Robotics & Automation

Module-1-Industrial Automation:

Industrial Automation: Definition, Types of automation, List basic Devices in Automated

Systems, Distinguish Different Controllers Employed In Automated Systems. Identify Safety in
Industrial Automation

Basic Concepts: Definition and origin of robotics – different types of robotics – various
generations of robots – degrees of freedom – Asimov’s laws of robotics

1. Definition:

Automation is the technology by which a process or procedure is accomplished without human

assistance. It is implemented using a program of instructions combined with a control system
that executes the instructions. To automate a process, power is required, both to drive the process
itself and to operate the program and control system. Although automation can be applied in a
wide variety of areas, it is most closely associated with the manufacturing industries.

Automated manufacturing systems operate in the factory on the physical product. They
perform operations such as processing, assembly, inspection, or material handling, in some cases
accomplishing more than one of these operations in the same system. They are called automated
because they perform their operations with a reduced level of human participation compared
with the corresponding manual process. In some highly automated systems, there is virtually no
human participation. Examples of automated manufacturing systems include:

 Automated machine tools that process parts

 Transfer lines that perform a series of machining operations
 Automated assembly systems
 Manufacturing systems that use industrial robots to perform processing or assembly
operations
 Automatic material handling and storage systems to integrate manufacturing
operations
 Automatic inspection systems for quality control

Thus, Automation is a technology concerned with the application of mechanical, electronic, and
computer-based systems to operate and control production. This technology includes:

• Automatic machine tools to process parts

• Automatic assembly machines
• Industrial robots
• Automatic material handling and storage systems
• Automatic inspection systems for quality control

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• Feedback control and computer process control

• Computer systems for planning, data collection, and decision making to support
manufacturing activities
2. Types of Automation:

Fixed automation: Systems designed for a specific, repetitive task, often involving dedicated
machinery.

Automated production systems are classified into three basic types:

1. Fixed automation

2. Programmable automation

3. Flexible automation

2.1. Fixed automation

Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of processing (or assembly) operations is

fixed by the equipment configuration. The operations in the sequence are usually simple. It is the
integration and coordination of many such operations into one piece of equipment that makes the
system complex. The typical features of fixed automation are:

• High initial investment for custom-engineered equipment

• High production rates

• Relatively inflexible in accommodating product changes

The economic justification for fixed automation is found in products with very high demand
rates and volumes. The high initial cost of the equipment can be spread over a very large number
of units, thus making the unit cost attractive compared to alternative methods of production.

2.2. Programmable automation

In programmable automation, the production equipment is designed with the capability to

change the sequence of operations to accommodate different product configurations. The

operation sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of instructions coded so that the
system can read and interpret them. New programs can be prepared and entered into the
equipment to produce new products. Some of the features that characterize programmable
automation include:

• High investment in general-purpose equipment

• Low production rates relative to fixed automation

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• Flexibility to deal with changes in product configuration

• Most suitable for batch production

Automated production systems that are programmable are used in low and medium- volume
production. The parts or products are typically made in batches. To produce each new batch of a
different product, the system must be reprogrammed with the set of machine instructions that
correspond to the new product. The physical setup of the machine must also be changed over:
Tools must be loaded, fixtures must be attached to the machine table, and the required machine
settings must be entered. This changeover procedure takes time. Consequently, the typical cycle
for a given product includes a period during which the setup and reprogramming takes
place, followed by a period in which the batch is produced.

2.3. Flexible automation

Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation. The concept of flexible

automation has developed only over the last 15 to 20 years, and the principles are still evolving.
A flexible automated system is one that is capable of producing a variety of products (or parts)
with virtually no time lost for changeovers from one product to the next. There is no production
time lost while reprogramming the system and altering the physical setup (tooling, fixtures and
machine settings). Consequently, the system can produce various combinations and schedules of
products, instead of requiring that they be made in separate batches. The features of flexible
automation can be summarized as follows:

• High investment for a custom-engineered system

• Continuous production of variable mixtures of products

• Medium production rates

• Flexibility to deal with product design variations

The essential features that distinguish flexible automation from programmable automation are
(1) the capacity to change part programs with no lost production time, and (2) the capability to
change over the physical setup, again with no lost production time. These features allow the
automated production system to continue production without the downtime between batches that
is characteristic of programmable automation. Changing the part programs is generally
accomplished by preparing the programs offline on a computer system and electronically
transmitting the programs to the automated production system. Therefore, the time required to do
the programming for the next job does not interrupt production on the current job. Changing the
physical setup between parts is accomplished by making the changeover offline and then
moving it into place simultaneously as the next part comes into position for processing. The use
of pallet fixtures that hold the parts and transfer into position at the workplace is one way of
implementing this approach. For these approaches to be successful, the variety of parts that can

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be made on a flexible automated production system is usually more limited than a system
controlled by programmable automation.

The relative positions of the three types of automation for different production
volumes and product varieties are depicted in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.1 Types of automation as a function of volume of production verses product variety

3. Elements of automated system/ basic devices in automated systems

An automated system consists of three basic elements:

(1) Power to accomplish the process and operate the system.

(2) A program of instructions to direct the process, and

(3) A control system to actuate the instructions.

The relationship amongst these elements is illustrated in Figure 1.2. All systems that qualify as
being automated include these three basic elements in one form or another.

Figure 1.2 Elements of an automated system

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(1) Power to accomplish the automated process

An automated system is used to operate some process, and power is required to drive the process
as well as the controls. The principal source of power in automated systems is electricity.
Electric power has many advantages in automated as well as non-automated processes
 Electrical power is widely available at moderate cost.
 Electrical power can be readily converted to alternative energy forms: mechanical,
thermal, light, acoustic, hydraulic, and pneumatic.
 Electrical power at low levels can be used to accomplish functions such as signal,
transmission, information processing, and data storage and communication.
 Electrical energy can be stored in long-life batteries for use in locations where an external
source of electrical power is not conveniently available.

Power is required in automation for the followings:

• Processing operations
• Loading and unloading the work unit
• Material transport between operations
• Controller unit
• Power to actuate the control signals
• Data acquisition and information processing

(2) Program of Instructions

The actions performed in an automated process are defined by a program of instructions.

Each part or product style made in the operation requires one or more processing steps that are
unique to that style, These processing steps are performed during a work cycle. A new part is
completed during each work cycle (in some manufacturing operations, more than one part is
produced during the work cycle; e.g., a plastic injection molding operation may produce
multiple parts each cycle using a multiple cavity mold). The particular processing steps for the
work cycle are specified in a work cycle program.

Work Cycle Programs. In the simplest automated processes, the work cycle consists of
essentially one step, which is to maintain a single process parameter at a defined level. However,
the system becomes complicated when the process involves a work cycle consisting of
multiple steps with more number of process parameters are required to be controlled. Most
discrete part manufacturing operations are in this category.

Process parameters are inputs to the process such as temperature setting of a furnace, coordinate
axis value in a positioning system, valve opened or closed in a fluid flow system, and motor on
or off. Process parameters are distinguished from process variables, which are outputs from the
process; for example, the actual temperature of the furnace, the actual position of the axis, the

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actual flow rate of the fluid in the pipe, and the rotational speed of the motor. As our list of
examples suggests, the changes in process parameter values may be continuous (gradual changes
during the processing step; for example, gradually increasing temperature during a heat
treatment cycle) or discrete (stepwise changes; for example, on/off).

The work cycle may include manual steps, where the operator performs certain activities during
the work cycle and the automated system performs the rest. A common example is the loading
and unloading of parts by the operator to and from a numerical control machine between
machining cycles where the machine performs the cutting operation under part program control.
Initiation of the cutting operation of each cycle is triggered by the operator activating a "start"
button after the part has been loaded.

Decision-Making in the Programmed Work Cycle. In automated work cycles the only two
features are (1) the number and sequence of processing steps and (2) the process parameter
changes in each step. Each work cycle consists of the same steps and associated process
parameter changes with no variation from one cycle to the next. The program of instructions is
repealed each work cycle without deviation. In fact, many automated manufacturing operations
require decisions to be made during the programmed work cycle to cope with variations in the
cycle. In many cases, the variations are routine elements of the cycle, and the corresponding
instructions for dealing with them are incorporated into the regular part program. These cases
include:

• Operator interaction. Although the program of instructions is intended to be carried out

without human interaction, the controller unit may require input data from a human
operator in order to function.
• Different part or product styles processed by the System. In this instance, the automated
system is programmed to perform different work cycles on different part or product
styles.
• Variations in the starting work units. In many manufacturing operations the starting work
units are not consistent. A good example is a sand casting as the starting work unit in a
machining operation. The dimensional variations in the raw castings sometimes
necessitate an extra machining pass to bring the machined dimension to the specified
value. The part program must be coded to allow for the additional pass when necessary.

In all of these examples, the routine variations can be accommodated in the regular work cycle
program. The program can be designed to respond to sensor or operator inputs by executing the
appropriate subroutine corresponding to the input. In other cases, the variations in the work cycle
are not routine at all. They are infrequent and unexpected, such as the failure of an equipment
component. In these instances, the program must include contingency procedures or
modifications in the sequence to cope with conditions that lie outside the normal routine.

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(3) Control System

The control element of the automated system executes the program of instructions. The control
system causes the process to accomplish its defined function which is to carry out some
manufacturing operation. The controls in an automated system can be either closed loop or open
loop. A closed loop control system, also known as a feedback control system is one in which the
output variable is compared with an input parameter, and any difference between the two is used
to drive the output into agreement with the input. As shown in Figure 1.2, a closed loop control
system consists of six basic elements: (1) input parameter, (2) process, (3) output variable, (4)
feedback sensor. (5) controller and (6) actuator.

Figure A feedback control system

The input parameter often referred to as the set point, represents the desired value of the output.
The process is the operation or function being controlled. In particular, it is the output variable
that is being controlled in the loop. A sensor is used to measure the output variable and close the
loop between input and output. Sensors perform the feedback function in a closed loop control
system. The controller compares the output with the input and makes the required adjustment in
the process to reduce the difference between them. The adjustment is accomplished using one or
more actuators, which are the hardware devices that physically carry out the control actions, such
as an electric motor or a flow valve. The model in Figure 2 shows only one loop, however, most
industrial processes require multiple loops, one for each process variable that must be controlled

In contrast to the closed loop control system, an open loop control system operates without the
feedback loop, as in Figure 1.3. In this case, the controls operate without measuring the output
variable so no comparison is made between the actual value of the output and the desired input
parameter. The controller relies on an accurate model of the effect of its actuator on the
process variable. With an open loop system, there is always the risk that the actuator will not
have the intended effect on the process, and that is the disadvantage of an open loop system. Its
advantage is that it is generally simpler and less expensive than a closed loop system. Open loop
systems are usually appropriate when the following conditions apply: (1) The actions performed
by the control system are simple, (2) the actuating function is very reliable, and (3) any reaction
forces opposing the actuation are small enough to have no effect on the actuation. If these
characteristics are not applicable, then a closed loop control system may be more appropriate.

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I/P O/P

Figure An open loop control system

Basic devices in automated systems

1. Sensors: Sensors are devices that detect changes in physical parameters such as
temperature, pressure, or position. They convert these changes into electrical signals that can be
interpreted by a controller. Examples include:

• Temperature sensor: Used in an automated HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air

Conditioning) system to monitor and regulate room temperature.
• Proximity sensor: Employed in automated assembly lines to detect the presence or
absence of objects at specific locations along the line.

2. Actuators: Actuators are components that perform mechanical actions based on control
signals received from a controller. They convert electrical signals into physical movement or
action. Examples include:

• Electric motor: Found in automated conveyor systems to drive the movement of products
along the production line.
• Pneumatic cylinder: Used in industrial robotics to control the movement of robot arms or
grippers.

3. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs): PLCs are industrial computers specifically

designed to control and automate machinery and processes. They receive input from sensors,
process this data, and send output signals to actuators based on a programmed logic. Example
applications include:

• PLCs in manufacturing plants to automate the assembly process of products such as

automobiles or electronics.
• PLCs in water treatment facilities to control pumps, valves, and other equipment for
maintaining water quality and distribution.

4. Human Machine Interfaces (HMIs): HMIs are devices that allow operators to interact
with and monitor automated systems. They provide a graphical interface for displaying system
status, receiving input commands, and adjusting parameters. Examples include:

• Touchscreen panel mounted on a packaging machine, allowing operators to input

packaging specifications and monitor production statistics.

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• Desktop software application used by operators in a control room to monitor and control
various processes within a power plant
4. Different Controllers Employed in Automated Systems:

Proportional controller: In this the output of the controller is proportional to the error e(t). The
relation between the error e(t) and the controller output p is determined by the constant called
proportional gain constant denoted as Kp. The output of the controller is a linear function of the
error e(t). The range of the error which covers 0% to 100% controller output is called
proportional band.

Though there exists linear relation between controller output and the error, the controller
output should not be zero, otherwise the process will come to halt. Hence there exists some
controller output po for the zero error. Hence mathematically proportional control mode is
expressed as

p(t) = Kp e(t) + po

Where Kp = proportional gain constant po = controller output with zero error

The error can be positive or negative because error r-b can be less or greater than reference
setpoint r.

If the controlled variable i.e., input to the controller increases, causing increase in the controller
output, the action is called direct action.

If the controlled variable decreases, causing increase in the controller output or increase in the
controller variable, causing decrease in the controller output, the action is called reverse action.

So if e(t) is –ve then Kp e(t) gets subtracted from po and if e(t) is positive, then Kp e(t) gets
added to po, this is reverse action.

The major disadvantage of proportional control mode is that it produces an offset error in the
output. When the load changes, the output deviates from the setpoint. Such a deviation is called
offset error or steady state error. The offset error depends on the reaction rate of the controller.
Slow reaction rate produces small offset error while fast reaction rate produces large offset error.

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Integral controller:

In this controller, the value of the controller output p(t) is changed at a rate which is proportional
to the actuating error signal e(t).

Mathematically it is expressed as,

Where, Ki = constant relating error and rate or integral constant.

Integrating the above equation, actual controller output at any time t can be obtained as,

Where, p(0) = controller output when integral action starts i.e. at t = 0.

The output signal from the controller, at any instant is the area under the actual error signal curve
up to that instant. If the value of the error is doubled, the value of p(t) varies twice as fast i.e. rate
of the controller output change also doubles.

Characteristics of Integral mode:

1. If error is zero, the output remains at a fixed value equal to what it was, when the error
became zero.

2. If the error is not zero, then the output begins to increase or decrease, at a rate Ki% per
second for every +or-1% of error.

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Derivative (D) Controller:

The derivative controller's output is proportional to the rate of change of the error signal. It
anticipates future behavior by reacting to the rate at which the error is changing, helping to
dampen oscillations and improve stability.

Mathematical Model: The output of a derivative controller (u_D) is given by:

Where:

Kd is the derivative gain (a constant),

dt/de(t) is the derivative of the error signal with respect to time.

Proportional-Integral Mode (PI control mode):

This is composite control mode obtained by combining the proportional mode and the integral
mode.

The mathematical expression for such a composite control is,

Where p(0) = Initial value of the output at t = 0.

The important advantage of this control is that one to one correspondence of proportional
mode is available while the offset gets eliminated due to integral mode, the integral part of such
composite control provides a reset of the zero error output after a load change occurs.

Characteristic of PI mode:

1. When the error is zero, the controller output is fixed at the value that integral mode had
when the error went to zero. This is nothing but p(0).

2. When the error is not zero, proportional mode adds the correction while the integral term
starts increasing or decreasing from its initial value depending upon the reverse or direct action.

3. It improves the steady state efficiency.

4. It increases the rise time so response becomes slow.

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5. It decreases bandwidth of the system.

6. It filters out the high frequency noise.

7. It makes the response oscillatory.

Applications: PI mode completely removes the offset problems of proportional mode. Such a
mode can be used in the systems with the frequent or large load changes. But the process must

Three Mode Controller (PID control Mode):

The composite controller including the combination of the proportional, integral and derivative
control mode is called PID control mode and the controller is called three mode controller. It is
very much complex to design but very powerful in action.

mathematically such a control mode can be expressed as,

Where p(0) = Initial value of the output.

The integral mode eliminates the offset error of the proportional mode and the response is also
very fast due to derivative mode. The sudden response is produced due to derivative mode. Thus
it can be used for any process condition.

5. Safety in Industrial Automation:

• Risk Assessment: Identifying and assessing potential hazards and risks associated with
automation processes is the first step in ensuring safety.
• Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS): Implementing SIS ensures that critical processes are
automatically shut down or put into a safe state in the event of a hazardous situation.
• Emergency Stop (E-Stop) Systems: Installing emergency stop buttons or switches allows
operators to quickly halt machinery in case of an emergency.
• Machine Guarding: Using physical barriers, interlocks, and safety sensors to prevent
access to hazardous machinery areas during operation.
• Safety Interlocks: Interlocks ensure that certain conditions are met before a process can
proceed, preventing unsafe operation.
• Safety PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers): Utilizing PLCs specifically designed for
safety-critical applications, with features such as redundant processing and self-checking,
enhances system reliability.
• Safety Sensors: Installing various types of safety sensors such as light curtains, safety
mats, and laser scanners to detect personnel or objects in hazardous zones and trigger
protective actions.
• Safety Training: Providing comprehensive training to operators and maintenance
personnel on safe working practices, emergency procedures, and equipment operation.

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• Functional Safety Management: Establishing procedures for the management of

functional safety throughout the lifecycle of automation systems, including design,
implementation, operation, and maintenance.
• Safety Communication Protocols: Using safety-rated communication protocols such as
PROFIsafe, CIP Safety, and EtherCAT Safety to ensure reliable transmission of safety-
critical signals.
• Hazardous Area Classification: Identifying and classifying areas within industrial
facilities where explosive atmospheres may be present and implementing appropriate
safety measures.
• Safety Audits and Inspections: Regularly conducting audits and inspections of
automation systems to identify potential safety issues and ensure compliance with safety
standards and regulations.
• Safety Culture: Fostering a culture of safety within the organization, where all employees
are encouraged to prioritize safety in their actions and decisions.

Basic Concepts of Robotics:

1. Definition and Origin of Robotics:

• Robotics is the interdisciplinary field that involves the design, construction, operation,
and use of robots. It combines aspects of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering,
computer science, and others.

• The concept of robotics originated from science fiction literature and evolved into
practical applications in the mid-20th century.

2. Different Types of Robotics:

Industrial Robots: These robots are specifically designed for manufacturing and assembly tasks
in industrial settings. They are typically found in automotive plants, electronics manufacturing
facilities, and other industries where repetitive tasks are prevalent. Industrial robots are often
characterized by their high precision, speed, and ability to handle heavy payloads.

Service Robots: Unlike industrial robots, service robots are used in various non-industrial
applications, including healthcare, entertainment, hospitality, agriculture, and domestic chores.
These robots are designed to assist humans in tasks such as cleaning, delivery, companionship
for the elderly, surgery assistance, and more. Service robots come in a wide range of forms and
sizes, from humanoid robots to specialized machines tailored for specific tasks.

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Mobile Robots: Mobile robots are equipped with mobility capabilities, allowing them to navigate
and move autonomously in their environment. These robots are commonly used for tasks such as
material handling, logistics, surveillance, exploration, and search and rescue operations. Mobile
robots can utilize various navigation technologies, including GPS, LiDAR, cameras, and inertial
sensors, to map their surroundings and plan efficient paths.

Collaborative Robots (Cobots): Cobots are designed to work alongside humans in shared
workspaces, fostering collaboration between humans and robots. Unlike traditional industrial
robots, which are often confined to safety cages, cobots are equipped with advanced safety
features that allow them to operate safely in close proximity to humans. These safety features
may include force sensing, speed and proximity detection, and collision avoidance mechanisms.
Cobots are versatile and can be easily programmed and reconfigured to perform a wide range of
tasks, making them suitable for small-batch production, assembly, and other collaborative
applications.

3. Various Generations of Robots:

1. First Generation Robots (1950s-1960s):

• Description: First-generation robots were primarily characterized by their mechanical and

hydraulic systems. They were often large and heavy, with limited mobility and functionality.

• Applications: These robots were mainly used in industrial manufacturing for tasks such
as welding, painting, and material handling. They helped automate repetitive and hazardous
tasks, improving efficiency and worker safety.

2. Second Generation Robots (1970s-1980s):

• Description: Second-generation robots saw advancements in control systems, sensors,

and programming languages. They became more versatile and capable of performing complex
tasks with greater precision.

• Applications: Industrial applications expanded to include tasks such as assembly, pick-

and-place operations, and quality inspection. Second-generation robots also began to be used in
fields like medicine for surgical procedures and in laboratories for research purposes.

3. Third Generation Robots (1990s-2000s):

• Description: Third-generation robots witnessed significant improvements in sensor

technology, computing power, and artificial intelligence. They became more intelligent,
autonomous, and adaptable to changing environments.

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• Applications: These robots found applications in various industries beyond

manufacturing, including logistics, agriculture, healthcare, and service sectors. They were used
for tasks such as warehouse automation, agriculture automation, medical diagnosis and
treatment, and customer service.

4. Fourth Generation Robots (2010s-Present):

• Description: Fourth-generation robots are characterized by advancements in robotics

technologies such as machine learning, cloud computing, and human-robot interaction. They are
designed to be more collaborative, flexible, and user-friendly.

• Applications: Fourth-generation robots are being deployed in diverse industries for a

wide range of applications. In manufacturing, they are used for advanced automation tasks such
as adaptive machining and flexible assembly. In healthcare, they assist with patient care,
rehabilitation, and telemedicine. In logistics, they handle tasks such as order fulfillment and last-
mile delivery. Additionally, they are used in personal and domestic settings for tasks like home
cleaning, entertainment, and companionship.

4. Degrees of Freedom:

In robotics, the concept of "degrees of freedom" (DOF) refers to the number of independent
parameters or axes that define the motion of a robot. It essentially describes the freedom of
movement that a robot possesses. Each degree of freedom represents a specific direction in
which the robot can move or rotate.

Here's a breakdown of degrees of freedom in robotics:

1. Translational Degrees of Freedom: Translational degrees of freedom refer to the ability of

a robot to move along linear axes in space. For example, if a robot can move forward, backward,
left, right, up, and down, it has translational degrees of freedom along the X, Y, and Z axes.

2. Rotational Degrees of Freedom: Rotational degrees of freedom refer to the ability of a

robot to rotate or pivot around specific axes. For example, if a robot can rotate its wrist or its end
effector, it has rotational degrees of freedom about those axes.

The total degrees of freedom of a robot is the sum of its translational and rotational degrees of
freedom.

5. Asimov's Laws of Robotics:

• Proposed by science fiction writer Isaac Asimov, these are a set of fictional guidelines
intended to govern the behavior of robots:

1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come
to harm.

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2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except where such orders would
conflict with the First Law.

3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with
the First or Second Law.

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