Science Study Guide

Strengths and Weaknesses in Science Learning

- Strengths:
- Critical Thinking: Ability to analyze evidence, evaluate arguments, and think
logically about scientific problems.
- Problem-Solving Skills: Aptitude for applying scientific methods to address
complex issues and generate solutions.
- Experimental Skills: Proficiency in designing experiments, collecting data, and
interpreting results.
- Weaknesses:
- Complex Concepts: Challenges in understanding advanced theories without a
solid grasp of foundational knowledge.
- Practical Application: Difficulty in translating theoretical knowledge into
real-world applications and practical skills.
- Experimental Skills: Limited hands-on experience with laboratory techniques
and data analysis.
Nature of Science/Methods of Science
- Nature of Science:
- Empirical Evidence: Reliance on observable and measurable data to form
conclusions.
- Falsifiability: Scientific ideas must be testable and potentially disprovable.
- Consistency: New findings must align with established scientific knowledge
unless new evidence suggests otherwise.
- Methods of Science:
- Observation: Systematic collection of data through the senses or instruments.
- Hypothesis Formation: Developing a testable prediction based on preliminary
observations.
- Experimentation: Conducting controlled tests to explore hypotheses and
gather data.
- Analysis: Interpreting experimental results to support or refute hypotheses.
- Conclusion: Drawing inferences from data and reporting findings, often leading
to further questions and research.
Definition of Terms/Branches of Science
- Definition of Terms:
- Hypothesis: A tentative explanation based on limited evidence, subject to
testing.
 - Theory: A comprehensive explanation of phenomena that has been repeatedly
tested and confirmed through observation and experimentation.
- Law: A concise statement or mathematical equation that describes a
consistent and universal relationship observed in nature.
- Branches of Science:
- Biology: The study of living organisms, their structure, function, growth,
evolution, and interactions.
- Chemistry: The study of matter, including its properties, composition, structure,
and reactions.
- Physics: The study of matter and energy and the fundamental forces
governing their interactions.
- Earth Science: The study of Earth and its processes, including geology,
meteorology, oceanography, and astronomy.
Scientific Inquiry/Scientific Theory/Scientific Law
- Scientific Inquiry: A systematic approach to investigating phenomena, acquiring
new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.
- Scientific Theory: An overarching explanation of aspects of the natural world
that is supported by a large body of evidence and helps to predict future
observations.
- Scientific Law: A statement or mathematical relationship describing a consistent
and universal aspect of nature, often based on repeated experimental
observations.
Biotic and Abiotic Factors
- Biotic Factors:
- Producers: Organisms like plants and algae that produce their own food
through photosynthesis.
- Consumers: Organisms that obtain energy by consuming other organisms,
including herbivores (plant-eaters), carnivores (meat-eaters), and omnivores
(both plant and meat eaters).
- Decomposers: Organisms such as bacteria and fungi that break down dead
organic matter, returning nutrients to the soil.
- Abiotic Factors:
- Climate: Includes temperature, humidity, precipitation, and seasonal variations
that influence ecosystems.
- Soil: The composition, texture, and pH of soil affect plant growth and nutrient
availability.
 - Water: Availability, quality, and movement of water influence all living
organisms and their ecosystems.
Interaction of Living Things
- Interactions:
- Predation: Interaction where one organism (the predator) hunts and feeds on
another (the prey), influencing population dynamics.
- Competition: Occurs when organisms vie for the same resources, which can
lead to competitive exclusion or resource partitioning.
- Mutualism: Symbiotic relationship where both organisms benefit, such as bees
pollinating flowers while obtaining nectar.
- Commensalism: Symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits and the
other is unaffected, such as birds nesting in trees.
- Parasitism: Relationship where one organism benefits at the expense of
another, such as tapeworms in the intestines of mammals.
Homeostasis
- Homeostasis: The process by which living organisms regulate their internal
environment to maintain stable conditions despite external changes.
- Examples:
- Human Body Temperature: Regulation through sweating to cool down or
shivering to generate heat.
- Blood Sugar Levels: Regulation by insulin and glucagon to maintain energy
balance and metabolic function.
- Water Balance: Regulation of fluid levels through mechanisms like thirst and
kidney function.

UNIT 1: PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1.1 Photosynthesis
- Process of Photosynthesis:
- Light Reactions: Involve the absorption of light by chlorophyll, which excites
electrons and leads to the production of ATP and NADPH. This occurs in the
thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
- Calvin Cycle: Uses ATP and NADPH from light reactions to convert carbon
dioxide into glucose in the stroma of chloroplasts.
- Reactants: Carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the air, water (H₂O) from the soil, and
light energy from the sun.
- Products: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) used for energy and growth, and oxygen (O₂)
released as a byproduct.
- Importance: Photosynthesis is vital for producing oxygen, forming the basis of
the food chain, and capturing solar energy.
- Chloroplast: Organelles in plant cells containing chlorophyll, responsible for
capturing light energy.
- Chlorophyll: Pigment that absorbs light energy, mainly in the blue and red
wavelengths, and converts it into chemical energy.
- Inside a Leaf:
- Epidermis: Protective outer layer of cells that minimizes water loss and
provides a barrier against pathogens.
- Mesophyll: Inner tissue of the leaf where photosynthesis primarily occurs;
includes the palisade and spongy layers.
- Veins: Vascular tissues that transport water, nutrients, and glucose throughout
the leaf and plant.
- Minerals and Plant Growth:
- Nitrogen: Essential for amino acids and proteins.
- Phosphorus: Important for energy transfer and DNA.
- Potassium: Regulates stomatal opening and enzyme activity.
1.2 Carbon Cycle
- Carbon and Living Organisms: Carbon is a key element in biological molecules
such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
- Carbon Dioxide to the Air: Released through cellular respiration, combustion of
fossil fuels, and the decay of organic matter.
- Fossil Fuels and Combustion: Fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas release
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases when burned, contributing to global
warming.
- Fossils: Remains of ancient organisms that can provide insight into past
climates and atmospheric CO₂ levels.
Climate Change
- Greenhouse Gases: Gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and
nitrous oxide (N₂O) trap heat in the atmosphere and contribute to global warming.
- Climate Change in the Past: Historical evidence shows fluctuations in climate,
including warmer interglacial periods and colder ice ages.
- Ice Ages: Periods characterized by extensive glaciation and lower global
temperatures.
- Snowball Earth: Hypothesis suggesting that Earth experienced a global ice
cover, impacting climate and life forms.
- Asteroids Colliding: Impact events can cause significant environmental
changes, including dust clouds that block sunlight and affect global temperatures.
- Climate Change in the Future: Projections include continued warming,
increased frequency of extreme weather events, and rising sea levels.
- Impact of Climate Change:
- More Extreme Weather Events: Increased intensity and frequency of
hurricanes, heatwaves, and heavy rainfall.
- Less Predictable Rainfall: Changes in precipitation patterns can lead to
droughts or flooding.
- Rising Sea Levels: Caused by thermal expansion of seawater and melting of
ice caps, leading to coastal erosion and flooding.

UNIT 4: MAINTAINING LIFE

Plants and Water:
- How Roots Absorb Water: Water moves from the soil into root cells through
osmosis, driven by differences in water potential.
- How Water Moves Up the Plant: Transpiration creates a negative pressure in
the xylem vessels, which pulls water up from the roots through the stem to the
leaves.
- Xylem in Roots and Stem: Xylem vessels and tracheids transport water and
dissolved minerals from roots to other parts of the plant.
Transpiration:
- How Water Moves Through Leaves: Water evaporates from stomata (tiny
openings on the leaf surface) into the atmosphere, creating a suction that draws
more water up through the plant.
- Why Plants Need Water: Essential for photosynthesis, nutrient transport,
maintaining cell turgor, and cooling the plant through evaporation.
Excretion in Humans:
- Excretion and Excreting Urine: The kidneys filter blood to remove waste
products and excess substances, which are then excreted as urine.
- Muscle and Digestion: Muscles in the digestive tract (smooth muscle) facilitate
the movement of food through peristalsis, aiding in digestion and absorption.
- Circulation and Digestion: Nutrients from digested food enter the bloodstream
through the digestive tract and are transported to cells for energy and growth.
-Processing Oxygen and Waste: Oxygen is used in cellular respiration to produce
ATP, and waste products like carbon dioxide are removed through the respiratory
and excretory systems.
Keeping a Fetus Healthy

- A Healthy Pregnancy:
- Diet: Essential nutrients such as folic acid, iron, calcium, and vitamins support
fetal development and reduce the risk of complications.
- Smoking: Increases the risk of preterm birth, low birth weight, and
developmental issues.
- Drugs: Prescription and recreational drugs can cross the placenta and affect
fetal development, potentially causing birth defects or developmental delays.