LESSON PROPER

Civilization is defined as the level of development where people coexist peacefully

in communities, with ancient civilization specifically referring to the first stable
communities that laid the groundwork for future states, nations, and empires. The study
of ancient civilization is a subset of ancient history, which spans from the invention of
writing around 3100 BC for over 35 centuries. Although humanity existed prior to writing,
the advent of written records enabled the preservation of historical information. The
earliest ancient societies emerged in various regions, including Mesopotamia, Egypt, the
Indus Valley, the Huang He Valley in China, Crete, and Central America. These
civilizations shared common characteristics, such as urban development, the invention of
writing, advancements in pottery and metallurgy, animal domestication, and the
establishment of complex social hierarchies. Knowledge about these ancient peoples is
primarily derived from written records and archaeological discoveries. Significant
archaeological findings have occurred over the last two centuries, with notable
discoveries including the Sumerian culture in Mesopotamia in the 1890s and important
excavations in China after the late 1970s.

1. Sumerian Civilization (4500 B.C. to 1900 B.C.)

The ruins of Eridu in Iraq (Peter Sobolev/Shutterstock)

Ancient Sumer, located in Mesopotamia, is recognized as the birthplace of the first

civilizations in human history. The region's "Fertile Crescent," around 10,000 B.C.,
enabled early populations to establish agricultural practices, leading to settled
communities. By approximately 4500 B.C., these communities, known as the Sumerians,
developed sufficient agricultural surplus to create the world's first cities. Prominent
Sumerian cities, including Eridu, Uruk, and Ur, featured significant architectural structures
such as temples and palaces. The Sumerians are also credited with the invention of
writing, specifically cuneiform, which emerged around 5,000 years ago. This writing
system facilitated the documentation of grain transactions, storytelling, and the
dissemination of agricultural knowledge. These advancements have earned
Mesopotamia the designation of the "Cradle of Civilization." Additionally, the Sumerians
made significant contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and astrology, developed
irrigation techniques, established the first educational institutions, codified legal systems,
and created the modern concept of time by dividing the day into hours, minutes, and
seconds.

2. Indus Valley Civilization (3300 B.C. to 1300 B.C.)

Ruins of Dholavira, a Harappan metropolis, in Gujarat, India (Credit: Vihang Ghalsasi/Shuttterstock)

The emergence of agricultural societies around 7000 B.C. marked the beginning
of small village formations in the Indus River Valley, located in present-day India and
Pakistan. By approximately 3300 B.C., these settlements experienced significant growth,
particularly in the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, which accommodated populations
of around 40,000 to 50,000 residents. The urban development in the Indus Valley is
characterized by advanced architectural practices, including the use of baked-brick
construction. The cities were equipped with sophisticated sewer and water supply
systems, contributing to their cleanliness and public health. The layout of the streets
followed a strict grid pattern, indicating a high level of urban planning and organization.
The uniformity observed in the construction materials, such as bricks of standard
dimensions, reflects the societal emphasis on consistency and order. Additionally, the
Indus Valley civilization is noted for its innovations in weights and measures, which were
crucial for trade and commerce. The presence of a unique yet undeciphered writing
system and advancements in metallurgy further highlights the complexity and ingenuity
of this ancient civilization.
3. Ancient Egypt (3100 B.C. to 30 B.C.)

Valley of the Kings. The tombs of the Ancient Egyptian Pharaohs near the West Bank of the Nile River (Credit: Anton
Belo/Shutterstock)

By 6000 B.C., settlers established communities along the Nile, finding refuge from
harsh desert conditions. These early settlements evolved into significant urban centers
by 3100 B.C., governed by pharaohs who served as both political leaders and spiritual
intermediaries, responsible for law-making, taxation, military endeavors, and maintaining
order. The ancient Egyptians flourished for millennia, gaining recognition for their
advancements in various fields, including arithmetic, astronomy, and anatomy. Their
medical practices, particularly in surgery, were notable, with mummification techniques
believed to have contributed to their understanding of human anatomy. Additionally, the
Egyptians developed a sophisticated writing system known as hieroglyphics, comprising
a vast array of characters used for inscribing on stone. They also created derivative
scripts for writing on papyrus, a durable material derived from local plant life. The
architectural achievements of ancient Egypt are particularly remarkable, with their
temples and tombs regarded as some of the most impressive constructions in history.
Iconic monuments such as the Great Sphinx and the Pyramids at Giza stand as enduring
testaments to their engineering prowess and creativity.
4. Ancient and Early Imperial China (2070 B.C. to A.D. 220)

Western Xia tombs at the foot of Helan Mountains, an ancient landmark in Ningxia province of China (Credit:
Katoosha/Shutterstock)

The Yellow River Valley in China is recognized as the cradle of one of the world's
oldest civilizations, with the emergence of farming settlements around 5000 B.C. This
agricultural foundation eventually led to the establishment of a centralized government,
beginning with the Xia Dynasty from 2070 to 1600 B.C. The concept of the "Mandate of
Heaven" emerged during this period, positing that rulers governed by divine right and
were expected to act as caretakers of their subjects, with a strong warning against
misconduct. This political philosophy played a significant role in shaping governance
throughout Chinese history. Culturally, China experienced significant development during
both peaceful and tumultuous periods. The Shang Dynasty, from 1600 to 1046 B.C., saw
the creation of written characters that bear resemblance to modern Chinese script. By
400 B.C., the teachings of influential figures like Confucius began to take root,
emphasizing values such as virtue and filial piety. In addition to philosophical
advancements, Chinese artisans made groundbreaking contributions, including the
invention of silk, paper, and the early processes of block printing. The development of the
maritime compass, along with the enduring practices of acupuncture and herbal medicine,
further exemplifies China's rich cultural heritage. Notably, the construction of the Great
Wall commenced as early as the 7th century B.C., marking a significant architectural
achievement in Chinese history.
5. Ancient Maya Civilization (1000 B.C. to A.D. 1520)

Ruins of ancient Observatory El Caracol in Chichen Itza. Mexico (Credit: Iren Key/Shutterstock)

Around 7000 B.C., Mesoamerican communities began the cultivation of maize and
beans, establishing permanent settlements in regions that now encompass southeastern
Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and parts of Honduras and El Salvador. By approximately
1000 B.C., these early villages evolved into the ancient cities of the Maya Civilization,
characterized by grand administrative and ceremonial complexes. The Maya exhibited a
profound interest in astronomy, constructing large observatories and meticulously
documenting planetary movements. They developed a sophisticated writing system that
combined pictorial and phonetic elements, enabling them to make accurate predictions
about celestial bodies. Their advanced understanding of the movements of Venus, Mars,
and the moon significantly influenced their renowned timekeeping system. This
timekeeping system featured intricate interlocking calendars that aligned agricultural
practices and religious ceremonies with specific astronomical events. The legacy of the
Maya's calendar continues to resonate today, as it remains a point of reference for many
of the approximately 6 million modern descendants of the Maya civilization.
6. Ancient Greece (1100 B.C. to A.D. 140)

Parthenon temple on Athenian Acropolis, Athens, Greece (Credit: Lambros Kazan/Shutterstock)

Ancient Greece, while not the first civilization in the Mediterranean, significantly
influenced Western culture. Agricultural settlements emerged around 7000 B.C. in the
Aegean Sea, leading to the development of societies such as the Minoans and
Mycenaeans. The Mycenaeans notably contributed to the Greek language and
mythology, introducing key figures like Achilles and Odysseus, and establishing a
pantheon that included gods such as Zeus and Athena. The collapse of Minoan and
Mycenaean cultures around 1100 B.C. gave rise to independent city-states, including
Athens, Sparta, and Thebes, by the 8th century B.C. These city-states, despite their
distinct identities, shared a common language and religious practices, fostering a spirit of
innovation. Greek poets like Homer and Hesiod laid the groundwork for Western
literature, while philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle advanced the fields
of medicine, mathematics, and science. The political ideas developed during this period
also established the foundations for modern democratic systems. Overall, the
contributions of ancient Greece in various domains, including literature, philosophy, and
governance, continue to resonate in contemporary society.
7. Ancient Rome (750 B.C. to A.D. 470)

Ponte Rotto ancient destroyed bridge from the Tiber Island, Rome, Italy (Credit: marcovarro/Shutterstock)

Rome originated as a small village along the Tiber River around 750 B.C. and
evolved into one of the largest empires in history, encompassing vast territories across
the Mediterranean and beyond. As the empire expanded, the Romans integrated various
ideas and inventions from the cultures they encountered, demonstrating a capacity for
cultural assimilation. The Romans enriched their religious practices by adopting deities
and rituals from the Greeks, Egyptians, and other societies, thereby enhancing their own
pantheon. They also played a significant role in the preservation and organization of
knowledge, producing some of the earliest encyclopedias. Notably, Pliny the Elder's
"Naturalis Historia" aimed to compile a comprehensive collection of facts from diverse
cultures, covering extensive topics in natural history, art, and architecture. Roman
ingenuity is particularly evident in their state-sponsored construction projects. While they
did not invent key architectural elements such as roads, arches, or aqueducts, their
adaptations were distinguished by exceptional durability and strength, with some
structures still in use today. The legacy of Roman architecture is exemplified by enduring
monuments like the Pantheon and the Colosseum, which showcase the advanced skills
of ancient architects and the innovative use of concrete. These constructions serve as a
testament to the impressive achievements rooted in ancient history.
THE MEDIEVAL WORLD AND STS

The Medieval Era, from 476 to 1600 AD, was a significant period in science and
technology, influenced by political and religious circumstances. Despite its association
with knights and the Bubonic Plague, advancements in health, agriculture, and economics
significantly impacted society. These advancements positively impacted mankind.

Technology and Church

The Medieval period, often referred to as the "Dark Ages," was characterized by a
lack of scientific advancement due to the Christian Church's control over religious,
government, and scientific functions. The Church feared scientific reasoning would
threaten its authority, but new technologies like the chimney were integrated into
everyday life. The Church strictly controlled certain scientific practices. Christianity was
legally recognized as a religion in 313, thanks to Constantine's efforts. The Church
became a center of community life, allowing scientific learning and healing. However,
rules and religious restrictions impeded scientific advancement. Public dissections were
considered moral, limiting anatomy and medical science. This limited faith in the Church's
abilities.

The Medieval period saw technological advancements in agriculture, textiles, and

building construction, which did not negatively impact the Christian Church or its
authoritative image. The Church maintained control over scientific knowledge while
embracing new technology.

The Technology Used in Everyday Medieval Life

The Medieval period saw significant technological advancements, including
vertical windmills, spectacles, mechanical clocks, and improved water mills. Between
1000 and 1300 AD, medieval universities emerged, benefiting from translated texts and
providing new infrastructure for scientific communities. By the 6th century, teaching and
learning moved to monastic and cathedral schools, with the Bible as the center of
education. In the 7th century, learning began in Ireland and the Celtic lands.

A. Mechanical Artillery
1. Counterweight trebuchet (12th). By using counterweights to propel massive stones
over great distances, these weapons, powered by gravity, revolutionized medieval siege
tactics. The eastern Mediterranean region was its original usage. By the 1120s and 1130s
in Byzantium, the Crusades, and the Latin West by the 1150s, trebuchets were in use.

2. Missile weapons, Longbow with massed, disciplined archery (13th). The longbow
was a potent and precise weapon that ultimately led to the fall of the medieval knight
class. During the Hundred Years' War, the English employed it against the French (1337-
1453).
3. Steel crossbow (late 14th century). This European invention was the first hand-held
mechanical crossbow and included a variety of cocking devices to increase draw power.
Huge and start to emerge by the 14th century's end.

B. Agriculture
1. Heavy plough (5th - 8th). The heavy wheeled plough originated in Slavic regions and
then spread to Northern Italy, including the Po Valley. It was in use in the Rhineland by
the eighth century. In order to cultivate the rich, heavy, and frequently rainy soils of
Northern Europe, the Heavy Plough was essential.

2. Horse collar (6th–9th century). From the 6th to the 9th century, the horse collar
underwent several evolutionary changes. More horse power could be used to draw big
ploughs, for example.

3. Horseshoes (9th). These enable horses to endure more difficult terrain, climb
mountains, and pull bigger loads. As early as 50 BC, the Romans and Celts would have
been aware of them.

C. Architecture and Construction

1. Artesian well (1126). A small, hard iron cutting rod is inserted into a bore hole and
pounded with a hammer several times. Without using a pump, the water is forced up the
hole by subsurface water pressure. The first Artesian well was sunk in 1126 by Carthusian
monks in Artois, France, hence the name of the wells.

2. Wheelbarrow. A tool for farming, mining, and construction (1170s). In North-western

Europe, wheelbarrows first appeared in tales and illustrations between 1170 and 1250.
earliest illustration of it from the thirteenth century.

3. Blast furnace (1150-1350)

About 1150, cast iron is first recorded in Middle Europe. It was believed that the method
was a unique European invention.

D. Clocks
1. The hourglass (1338). Hourglass is a trustworthy, reasonably priced, and precise
timepiece. Unlike other time measurement devices of the era, the equipment is not
susceptible to freezing. A medieval invention, hourglasses were originally recorded in
Siena, Italy.

2. Mechanical clocks (13th -14th). Weight-driven mechanical clocks, invented in Europe

in the 13th and 14th centuries, were mostly utilized on clock towers.

3. Plate amour (14th, late). The best personal armor in terms of body protection and
metalworking skills is plate amour (late 14th century). By the end of the fourteenth century,
large, fully assembled plates of armor start to appear.
E. Other Medieval Inventions
1. Vertical windmills (1180s). Originally developed in Europe as a pivoting post mill,
these devices were effective in draining water and grinding grain. One was first mentioned
in 1185, in Yorkshire, England.

2. Spectacles (1280s). Convex lenses were used in spectacles made in Florence, Italy,
to aid the farsighted. Before the fifteenth century, concave lenses were not produced for
nearsighted individuals.

3. Spinning wheel (13th). Brought to Europe probably from India.

4. Chess (1450). The game's ancestors first appeared in India in the sixth century AD,
and they eventually made their way to Europe via Persia and the Muslim world. The game
changed to become what it is now around the fifteenth century.

5. Mirrors (1180). In 1180, Alexander Neckham said, "Take away the lead which is
behind the glass and there will be no image of the one looking in." This was the first
recorded reference of a mirror.

6. Oil paint (c. 1410). Flemish painter Jan van Eyck created a stable oil mixture as early
as the 13th century. Details were added to tempera paintings using oil.

7. Quarantine (1377). The Republic of Ragusa instituted the quarantine, which was
initially a 40-day term, to stop the spread of diseases like the Black Death. Quarantining
started in Venice and quickly expanded throughout Europe.

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Walters, S. (2023c, September 21). 7 Groundbreaking ancient civilizations that

influence us today. Discover
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HISTORY. (2022, February 4). ADVANCED ANCIENT EGYPTIAN TECH

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