LECTURE 1 NOTES

1. ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS IN R

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.

 In R, there are two common assignment operators:

o = (equals)
o <- (left arrow)

You can use either of these to assign a value to a variable. Here are examples of both:

a=1 # Assigns value 1 to variable a

a <- 2 # Assigns value 2 to variable a using another assignment symbol

Important Tip: Both = and <- work similarly, but <- is often preferred by R programmers
as a convention.

a = "lecture" # Assigns the string "lecture" to a

a <- "z" # Assigns the string "z" to a

Memory Tip: You can think of <- as an arrow that is pointing to where the value goes.
Imagine shooting the value into the variable.

2. ARITHMETIC OPERATORS IN R

Arithmetic operators allow you to perform basic math operations.

Suppose we have three variables:

a=1
b=2

c=3

1. Addition (+):

Adds two numbers.

a+b #1+2=3

2. Subtraction (-): Subtracts the second number from the first.

a - b # 1 - 2 = -1

3. Multiplication (*): Multiplies two numbers.

a*b #1*2=2

4. Division (/): Divides the first number by the second.

a / b # 1 / 2 = 0.5

5. Modulus (%%): Returns the remainder when dividing the first number by the
second (useful for finding out if a number is divisible by another).

a %% b # 1 %% 2 = 1 (since 1 divided by 2 leaves a remainder of 1)

Memory Tip: Think of % as representing "pieces left," which helps you remember it
gives the remainder.

6. Exponentiation (^): Raises the first number to the power of the second number.

a^b #1^2=1

Memory Tip: The ^ symbol can be imagined as a tiny "house roof," symbolizing raising
up to a power.
 LECTURE 2 NOTES

1. LOGICAL OPERATIONS (TRUE/FALSE COMPARISONS)

In R, you can perform comparisons to get True or False as the result.

Example Comparisons:

a = 15

b = 10

c = 20

Less than (<):

a < b # Is 15 less than 10? Answer: FALSE

Greater than (>):

a > b # Is 15 greater than 10? Answer: TRUE

Less than or equal to (<=):

a <= b # Is 15 less than or equal to 10? Answer: FALSE

Greater than (>) (with negative sign example):

a > -b # Is 15 greater than -10? Answer: TRUE

2. EQUALITY OPERATORS

I. Assignment (=): Assigns a value.

a = b # Assigns the value of b (10) to a.

II. Equality Check (==): Checks if two values are equal.

a == b # Is a equal to b? Answer: TRUE or FALSE (depends on current value of a)

III. Not Equal (!=): Checks if two values are not equal.

a != b # Is a not equal to b? Answer: FALSE if a == b, otherwise TRUE

3. DATA TYPES IN R

R supports different types of data, and it's important to recognize these:

a) Numeric Data

A sequence of numbers:

num <- c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8) # `c()` creates a collection of numbers

print(num)

class(num) # Will return "numeric" since these are numbers

b) Character Data

Character Strings:

chr <- c("welcome to R studio")

print(chr)

class(chr) # This will return "character"

c) Logical Data

Logical Values: Represented by TRUE or FALSE.

lg <- c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE) # Logical values without quotes are treated as logical
type

print(lg)

class(lg) # Will return "logical"

Tip: If you use quotes around "True" or "False", they will be treated as characters, not
logical values.

d) Integer Data

Integers: Numbers with an "L" suffix to explicitly declare them as integers.

int <- c(1L, 2L, 3L, 4L, 5L)

print(int)

class(int) # Will return "integer"

e) Complex Data

comp <- 3 + 2i # A complex number with a real part (3) and imaginary part (2i)

print(comp)

class(comp) # Will return "complex"

f) Factor Data Types

fac <- c(a, b, c) # Creating a collection of a, b, c

fac <- as.factor(fac) # Convert `fac` to a factor (categorical data)

class(fac) # Will return "factor"

levels(fac) # Displays the unique levels in the factor

g) Conversions

Convert between data types, like changing integers to numeric:

int <- as.numeric(int) # Converts `int` to numeric data type

class(int) # Now will return "numeric"

4. DATA STRUCTURES IN R
 1. Vector:
o Type: One-dimensional, same data type.

o Example: A list of gene expressions.

o Creation: c(1, 2, 3).

2. Matrix:
o Type: Two-dimensional, same data type.
o Example: Gene expression table.
o Creation: matrix(data, nrow, ncol).

3. Data Frame:
o Type: Two-dimensional, mixed data types (like a table).
o Example: Sample metadata.

4. List:
o Type: One-dimensional, mixed data types.
o Example: Experimental data with multiple datasets.
o Creation: list(a, b, "text", TRUE).

5. Factor:
o Type: One-dimensional, used for categorical data.
o Example: Treatment groups or experimental conditions.

Summary and Tips for Memory:

 Logical Values: Use TRUE or FALSE without quotes for logical operations.
 Integer Data: Add an "L" to make numbers explicit integers.
 Factors: Think of factors like categories or labels; they help with grouping data.

5. GUIDE FOR DATA IMPORT, PACKAGE INSTALLATION, AND

LIBRARY USE IN R STUDIO
1. IMPORTING DATA IN R STUDIO

To work with data in R, you first need to import it. Here are some options for importing
data into R Studio:

Common Ways to Import Data:

1.CSV Files:

 Use the read.csv() or readr::read_csv() function to import CSV files.

data <- read.csv("path/to/your/file.csv") # Base R function

data <- readr::read_csv("heart.csv") # Using `readr` package

2. Excel Files:

 Use the readxl package for Excel files.

install.packages("readxl") # First install the readxl package

library(readxl) # Load the readxl library

data <- read_excel("path/to/your/file.xlsx") # Import an Excel file

3.Other Formats:

 You can use packages like haven for SPSS, Stata, or SAS files.

4.GUI Import Tool:

 In R Studio, you can also use the GUI (Graphical User Interface) by clicking
“Import Dataset” in the Environment tab. This is a user-friendly way to import
data without coding.

2. INSTALLING PACKAGES IN R STUDIO

Packages are collections of R functions, data, and code to simplify certain tasks. To use
functions provided by a package, you need to install it first.

How to Install a Package:

 Use the install.packages("package_name") function.

Example:

install.packages("readr") # Install the `readr` package for reading data

install.packages("dplyr") # Install the `dplyr` package for data manipulation

Tip: You only need to install a package once on your system.

3. LOADING (ATTACHING) LIBRARIES IN R STUDIO

After installing a package, you need to load it using the library() function so you can use
its functions.

 How to Load a Package:

library(readr) # Loads the readr package

library(dplyr) # Loads the dplyr package

Tip: You need to load the library every time you start a new R session.

4. Installing and Loading Specific Packages & Functions

 Install and Load readr:

install.packages("readr") # Install the readr package

library(readr) # Load the readr package into your session

Purpose: readr is used for reading data files like CSV, and it's faster and more flexible
than base R’s read.csv() function.

 Import a CSV File (heart.csv):

heart_data <- read_csv("heart.csv") # Reads the "heart.csv" file

Note: read_csv() is provided by the readr package, which makes reading CSV files
efficient.

 Install and Load dplyr:

install.packages("dplyr") # Install the dplyr package

library(dplyr) # Load the dplyr package into your session

Purpose: dplyr is a very popular package for data manipulation. It provides easy-to-use
functions for filtering, selecting, arranging, and summarizing data.

Common Errors and How to Fix Them

4. SPELLING MISTAKES:

 In your example, there are two mistakes. It should be install.packages() and

library(), not intsall.packages() or libary().
 Correct Code:

install.packages("readr")

library(readr)

 Package Not Found: If you forget to install a package, R will return an error.
Always make sure to install before using library()..

5. SUMMARY STEPS FOR INSTALLING AND USING A PACKAGE :

 Install the Package (only needed once):

install.packages("package_name")
  Load the Library (each time you start a new session):

library(package_name)

 Use Functions from the Package:

# For example, reading data from a CSV

data <- read_csv("file.csv")

Memorization Tips:

 Rhyme to Remember:

“Install to Set, Library to Get.”

 Think of installing like setting up a tool in your workspace.

 Think of loading the library like taking the tool out to use.