of Happiness, Kluwer Academic publishers,
dordrecht.
25. Wright, t. A., & cropanzano, r. (2004). the role of psychological well-being in
job performance: A fresh look at an age-old quest. organizational dynamics,
33, 338-351.
26. Zalewska, A. (2003). Dwa %wiaty. Emocjonalne i poznawcze oceny jakości
życia i ich uwarunkowania u osób o wysokiej i niskiej reaktywności. Warszawa:
sWps Academica.

Instytut Studiów Międzynarodowych i Edukacji HUMANUM www.humanum.org.pl

104