If (W  P)ext is the work required in moving a point charge q from infinity to a point

P, the electric potential of the point P is

(W p )ext 
Vp  
q acc 0
 Potential Difference between two points A and B is
VA – VB
 Formulae of E and potential V
Kq
(i) Point charge E=  rˆ = Kq → Kq
,V=
→ 2 r
|r | r3 r

 ˆ
(ii) Infinitely long line charge 2 r rˆ = 2Kr



0 r
V = not defined, vB – vA = –2K ln (r B / rA)

(iii) Infinite nonconducting thin sheet nˆ ,
20

V = not defined, vB  v A
 rB  rA 
20
(iv) Uniformly charged ring
KQx
Eaxis =
R  x 
2 2 3/2 , Ecentre = 0
Vaxis =
KQ KQ
=
, V
R x
2 2
centre
R
x is the distance from centre along axis.

(v) Infinitely large charged conducting sheet nˆ
0

V = not defined, v  v  r r 
B A B A
0
(vi) Uniformly charged hollow conducting/ nonconducting /solid
conducting sphere
→ kQ KQ
(a) for E  → 2 rˆ , r  R, V =
|r| r
KQ
(b) E  0 for r < R, V = R
 (vii) Uniformly charged solid nonconducting sphere (insulating material)
→ kQ ˆ KQ
(a) E  → 2 r for r  R , V =
|r | r
→ → → 
KQr r for r (3R2–r2)
(b) E 3   R, V =
60
R 30
(viii) thin uniformly charged disc (surface charge density is )

 
Eaxis = 2 x    2  x2  x
Vaxis = 2
1   R 
  
R x
2 2
0  0

 Work done by external agent in taking a charge q from A to B is

(W ext)AB= q (VB – VA) or (W el) AB = q (VA – VB) .

 The electrostatic potential energy of a point charge

U = qV

 U = PE of the system =
U1  U2  ...
= (U12 + U13 +....... + U1n ) + (U23 + U24 + ........ + U2n)
2
+ (U34 + U35 + ..... + U3n) ....

1
 Energy Density = E2
2
2
 KQ
Self Energy of a uniformly charged shell = Uself 
2R
 Self Energy of a uniformly charged solid non-conducting sphere
2
3KQ
= Uself 
5R
 Electric Field Intensity Due to Dipole
(i) → 2KP
on the axis E = 3
r
→
→ KP
(ii) on the equatorial position : E = – r3
KP
(iii) Total electric field at general point O (r,) is E res = 1  3 cos 2 
r3
 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole in External Electric Field:
→
U = - p. E
 Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field :
→ → →
torque   p x E ; F = 0
 Electric Dipole in Nonuniform Electric Field:
→ →   E
p
torque   p x E ; U =  p E , Net force |F| =
r
 Electric Potential Due to Dipole at General Point (r, θ) :
P cos p.r
V= 2

40 r 4 0r3
 The electric flux over the whole area is given by
→
E 
 = E.dS = EndS
S 
S
 Flux using Gauss's law, Flux through a closed surface
→ qin

E = E  dS =
0
.
 Electric field intensity near the conducting surface

= nˆ
0
 Electric pressure : Electric pressure at the surface of a conductor is
given by formula

2
P= where  is the local surface charge density.
20
 Potential difference between points A and B
→ →
B
 
A
VB – VA = – E.dr  

  
→        ˆ   kˆ
 ˆi V  ˆj V  k ˆ V = –  ˆi
V
=  j
E  x x   
 z   x x z 
= – V = –grad V
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1. ELECTRIC CURRENT
q
Iav = and instantaneous current
t

i =. Lim q  dq
t0 t dt

2. ELECTRIC CURRENT IN A CONDUCTOR

I = nAeV.

v  ,
d


1  eE  2
 
2 m  1 eE
vd  = ,
 2 m
I = neAVd
3. CURRENT DENSITY
→ dI →
J n
ds
4. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
 eE   ne2 
I = neAV = neA   =   AE
d
 2m   2m 
 

 ne2   A   A 
V    V = V/R  V = IR
E= so I= V = 



 2m  ℓ 


ℓ  ℓ 
 is called resistivity (it is also called specific resistance) and
2m 1
=
ne   ,  is called conductivity. Therefore current in conductors
=
2

is proportional to potential difference applied across its ends. This is

Ohm's Law.
Units:
R  ohm(),   ohmmeter(  m)
also called siemens,   1m1 .
 Dependence of Resistance on Temperature :
R = Ro (1 + ).
Electric current in resistance
V2  V1
I=
R
5. ELECTRICAL POWER
P=VΙ

Energy = pdt
V2
P = I2R = V = .
R

V2
H = Vt = 2 Rt = t
R
2RT
H = 2 RT Joule = Calorie
4.2
9. KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS
9.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (Junction law)
 in =  out
9.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (Loop law)
 IR +  EMF =0”.

10. COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES :

Resistances in Series:
R = R1 + R2 + R3 +................ + Rn (this means Req is greater then any
resistor) ) and
V = V1 + V 2 + V 3 +................ + V n.
R1 R2
V = V;V = V ;
1
R1  R2  .........  Rn 2
R1  R2  ..........  Rn

2. Resistances in Parallel :
 11. WHEATSTONE NETWORK : (4 TERMINAL NETWORK)

When current through the galvanometer is zero (null point or balance

P R
point) = , then PS = QR
Q S
13. GROUPING OF CELLS
13.1 Cells in Series :



Equivalent EMFEeq = E1  E2  .......  En [write EMF's with polarity]

Equivalent internal resistance req = r1  r2  r3  r4  ...  rn

13.2 Cells in Parallel:


1 2  ....  n
r1 r2 rn [Use emf with polarity]
Eeq 
1  1  .....  1
r1 r2 rn


1  1  1  ....  1
req r1 r2 rn

15. AMMETER
A shunt (small resistance) is connected in parallel with galvanometer
to convert it into ammeter. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance
 Ammeter is represented as follows -

If maximum value of current to be measured by ammeter is  then

IG . RG = (I – IG)S
G.RG G RG
S=
  G
S= when  >> G.

where  = Maximum current that can be measured using the given
ammeter.

16. VOLTMETER
A high resistance is put in series with galvanometer. It is used to
measure potential difference across a resistor in a circuit.

For maximum potential difference

V = G . RS +  G RG
V V
R =  –R If R << R  R 
S G G G S S 
G
17. POTENTIOMETER

=
rR


VA – VB = .R
Rr
Potential gradient (x)  Potential difference per unit length of wire
VA  VB  R
x= = .
L Rr L
 Application of potentiometer
(a) To find emf of unknown cell and compare emf of two cells.
In case Ι,
In figure (1) is joint to (2) then balance length = ℓ1
1 = xℓ1...................... (1)
in case ΙΙ,
In figure (3) is joint to (2) then balance length = ℓ2
 = xℓ ...................... (2)
2 2

1 ℓ1

2 ℓ2

If any one of  1 or  2 is known the other can be found. If x is known then

both  and  can be found
1 2

(b) To find current if resistance is known

VA – VC = xℓ1
IR1 = xℓ1
xℓ1
=
R1
Similarly, we can find the value of R2 also.
Potentiometer is ideal voltmeter because it does not draw any current
from circuit, at the balance point.
(c) To find the internal resistance of cell.
Ist arrangement 2nd arrangement
 by first arrangement ’ = xℓ1 ...(1)
by second arrangement IR = xℓ2
xℓ2 '
= , also  =
R r'R

' xℓ2  xℓ1 xℓ2
 = =
r'R R r'R R
ℓ1  ℓ 2 
r’ =   R
 ℓ 2 
(d) Ammeter and voltmeter can be graduated by potentiometer.
(e) Ammeter and voltmeter can be calibrated by potentiometer.
18. METRE BRIDGE (USE TO MEASURE UNKNOWN RESISTANCE)
If AB = ℓ cm, then BC = (100 – ℓ) cm.
Resistance of the wire between A and B , R  ℓ
[ Specific resistance  and cross-sectional area A are same for whole of
the wire ]
or R = ℓ ...(1)
where  is resistance per cm of wire.

If P is the resistance of wire between A and B then

Pℓ  P = (ℓ)
Similarly, if Q is resistance of the wire between B and C, then
Q  100 – ℓ
 Q = (100 – ℓ)................................. (2)
P ℓ
Dividing (1) by (2),
Q = 100  ℓ
 Applying the condition for balanced Wheatstone bridge, we get R Q = P X

 x=R Q 100  ℓ
or X= R
P ℓ
Since R and ℓ are known, therefore, the value of X can be calculated.

CAPACITANCE

1. (i) q V  q = CV
q : Charge on positive plate of the capacitor
C : Capacitance of capacitor.
V : Potential difference between positive and negative plates.

(ii) Representation of capacitor : , (

1 2

(iii) Energy stored in the capacitor : U = CV2 = Q = QV

2 2C 2
1 1
(iv) Energy density =   E2 =  K E2
2  r 2 
r = Relative permittivity of the medium.
K= r : Dielectric Constant
1
For vacuum, energy density =  E2
2 
(v) Types of Capacitors :
(a) Parallel plate capacitor
0r A 0 A
C= = K
d d
A : Area of plates
d : distance between the plates( << size of plate )
(b) Spherical Capacitor :
 Capacitance of an isolated spherical Conductor (hollow or solid )
C= 4  r R
R = Radius of the spherical conductor
 Capacitance of spherical capacitor

b 1 2
ab a

C= 4
(b  a)
40K 2ab K 1 K 2 K3
b

 C=
a

(b  a)
 (c) Cylindrical Capacitor : ℓ >> {a,b}

2
Capacitance per unit length = F/m ℓ
ℓn(b / a) b

(vi) Capacitance of capacitor depends on

(a) Area of plates
(b) Distance between the plates
(c) Dielectric medium between the plates.
(vii) Electric field intensity between the plates of capacitor
 V
E= 
0 d
  Surface change density
q2
(viii) Force experienced by any plate of capacitor : F=
2A0

2. DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES ON CONNECTING TWO CHARGED

CAPACITORS:
When two capacitors are C1 and C2 are connected as shown in figure

(a) Common potential :

C1V1  C2 V2 Total charge
 V= C1  C2
= Total capaci tan ce

C1
(b) Q '= C V = (Q + Q )
1 1
C1  C2 1 2

C2
Q2' = C2 V = C  C (Q1 +Q2)
1 2
 (c) Heat loss during redistribution :
1
H = U – U = C1C2 (V – V )2
2 C 1  C2
i f 1 2

The loss of energy is in the form of Joule heating in the wire.

3. Combination of capacitor :
(i) Series Combination
1
1

1

1

1
V :V :V  : 1 : 1
1 2 3
Ceq C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
+Q –Q +Q –Q +Q –Q
C1 C2 C3
V1 V2 V3

(ii) Parallel Combination :

Q+ –Q
C1

Q+ –Q
C2
Q+ –Q
C3

Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 Q1: Q2 :Q3 = C1 : C2 : C3

4. Charging and Discharging of a capacitor :

(i) Charging of Capacitor ( Capacitor initially uncharged ):
q = q 0 ( 1 – e– t /)
R

V C

q0 = Charge on the capacitor at steady state

q0 = CV
   Time constant = CR eq.
 
q0  V – t / 
I= e – t /   e
 R

(ii) Discharging of Capacitor :

q = q0 e – t / 
q0 = Initial charge on the capacitor
q0
I= e – t / 


 q
 
R
q0

C
0.37v0

 t
5. Capacitor with dielectric :
(i) Capacitance in the presence of dielectric :
K0 A
C= = KC0
d
+ + 
– – – – – – – – – – – – b

V 0 b0

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +b
– – 
C0 = Capacitance in the absence of dielectric.
  b  V
Ein = E – Eind =  – = =
(ii) 0 0 K 0 d


E: Electric field in the absence of dielectric
0
Eind : Induced (bound) charge density.
1
(iii) b = (1 – ).
K
6. Force on dielectric
 b(K 1)V2
(i) When battery is connected F 0
2d
ℓ
b
b
ℓ+

F d

–
x
2
Q dC
(ii) When battery is not connected F= 2
2C dx

* Force on the dielectric will be zero when the dielectric is fully inside.
 ALTERNATING CURRENT
1. AC AND DC CURRENT :
A current that changes its direction periodically is called alternating cur-
rent (AC). If a current maintains its direction constant it is called direct
current (DC).

3. ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE:

Root Mean Square Value of a function, from t1 to t2, is defined as

t2

frms =
 f dt
t1
2

.
t 2  t1
4. POWER CONSUMED OR SUPPLIED IN AN AC CIRCUIT:

2 






Average power consumed in a cycle =
oPdt = 1 
V  cos 


2 2 m m




Vm m
= . . cosϕ = Vrms Ιrms cosϕ.
2 2
Here cos  is called power factor.
5. SOME DEFINITIONS:
The factor cos ϕ is called Power factor.
Ι m sin ϕ is called wattless current.
Vm Vrms
Impedance Z is defined as Z = =
m rms
L is called inductive reactance and is denoted by X L.
1
is called capacitive reactance and is denoted by XC.
C
6. PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUIT:

v s Vm sin t
I= = = m sin t
R R
Vm
 =
m
R
Vrms
rms =
R
rms 2
<P> = V  cos   V
rms rms
R
7. PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT:
Vm
I= = cos t
1
C
Vm
= cos t =  cos t.
m
XC
1
XC = and is called capacitive reactance.
C
v
V
T
t

i
I
t
 IC leads by vC by /2 Diagrammatically
(phasor diagram) it is represented as
m
.
Vm
Since  º, <P> = V rms rms cos   

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT & MAGNETIC FORCE ON
CHARGE/CURRENT

1. Magnetic field due to a moving point charge
→  → →
q(v  r )
B 0 
4 r3

v r
2. Biot-savart's Law
→
 I  dℓ  
r 
dB  0  
4  r3 
 

 1
ℓ P
3. Magnetic field due to a straight wire r 2

0 I
B= (sin  + sin  )
2
4 r 1



4. Magnetic field due to infinite straight wire

r P

0 I
B= 
2 r
5. Magnetic field due to circular loop

0NI
(i) At centre B=
2r

0  NR
2 
(ii) At Axis B=  2 2 3/ 2

2 (R  x ) 

6. Magnetic field on the axis of the solenoid 
2 0nI 
1
B= (cos 1 – cos  2)
2
7. Ampere's Law
→ →

B.dℓ  0I
8. Magnetic field due to long cylinderical shell

B = 0, r < R
0 I
= ,r  R
2 r
9. Magnetic force acting on a moving point charge
→
a. F  q( B)
→ × × × ×
(i)  B ×
× ×
m B×
r ×
× r × ×
qB
× × 
× ×
2m
T=
qB

m sin
(ii) r
 B qB
2m 2m cos 
T= Pitch =
qB qB
b. 
→
F  q ( B)  E 
10. Magnetic force acting on a current carrying wire
→ → →
 
F  I ℓ B
11. Magnetic Moment of a current carrying loop
M=N·I·A
12. Torque acting on a loop
→
  MB
13. Magnetic field due to a single pole
0 m
B= ·
4 r 2
14. Magnetic field on the axis of magnet
0 2M
B= ·
4 r 3
15. Magnetic field on the equatorial axis of the magnet
0 M
B= ·
4 r 3
16. Magnetic field at point P due to magnet
0 M
B=
4 r 3 1 3 cos 
2


S N

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
⇀ →
1. Magnetic flux is mathematically defined as =
B.ds
2. Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
d
E=–
dt
3. Lenz’s Law (conservation of energy principle)
According to this law, emf will be induced in such a way that it will oppose
the cause which has produced it.
Motional emf
4. Induced emf due to rotation
Emf induced in a conducting rod of length l rotating with angular speed 
about its one end, in a uniform perpendicular magnetic field B is 1/2 B 
ℓ.
2
 1. EMF Induced in a rotating disc :
Emf between the centre and the edge of disc of radius r rotating in a
2
Br
magnetic field B =
2
5. Fixed loop in a varying magnetic field
dB
If magnetic field changes with the rate , electric field is generated
dt
r dB
whose average tangential value along a circle is given by E=
2 dt
This electric field is non conservative in nature. The lines of force associ-
ated with this electric field are closed curves.
6. Self induction
( N) ( LI)
 =
t

t

LI
t
.

The instantaneous emf is given as  =  d( N)   d(LI)   LdI

dt dt dt
Self inductance of solenoid = µ0 n2 r2ℓ.
6.1 Inductor
It is represent by
electrical equivalence of loop





dI
VA  L  VB
dt

1
Energy stored in an inductor = L 2
2
7. Growth Of Current in Series R–L Circuit
If a circuit consists of a cell, an inductor L and a resistor R and a switch S
,connected in series and the switch is closed at t = 0, the current in the
Rt

circuit I will increase as I = (1 e L )
R
 The quantity L/R is called time constant of the circuit and is denoted by .
The variation of current with time is as shown.

1. Final current in the circuit = , which is independent of L.
R

2. After one time constant , current in the circuit =63% of the final current.
3. More time constant in the circuit implies slower rate of change of current.
8 Decay of current in the circuit containing resistor and inductor:
Let the initial current in a circuit containing inductor and resistor be  .0
Rt
L
Current at a time t is given as I =  0e
1
Current after one time constant : I =  0e =0.37% of initial current.

9. Mutual inductance is induction of EMF in a coil (secondary) due to

change in current in another coil (primary). If current in primary coil is I,
total flux in secondary is proportional to I, i.e. N  (in secondary)  I.
or N  (in secondary) = M I.
The emf generated around the secondary due to the current flowing around
the primary is directly proportional to the rate at which that current changes.
10. Equivalent self inductance :

VA  VB
L ..(1)
dI/ dt
1. Series combination :
L = L1 + L2 ( neglecting mutual inductance)
L = L1 + L2 + 2M (if coils are mutually coupled and they have
winding in same direction)
L = L1 + L2 – 2M (if coils are mutually coupled and they have
winding in opposite direction)
2. Parallel Combination :
1 1 1
  ( neglecting mutual inductance)
L L1 L2
 For two coils which are mutually coupled it has been found that M  L1L2

or M =k L1L2 where k is called coupling constant and its value is less

than or equal to 1.
Magnetic Core
Es Ns p where denota-
 
Ep Np s , S
tions have their usual mean-
ings. EP ES
NS > NP
⇒ ES > EP →
for step up transformer. Primary Secondary
coil coil
12. LC Oscillations
1
2 
LC

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
1. Reflection of Light
(b) ∠i =∠r
1.3 Characteristics of image due to Reflection by a Plane
Mirror:
(a) Distance of object from mirror = Distance of image from the mirror.
(b) The line joining a point object and its image is normal to the reflecting
surface.
(c) The size of the image is the same as that of the object.
(d) For a real object the image is virtual and for a virtual object the image
is real
2. Relation between velocity of object and image :
From mirror property : xim = - xom , yim = yom and zim = zom
Here xim means ‘x’ coordinate of image with respect to mirror.
Similarly others have meaning.
 Differentiating w.r.t time , we get
v(im)x = -v(om)x ; v(im)y = v(om)y ; v(im)z = v(om)z ,
3. Spherical Mirror
1 1 2 1
+ = = ..... Mirror formula
v u R f
x co–ordinate of centre of Curvature and focus of Concave
mirror are negative and those for Convex mirror are positive.
In case of mirrors since light rays reflect back in - X direction,
therefore -ve sign of v indicates real image and +ve
sign of v indicates virtual image
(b) Lateral magnification (or transverse magnification)
h2 v
m= m = .
h1 u
dv v2
(d) On differentiating (a) we get = .
du u 2

(e) On differentiating (a) with respect to time we get

dv v2 du dv
 ,where
dt u2 dt dt
is the velocity of image along Principal

du
axis and is the velocity of object along Principal axis. Negative
dt
sign implies that the image , in case of mirror, always moves
in the direction opposite to that of object.This discussion is
for velocity with respect to mirror and along the x axis.
(f) Newton's Formula: XY = f 2
X and Y are the distances ( along the principal axis ) of the object
and image respectively from the principal focus. This formula can
be used when the distances are mentioned or asked from the
focus.
1
Optical power of a mirror (in Diopters) =
(g) f
f = focal length with sign and in meters.
(h) If object lying along the principal axis is not of very small size, the
v 2  v1
longitudinal magnification = u  u (it will always be inverted)
2 1
4. Refraction of Light
speed of light in vacuum  c .
vacuum.  
speed of light in medium v
4.1 Laws of Refraction (at any Refracting Surface)
Sini
(b) = Constant for any pair of media and for light of a given
Sinr
wave length. This is known as Snell's Law. More precisely,

Sin i n v 
= 2 = 1 = 1
Sin r n1 v2 2
4.2 Deviation of a Ray Due to Refraction
Deviation () of ray incident at  i and refracted at  r is given by  = |i r|.

5. Principle of Reversibility of Light Rays

A ray travelling along the path of the reflected ray is reflected along the
path of the incident ray. A refracted ray reversed to travel back along its
path will get refracted along the path of the incident ray. Thus the incident
and refracted rays are mutually reversible.
7. Apparent Depth and shift of Submerged Object
At near normal incidence (small angle of incidence i) apparent depth (d)
is given by:
d
d=  n =
ni (R.I.of medium of incidence )
relative
nrelative nr (R.I.of medium of refraction )
 1 
Apparent shift = d 1 
 nrel 
Refraction through a Composite Slab (or Refraction through a
number of parallel media, as seen from a medium of R. I. n0)
Apparent depth (distance of final image from final surface)
t1 t2 t3 tn
= + + +.......... +
n1 rel n2 rel n3 rel nn rel
  1     
Apparent shift = t1 1  + t2 1 1  +........+ 1 n 
n
 n 1rel   n 2rel   n rel 

8. Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection ( T. I. R.)

nr
C = sin 1
nd
(i) Conditions of T. I. R.
(a) light is incident on the interface from denser medium.
(b) Angle of incidence should be greater than the critical
angle (i > c).
9. Refraction Through Prism
9.1 Characteristics of a prism

 = (i + e)  (r + r ) and r + r = A
1 2 1 2
  = i + e  A.
9.2 Variation of δ versus i
 (1) There is one and only one angle of incidence for which the angle
of deviation is minimum.
(2) When  =  min , the angle of minimum deviation, then i = e and
r1 = r2, the ray passes symmetrically w.r.t. the refracting surfaces.
We can show by simple calculation that min = 2i min – A
where imin = angle of incidence for minimum deviation and r = A/2.

sin  A  m
2
 nprism
 n rel =
sin  
A
2
, where nrel =
nsurroundings
Also min = (n  1) A (for small values of  A)
(3) For a thin prism ( A 10o) and for small value of i, all values of
nprism
 = ( nrel  1 ) A where n rel =
nsurrounding
10. Dispersion Of Light
The angular splitting of a ray of white light into a number of components
and spreading in different directions is called Dispersion of Light. This
phenomenon is because waves of different wavelength move with same
speed in vacuum but with different speeds in a medium.
The refractive index of a medium depends slightly on wavelength also.
This variation of refractive index with wavelength is given by Cauchy’s
formula.
b
Cauchy's formula n () = a  where a and b are positive constants
2
of a medium.
Anglebetween therays of theextreme colours in therefracted (dispersed) light is
called angle of dispersion.
For prism of small ‘A’ and with small ‘i’ :  = (n v – n r)A
Deviation of beam(also called mean deviation)  = y = (n y – 1)A
Dispersive power () of the medium of the material of prism is given by:
nv  nr
 = n 1
y

For small angled prism ( A 10o ) with light incident at small angle i :
nv  nr  v  r 
ny  1 = = y
 y

angular dispersion
=
deviation of mean ray (yellow)
 nv  nr if n is not given in the problem ]
[n = y
y
2
 v  r = n v  n r [take n = nv  nr if value of n is not given in
=
y ny  1 y
2 y

the problem]
nv, nr and ny are R. I. of material for violet, red and yellow colours respectively.

11. Combination of Two Prisms

Two or more prisms can be combined in various ways to get different
combination of angular dispersion and deviation.
(a) Direct Vision Combination (dispersion without deviation)
The condition for direct vision combination is :

n v nr   n v  n r A  n 1 A = n 1 A
  1A   1 y y
 2   2 
(b) Achromatic Combination (deviation without dispersion.)
Condition for achromatic combination is: (n  n ) A = (n  n ) A
v r v r

12. Refraction at Spherical Surfaces
For paraxial rays incident on a spherical surface separating two media:
n2 n n n 1
 1 = 2
v u R
where light moves from the medium of refractive index n1 to the medium
of refractive index n2.

Transverse magnification (m) (of dimension perpendicular to principal axis)

v  R =  v / n2 

due to refraction at spherical surface is given by m = u  R u/n
 1 

13. Refraction at Spherical Thin Lens

A thin lens is called convex if it is thicker at the middle and it is
called concave if it is thicker at the ends.
For a spherical, thin lens having the same medium on both sides:
1  where n = nlens
1 = (n rel  1)  1  1 
v  u R R 


rel
n
 1 2  medium
 1 = (n  1)  1  1 
f rel  
 R1 R2 
 
1 1 = 1
  Lens Maker's Formula
v u f

v
m=
u
1 1 1 1
Combination Of Lenses:    ...
F f1 f2 f3

OPTICAL INSTRUMENT

SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
D
Magnifying power : U
 0

D
 when image is formed at infinity M 
f
D
 When change is formed at near print D. MD  1
f

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Magnifying power Length of Microscope
V0D0
M L = V0 + Ue
U0Ue
V0D
M  L =V +f
U0 fe 0 e

V0  D  D.fe
1 
MD  L = V0 
U0  fe  D D  fe
 Astronomical Telescope
Magnifying power Length of Microscope
f0
M=  L = f + ue.
e

f0
M 
L = f0 + fe
fe
f0  fe  Dfe
M   1  
D 

fe  D  LD= f0 + D  f
e

Terrestrial Telescope
Magnifying power Length of Microscope
f
M 0
L= f0 + 4f + Ue.
Ue
f0
M 
L = f0 + 4f + fe.
fe
f0  fe 
M  1 Dfe

D   

fe  D  LD = f0 + 4f + D  f
e
Galilean Telescope
Magnifying power Length of Microscope
f
M 0
L = f0 - Ue.
Ue
f0
M 
L = f0 - fe.
fe
f0  fe  feD
M   1–  
D 

fe  d  LD = f0 – D – f
e

Resolving Power
1 2sin 
Microscope R 
d 
 1  a
Telescope. R  
 1.22
 MODERN PHYSICS

 Work function is minimum for cesium (1.9 eV)
hc
work function W = h0 = 
 0
 Photoelectric current is directly proportional to intensity of incident radiation.
( – constant)

 Photoelectrons ejected from metal have kinetic energies ranging from 0 to

KEmax
Here KEmax = eVs Vs - stopping potential
 Stopping potential is independent of intensity of light used (-constant)
 Intensity in the terms of electric field is
1 
I =  E2.c
2 0
h
 Momentum of one photon is .

 Einstein equation for photoelectric effect is
hc hc
h = w0 + kmax  =  + eVs
 0

12400
 Energy E = 0 eV
(A )
 Force due to radiation (Photon) (no transmission)
When light is incident perpendicularly
(a) a=1 r=0
A 
F= , Pressure = c
c
(b) r = 1, a = 0
2A 2
F= , P=
c c
(c) when 0 < r < 1 and a + r = 1
A 
F= (1 + r), P = (1 + r)
c c
 When light is incident at an angle  with vertical.
(a) a = 1, r = 0
A cos  Fcos 
F= , P= = cos2 
c A c
(b) r = 1, a = 0
2A cos  2cos 
2 2

F= , P=
c c
(c) 0 < r < 1, a+r=1
cos 
2

P= (1 + r)
c
 De Broglie wavelength
h h h
= = =
mv P 2mKE
 Radius and speed of electron in hydrogen like atoms.
n2
rn = a0 a0 = 0.529 Å
Z
Z 6
v = v v = 2.19 x 10 m/s
n 0 0
n
 Energy in nth orbit
Z2
En = E1 . E1 = – 13.6 eV
n2
 Wavelength corresponding to spectral lines

1 = R  12 1 
 n  
 1 n22 
for Lyman series n1 = 1 n2 = 2, 3, 4...........
Balmer n1 = 2 n2 = 3, 4, 5...........
Paschen n1 = 3 n2 = 4, 5, 6...........
 The lyman series is an ultraviolet and Paschen, Brackett and Pfund series
are in the infrared region.
n(n  1)
 Total number of possible transitions, is , (from nth state)
2
 If effect of nucleus motion is considered,
n2 m
rn = (0.529 Å) .
Z 

2
Z
En = (–13.6 eV) 2 .
n m
 Here µ - reduced mass
Mm
µ= , M - mass of nucleus
(M  m)
 Minimum wavelength for x-rays
hc 12400
min = eV = V (volt) Å
0 0
 Moseley’s Law
v = a(z – b)
a and b are positive constants for one type of x-rays (independent of Z)
 Average radius of nucleus may be written as
1/3 –15
R = R 0A , R0 = 1.1 x 10 M
A - mass number

2
Binding energy of nucleus of mass M, is given by B = (ZMp + NMN – M)C
 Alpha - decay process
A
X  A4 Y  4 He
Z z2 2
Q-value is
      
A
Q = m X  m A4 Y  m 4 He C2
Z z2 2
 Beta- minus decay
 
X Y  
A A
Z z1
Q- value = [m( A X)  m(A Y)]c
2
z Z1
 Beta plus-decay
A
A
z X  + + + 
Z1 Y
Q- value = [m( X)  m(A Y)  2me]c 2
A
z Z1
 Electron capture : when atomic electron is captured, X-rays are emitted.
A
X + e  Z1 Y + 
A
z
Q - value = [m( A X)  m(A Y)]c2
z Z1
–t
 In radioactive decay, number of nuclei at instant t is given by N = N0 e ,
-decay constant.
–t
 Activity of sample : A = A0 e
 Activity per unit mass is called specific activity.
0.693
 Half life : T 1/2 =

T1/ 2
 Average life : Tav =
0.693
  A radioactive nucleus can decay by two different processes having half
lives t1 and t2 respectively. Effective half-life of nucleus is given by
1 1 1
  .
t t1 t2

WAVE OPTICS
Interference of waves of intensity Ι 1and Ι 2:
resultant intensity,  = 1 + 2 + 2 12 cos () where,  = phase
difference.

  

2
For Constructive Interference : max = 1  2

For Destructive interference : min =  

1  2 
2

If sources are incoherent  = 1 + 2 , at each point.

YDSE :
Path difference, p = S P – S P = d sin 
2 1
dy
if d<<D =
D
if y << D
for maxima,
p = n  y = n n = 0, ±1, ±2 .......
for minima
  
(2n 1) n  1, 2, 3.............
 2
p = p = 
(2n  1) 
n  -1, - 2, - 3........
 2


(2n  1) n  1, 2, 3.............
 2
 y = 
(2n  1) 
n  -1, - 2, - 3.......
 2
D
where, fringe width  =
d
Here,  = wavelength in medium.
 d



Highest order maxima : nmax =   

 
total number of maxima = 2nmax + 1
 d 1
Highest order minima : nmax =   
 2 
total number of minima = 2nmax.
 2
Intensity on screen :  = 1 + 2 + 2 12 cos () where,  = p

  
1 = 2,  = 41 cos  2 
2
If
 
YDSE with two wavelengths λ 1& λ2:
The nearest point to central maxima where the bright fringes coincide:
y = n1 1 = n 2 2 = Lcm of  1 and 2

The nearest point to central maxima where the two dark fringes
coincide,
1 1
y = (n – )  = n – ) 
1
2 1 2
2 2
Optical path difference
p opt = p
2 2
 = p =  p opt.
 vacuum
D B
 = ( – 1) t. = ( – 1)t .
d 

YDSE WITH OBLIQUE INCIDENCE
In YDSE, ray is incident on the slit at an inclination of  0to
the axis of symmetry of the experimental set-up

S1 P1
1

0 2 O
dsin0 S2 P2

B0
O'
We obtain central maxima at a point where, p = 0.
or 2 =  0.
This corresponds to the point O’ in the diagram.
Hence we have path difference.
d(sin 0  sin )  for points above O

d(sin 0  sin )  for points between O & O'
p =  ... (8.1)
d(sin  sin  )  for points below O'
 0
THIN-FILM INTERFERENCE
for interference in reflected light 2d
n for destructive interference
 
=  1
(n  ) for constructive interference
 2
for interference in transmitted light 2d
n for constructive interference

=  1
(n  ) for destructive interference
 2

Polarisation
  = tan .(brewster's angle)
 + r = 90°(reflected and refracted rays are mutually
perpendicular.)
 Law of Malus.
I = I0 cos2
I = KA2 cos2
 Optical activity


tC 
LC
 = rotation in length L at concentration C.

Diffraction
 a sin  = (2m + 1) /2 for maxima. where m = 1, 2, 3 ......

m
 sin  = , m =  1,  2,  3 ......... for minima.
a

2d
 Linear width of central maxima =
a

2
 Angular width of central maxima = 
a
 2
sin / 2  asin 
   0   where  =
  / 2  

 Resolving power .

 
R =  –   
2 1


 1  2
where ,   ,  =  2 - 1
2


GRAVITATION 
GRAVITATION : Universal Law of Gravitation
m1 m2 m m
F or F = G 1 2
2
r r2
where G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2 kg–2 is the universal gravitational constant.

Newton's Law of Gravitation in vector form :

 Gm1m2  Gm1m2
F12 = rˆ12 & F2 1 =
r2 r2
→ G m1 m2
Now rˆ12  rˆ21 , Thus F21  rˆ12 .
r2
Comparing above, we get F12  F21
F GM
Gravitational Field E= = 2
m r
Gravitational potential : gravitational potential,
GM
V=– . E = – dV .
r dr
GM GMr
1. Ring. V = & E= rˆ
x or (a2  r 2 )1/ 2 (a2  r 2 )3 / 2
GM cos 
or E = –
x2
 Gravitational field is maximum at a distance,
r=± a 2 and it is – 2GM 3 3 a2
2. Thin Circular Disc.
 2GM  
1
 
   r
2 2

 a r 2 & E = – 2GM 1 r  = – 2GM 1 cos

V= 


a2 
 
1


a2   a2
 r 2  a2 2 
3. Non conducting solid sphere
(a) Point P inside the sphere. r < a, then
GM
V=  (3a2  r 2 ) & E = – GMr 3GM
3 , and at the centre V = – and E = 0
2a a3 2a
(b) Point P outside the sphere .
GM GM
r > a, then V =  & E = –
r r2
4. Uniform Thin Spherical Shell / Conducting solid sphere
(a) Point P Inside the shell.
GM
r < a , then V = & E=0
a
(b) Point P outside shell.
GM GM
r > a, then V = & E=– 2
r r
VARIATION OF ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY :
1. Effect of Altitude
2
 
GMe  h   2h 
gh = Re  h2 = g 1 ~ g 1  when h << R.

 Re   R e 
 d 
Effect of depth gd = g 1 
2.
 R e 
3. Effect of the surface of Earth
The equatorial radius is about 21 km longer than its polar radius.
GMe
We know, g = 2 Hence g pole > gequator.
Re
SATELLITE VELOCITY (OR ORBITAL VELOCITY)
1 1
 GM e  2 =  gR2 2
v0 =
   e
 Re  h  Re  h
 When h << Re then v0 = gRe

 v0 = 9.8  6.4  106 = 7.92 × 103 ms–1 = 7.92 km s1

Time period of Satellite
1
2Re  h 2  Re  h
3 2

T= 1
=  
 2 2 Re  g 
 gRe 
 R  h
 e 
Energy of a Satellite
GMem GMem GM em
U= K.E. = ; then total energy  E = –
r 2r 2R e
Kepler's Laws
Law of area :
The line joining the sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal
intervals of time.
1
r (rd)
area swept 2 1 2 d
Areal velocity = = =7 2 r = constant .
time dt dt
1 T2
Hence r2  = constant. Law of periods : 3 = constant
2 R

FLUID MECHANICS & PROPERTIES OF MATTER

FLUIDS, SURFACE TENSION, VISCOSITY & ELASTICITY :
f F A
1. Hydraulic press. p=  or F   f .
a A a
Hydrostatic Paradox PA = PB = PC
(i) Liquid placed in elevator : When elevator accelerates upward with
acceleration a0 then pressure in the fluid, at depth ‘h’ may be given by,
p = h [g + a0]

and force of buoyancy, B = m (g + a0)

(ii) Free surface of liquid in horizontal acceleration :

a0
tan  =
g
 p1 – p2 = ℓ a0 where p1 and p2 are pressures at points 1 & 2.
ℓa0
Then h1 – h2 =
g
(iii) Free surface of liquid in case of rotating cylinder.

v2 2r 2
h= =
2g 2g
Equation of Continuity

a1v1 = a2v2
In general av = constant .

Bernoulli’s Theorem

P 1
i.e. + v2 + gh = constant.
 2
2gh
A2
(vi) Torricelli’s theorem – (speed of efflux) v= 1 22 ,A2 = area of hole
A1
A1 = area of vessel.
restoringforce F
ELASTICITY & VISCOSITY : stress = area of the body  A
change in configuration
Strain,  =
original configuration
L
Longitudinal strain =
(i) L
V
v = volume strain =
(ii) V
x
(iii) Shear Strain : tan  or  =
ℓ
1. Young's modulus of elasticity Y = F / A  FL
L / L AL
1 1
Potential Energy per unit volume = (stress × strain) = (Y × strain2 )
2 2
Inter-Atomic Force-Constant k = Yr0.
 dv dv
Newton’s Law of viscosity, F A or F = – A
dx dx
2 r 2 (  )g
Stoke’s Law F = 6   r v. Terminal velocity =
9 
SURFACE TENSION
Total force on either of the imaginary line (F)
Surface tension(T) = ;
Length of the line (ℓ)
W
T=S=
A
Thus, surface tension is numerically equal to surface energy or work
done per unit increase surface area.
4T
Inside a bubble : (p – pa) == p excess ;
r
2T
Inside the drop : (p – pa) = = p excess
r
2T
Inside air bubble in a liquid :(p – pa) = = p excess
r
2Tcos
Capillary Rise h=
rg

SOUND WAVES
(i) Longitudinal displacement of sound wave
 = A sin (t – kx)
(ii) Pressure excess during travelling sound wave

Pex =  B (it is true for travelling
x
= (BAk) cos(t – kx)
wave as well as standing waves)
Amplitude of pressure excess = BAk
E
(iii) Speed of sound C =

Where E = Ellastic modulus for the medium
 = density of medium
Y
– for solid C=

 where Y = young's modulus for the solid
B
– for liquid C=

where B = Bulk modulus for the liquid
B P RT
– for gases C= 
  M0
where M0 is molecular wt. of the gas in (kg/mole)
Intensity of sound wave :
P2m
<  > = 22f2A2v = <>  P m2
2v
  
(iv) Loudness of sound : L = 10 log10   dB
0 
where I0 = 10–12 2
W/m (This the minimum intensity human ears can
listen)
P
Intensity at a distance r from a point source =   2
4r
Interference of Sound Wave
if P1 = pm1 sin (t – kx 1 +  1)
P2 = pm2 sin (t – kx 2 +  2)
resultant excess pressure at point O is
p = P1 + P2
p = p0 sin (t – kx + )
p0 = p2m1  p2m2  2p m1p m2 cos 
where  = [k (x 2 – x 1) + ( 1 –  2)]
and I = I1 + I2 + 2 1 2
(i) For constructive interference
 = 2n and  p0 = pm1 + pm2 (constructive interference)
(ii) For destructive interfrence
 = (2n+ 1)  and  p 0 = | p m1 – pm2 | (destructive interference)
2
If  is due to path difference only then  = x.

Condition for constructive interference : x = n

Condition for destructive interference : x = (2n + 1) 
2
 (a) If pm1 = pm2 and     
resultant p = 0 i.e. no sound
(b) If pm1 = pm2 and  = 0 , 2, 4, ...
p0 = 2pm & I0 = 4I1
p0 = 2pm1
Close organ pipe :
v 3v 5v (2n  1)v n = overtone
f= , , , ..........
4ℓ 4ℓ 4ℓ 4ℓ
Open organ pipe :
v 2v 3v nV
f= , , , ..........
2ℓ 2ℓ 2ℓ 2ℓ
Beats : Beatsfrequency = |f1 – f2|.
Doppler’s Effect
 v  v 0 
The observed frequency, f = f v  v 

 s 
 v  vs 
and Apparent wavelength  =   
 v 


ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES
Maxwell's equations

E  dA  Q /  0 (Gauss's Law for electricity)

B  dA  0 (Gauss's Law for magnetism)

–dB
E  dℓ 
dt
(Faraday's Law)

dE
B  dℓ   i0c  0 0
dt
(Ampere-Maxwell Law)

Oscillating electric and magnetic fields

E= Ex(t) = E0 sin (kz - t)
 z 
2 – vt   z t 
= E0 sin    = E0 sin  2 – 
  T
     
E0/B0 = c

c = 1/ 0 0 c is speed of light in vaccum

v  1/  v is speed of light in medium

 U
p energy transferred to a surface in time t is U, the magnitude of
c
the total momentum delivered to this surface (for complete
absorption) is p
Electromagnetic spectrum
Type Wavelength Production Detection
range
Radio > 0.1m Rapid acceleration and Receiver's aerials
decelerations of electrons in
aerials
Microwave 0.1m to 1mm Klystron value or magnetron Point contact diodes
value
Infra-red 1mm to 700nm Vibration of atoms and Thermopiles Bolometer,
molecules Infrared photographic
film
Light 700nm to Electrons in atoms emit light The eye, photocells,
400nm when they move from one Photographic film
energy level to a lower
energy
Ultraviolet 400nm to 1nm Inner shell electrons in photocells photographic
atoms moving from one film
energy level to a lower level
X-rays 1nm to 10–3 nm X-ray tubes or inner shell Photograpic film, Geiger
electrons tubes, lonisation chamber
–3
Gamma < 10 nm Radioactive decay of the do
rays nucleus

ERROR AND MEASUREMENT

1. Least Count

mm.scale Vernier Screw gauge Stop Watch Temp thermometer

L.C =1mm L.C=0.1mm L.C=0.1mm L.C=0.1Sec L.C=0.1°C
2. Significant Figures
 Non-zero digits are significant
 Zeros occurring between two non-zeros digits are significant.
 Change of units cannot change S.F.
 In the number less than one, all zeros after decimal point and to
the left of first non-zero digit are insignificant
 The terminal or trailing zeros in a number without a decimal
point are not significant.
 3. Permissible Error
 Max permissible error in a measured quantity = least count of
the measuring instrument and if nothing is given about least count
then Max permissible error = place value of the last number
 f (x,y) = x + y then (f) max = max of (  X  Y)
 f 
 f (x,y,z) = (constant) xa yb zc then  
 f max
 x y z 
= max of  a  b  c 
 x y z 


4. Errors in averaging
 Absolute Error a n = |amean -an|
 n 
 Mean Absolute Error a 
=  | ai |
  n

 i1 
mean

 amean
 Relative error = amean
amean
 Percentage error = a ×100
mean

5. Experiments
 Reading of screw gauge
Thicknes of object  Readingof screw gauge
main  circular 
   Least 
 
 scale   scale
reading reading count 
   

pitch
least count of screw gauge =
No.of circular scale division
 Vernier callipers
Thicknes of object  Readingof verniercalliper
main  vernier 
   Least 
 
 scale   scale  count 
reading reading
   

Least count of vernier calliper = 1 MSD –1 VSD
 PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNICATION

Transmission from tower of height h

 the distance to the horizon d T = 2RhT

 dM = 2RhT  2RhR

Amplitude Modulation
 The modulated signal c m (t) can be written as
Ac Ac
c (t) = A sin  t + cos ( -  ) t – cos ( +  )
m c c
2 C m
2 C m

Change in amplitude of carrier wave kAm

 Modulation index ma  Amplitude of original carrier wave  A
c
where k = A factor which determines the maximum change in the
amplitude for a given amplitude Em of the modulating. If k = 1 then
Am A – Amin
ma =  max
Ac Amax – Amin
 If a carrier wave is modulated by several sine waves the total modulated
index m is given by m = m1  m 2  m 3  .........
2 2 2
t t

 Side band frequencies

(fc + fm) = Upper side band (USB) frequency
(fc - fm) = Lower side band (LBS) frequency

 Band width = (f c + f m) - (f c - f m) = 2f m
2
Vrms
 Power in AM waves : P 
R

 Ac 
2
  2
carrier power
Pc   2

Ac
(i)
R 2R
 2
 m a Ac   ma Ac 
(ii) Total power of side bands P =  2 2    2 2
   2 2  ma A c
sb
 
R 2R 4R
Ac2 1 ma2 
(iii) Total power of AM wave P =P +P =  
Total c ab 2R  2 


Pt ma2  P
2
m /2
(iv)  1 sb
 a
Pc  2 

and Pt  m2 
1 a
 2 
 

(v) Maximum power in the AM (without distortion) will occur when

ma = 1 i.e., Pt = 1.5 P = 3Pab

(vi) If Ic = Unmodulated current and It = total or modulated current

 t
2
P  ma2 

t  t
  1
 2 


Pc 2c c  
Frequency Modulation
Em
 Frequency deviation  = = (f -f )=f -f =k .
max c c min f
2
 Carrier swing (CS) = CS = 2 × f
 Frequency modulation index (m )f
 fmax – fc fc – fmin kf Em
=. m =   
f fm fm fm fm
 Frequency spectrum = FM side band modulated signal consist of infi-
nite number of side bands whose frequencies are (fc ± fm), (fc ± 2fm),
(fc ± 3fm).........
(f)max
Deviation ratio = (f )
 m max
(f)actual
Percent modulation , m = (f)
 max
 SEMICONDUCTOR

Conductivity and resistivity

 P ( – m)  (–1m–1)
Metals 10–2 -10–6 102 – 108

semiconductors 10–5 -10–6 105 – 10–6

Insulators 1011 –1019 10–11 – 10–19

Charge concentration and current
 [ n =  e] In case of intrinsic semiconductors
 P type n >> e
 i = i + i
e h

 e n = 2i 
 Number of electrons reaching from valence bond to conduction bond.
 = A T 3/ 2e–Eg/2kT (A is positive constant)
  = e (  e m e +  n  n)
for  hype n = Na >>  .e
for  – type e = Na >> h
V
 Dynamic Resistance of P-N junction in forward biasing = 

Transistor
 CB amplifier
Samll change incollector current (ic )
(i) ac current gain  c =
Samll changeincollector current (ie )
Collector current (ic )
(ii) dc current gain  dc = Emitter current (i ) value of  dc lies
e
between 0.95 to 0.99
Changeinoutput voltage(V0 )
(iii) Voltage gain AV = Changein input voltage(V )
f

 AV = aac × Resistance gain

Change inoutput power (P0 )
(iv) Power gain =
Change in input voltage(PC )
 Power gain = a2 ac × Resistance gain
(v) Phase difference (between output and input) : same phase
(vi) Application : For High frequency
CE Amplifier
 ic 
  V = constant
(i) ac current gain ac = i
b  CE

ic
dc current gain dc = i
(ii) b

V0
(iii) Voltage gain : AV = Vi =  ac × Resistance gain
P0
(iv) Power gain = P = 2ac × Resistance
i
(v) Transconductance (gm) : The ratio of the change in collector in
collector current to the change in emitter base voltage is called trans
ic AV
conductance i.e. gm = V . Also gm = R RL = Load resistance.
EB L

  
 Relation between α and β :   or  =



1–  1 
ROUGH WORK