Rakesh V.S.
(EMP151)
Asst. Prof. ECE,
Vidya Academy of Science & Technology
EST130: Basics of Electrical & Electronics Engg.
Module-4
Lecture-8
Text Book:
Basics of Electronics Engineering
Aneesh P. Thankachan
Pheonix Books, Kollam
Syllabus
Module-4
Introduction to Semiconductor devices: Evolution of electronics
– Vacuum tubes to nano electronics.
Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors (constructional features not
required): types, specifications. Standard values, color coding.
PN Junction diode: Principle of operation, V-I characteristics,
principle of avalanche breakdown.
Bipolar Junction Transistors: PNP and NPN structures, Principle
of operation, relation between current gains in CE, CB and CC,
input and output characteristics of common emitter
configuration.
Transistor Configurations
A transistor has 3 terminals (i.e. Emitter, Base & Collector)
When the transistor is connected in a circuit (e.g. an
amplifier circuit), one terminal is used as input terminal and
another terminal is used as output terminal and the third
terminal is made common to both input and output.
Transistor Configurations
Depending on which terminal is made common to
both input and output, we can connect a transistor
in three configurations.
They are,
1) Common Base Configuration (CB)
2) Common Emitter Configuration (CE)
3) Common Collector Configuration (CC)
Current Gains of Different
Transistor Configurations
Current Gains of Different
Transistor Configurations
Current Gain
Current gain or current amplification factor is
defined as the ratio of output current to input
current when output voltage is kept constant.
Current Gains of Different
Transistor Configurations
Current Gain of CB configuration
Common-Base Configuration
In CB configuration, the input current is IE, output current is
Ic and output voltage is VcB
Current Gains of Different
Transistor Configurations
Current Gain of CB configuration
Current gain in CB configuration is denoted by α (Alpha)
Alpha (α) is the ratio of the change in collector current (∆Ic)
to the change in emitter current (∆IE) at a constant collector-
base voltage (VcB)
Ideal value is of α is one.
Practical values of α ranges from 0.95 to 0.995
Current Gains of Different
Transistor Configurations
Current Gain of CE configuration
Common-Emitter Configuration
In CE configuration, the input current is IB, output current is
Ic and output voltage is VcE
Current Gains of Different
Transistor Configurations
Current Gain of CE configuration
Current gain in CE configuration is denoted by β (beta)
Beta (β) is the ratio of the change in collector current (∆Ic) to
the change in base current (∆IB) when the collector-emitter
voltage (VcE) is kept constant.
Practical values of β ranges from 20 to 500
Current Gains of Different
Transistor Configurations
Current Gain of CC configuration
Common-Collector Configuration
In CC configuration, the input current is IB, output current is
IE and output voltage is VEc
Current Gains of Different
Transistor Configurations
Current Gain of CC configuration
Current gain in CC configuration is denoted by ϒ (Gamma)
Gamma (ϒ) is the ratio of the change in emitter current (∆IE)
to the change in base current (∆IB) at a constant emitter-
collector voltage (VEc)
Relationship between
ALPHA and BETA
Relationship between ALPHA and BETA
Relationship between ALPHA and BETA
Relationship between ALPHA and BETA
Relationship between
ALPHA and GAMMA
Relationship between ALPHA and GAMMA
Relationship between ALPHA and GAMMA
Transistor Characteristics
Concept of Transistor Characteristics
To understand the complete behaviors of a transistor, it is
necessary to study the inter-relationship of various currents
and voltages.
These relationship can be plotted graphically and are
commonly known as ‘Characteristics of a Transistor’
i.e. We can draw graph to show the relationship between
transistor voltages and current.
These graphs are called transistor characteristics curves.
Concept of Transistor Characteristics
The most important characteristics of a transistor are:
1) Input Characteristics
2) Output Characteristics
Input Characteristics
This curve/graph gives the relationship between the input
current and input voltage for a given output voltage.
Output characteristics
This curve/graph gives the relationship between the output
current and output voltage for a given input current.
Input and Output Characteristics of
Common Emitter Configuration (CE)
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
CE configuration
Common-Emitter Configuration
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
The graphical representation of the relationship
connecting current and voltage of a transistor in
common emitter configuration is called CE
characteristics.
In CE configuration, the base(B) is the input
terminal and the collector(C) is the output
terminal.
Emitter side is common to both input and output.
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
Input characteristics of CE configuration
It is the curve/graph between input current IB (base
current) and the input voltage VBE (base-emitter
voltage) at constant collector-emitter voltage VcE
The Base current (IB) is taken along Y-axis and the
base-emitter voltage (VBE) is taken along X-axis
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
Input characteristics of CE configuration
Figure shows the typical input characteristics in CE
configuration.
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
Input characteristics of CE configuration
When VCE = 0V, we have a forward biased base
emitter junction which makes the characteristics
curve identical to a forward biased PN junction.
With VCE= 3V, the base current slightly reduces due
to base width modulation and the curve shift
outwards.
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
Input chara. of CE configuration
Early Effect or Base Width Modulation
The collector-base junction is reversed biased.
As the reverse-bias voltage across the collector-base
junction increases, the width of the depletion region
between base and collector also increases.
The base is lightly doped, compared to the collector.
Therefore, depletion region penetrates more into the base
region which reduces the effective width of the base region
and this phenomenon is called Early Effect (Base width
modulation)
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
Input characteristics of CE configuration
Early Effect or Base Width Modulation
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
Input characteristics of CE configuration
Input Resistance
The input characteristic is used to find the input resistance of
the transistor.
Input resistance is the ratio of change in base-emitter
voltage (∆VBE) to the resulting change in base current (∆IB)
Typical value of input resistance ranges from 600Ω to 4 kΩ
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
Output characteristics of CE configuration
It is the curve/graph between output current Ic
(collector current) and output voltage VcE
(collector-emitter voltage) at constant base current
(IB)
The collector current Ic is taken along Y-axis and
collector-emitter voltage VCE is taken along X-axis
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
Output characteristics of CE configuration
This characteristics is also called as Collector Characteristics.
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
Output characteristics of CE configuration
The output characteristics can be divided into
three different regions.
1) Cut-off region
2) Saturation region
3) Active region
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
Output characteristics of CE configuration
Cut-off Region
The region below IB = 0 is called cut-off region.
In cut-off region, both PN junctions (EB & CB junctions) of
the transistors are reverse biased.
In this region, the transistor is OFF.
But, there will be a considerable collector current at IB = 0.
This is due to the reverse leakage current ICBO
(ICBO is the collector emitter voltage when base is open)
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
Output characteristics of CE configuration
Saturation Region
When a transistor operates in saturation region, its emitter-
base junction as well as collector-base junctions are forward
biased.
In saturation region, the transistor is ON state.
When the transistor is in saturation, since the collector-base
junction is forward biased, the collector current lc does not
depend upon the base current lB
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
Output characteristics of CE configuration
Saturation Region
In the saturation, the collector current varies very
little with a change in base current.
When the transistor is to be operated as a switch, it
is desirable that the transistor is in ON state and in
saturation region.
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
Output characteristics of CE configuration
Active Region
In active region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased
and collector-base junction is reverse biased.
Here also, the transistor is ON.
But, the output collector current is proportional to input
base current.
The collector current is controlled by base current.
Transistor can be used as an amplifier when it is in active
region.
Input & Output Chara. of CE Configuration
Output characteristics of CE configuration
Output Resistance
The output characteristic is used to find the output
resistance (ro) of the transistor.
Output resistance is the ratio of the change in collector
emitter voltage (∆VCE) to the resulting change in collector
current (∆IC)
Typical value of output resistance is about 50 kilo Ω
Important Questions:
1) Explain the working of an NPN transistor. Describe with suitable sketches the
input and output characteristics of an NPN transistor. (10 marks)
2) Sketch and explain the typical input-output characteristics of a BJT when
connected in common emitter configuration. (5 marks)
3) Draw the output characteristics of a NPN transistor in CE mode and explain
the three regions of operation.
4) Compare the three transistor configurations and write the applications of
each.
5) What is meant by early effect in transistors?
6) What is the current gain of common emitter transistor? What is the
relationship between alpha and beta?
7) Derive the relationship between α and β of a transistor.
8) Analyze the common emitter configuration of the transistor and derive the
relationship between α and β.
9) How do you find the input and output resistance of a BJT?
10) Calculate the value of emitter current of a transistor in active region for
which β = 40 and IB = 25 μA
THANK YOU
