Shroff S.R.
Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology
Principal Supporter & Sponsor- UPL LTD./ Shroff family
Managed By Ankleshwar Rotary Education Society
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Govt. of Gujarat & GTU Affiliated
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION
AND CONTROL (2180909)
Chapter no. 1
AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL
Prepared by: Mrs. Jalpa Thakkar
Automatic Generation Control
Tie line power and frequency
AGC ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
STEAM Or WATER
SPEED SPEED VALVES
GOVERNOR
TURBINE GOVERNOR
CHANGER OR GATE
Continued…
• Power system loads and losses are sensitive to frequency disturbance, a
generating unit gets tripped and the whole system reaches to black out.
• If power mismatch is larger causing the frequency deviation beyond the
governor dead band then generating output unit will increased by speed
governor system.
Need To Control Frequency
• Motor loads are mainly affected by change in frequency. When
frequency lowers generator speed gets lower and consume large power.
• At lower frequency turbine blades can get damage
• At lower frequency core losses in transformer become larger and
transformer cores goes into saturation.
Frequency Control
• Frequency regulation for primary and supplementary control is
same.
• Maintaining power flow in tie line.
• Distribute the required change in power generation in all
connected generating units economically to have low operating
cost.
SPEED GOVERNING MECHENISM
• Let consider a single turbine generator system supplying power to the load.
The power system stability depends on synchronous generator and its
performance. Control loops used in the generation system for stability are :
• Frequency Control
• Automatic Voltage Control.
• It consist of following component
• Fly ball Speed Governor
• Hydraulic Amplifier
• Linkage Mechanism
• Speed Control Mechanism
• Speed Changer
SPEED GOVERNING MECHENISM
1. FLYING SPEED GOVERNOR
fly ball speed governor is an error sensing device in load frequency
control. It has all element that are sensitive to speed and affects other
elements of the system to initiate action for stability of system
it senses the change in speed. If the speed increase the fly balls move
outwards and the point B on linkage mechanism move downwards and
vice-versa.
2. HYDRAULIC AMPLIFIER
It consists of a pilot valve and main piston. They are used to operate to steam
valve
3. LINKAGE MECHANISM
It is having two rigid links. One is ABC and other is CDE. ABC links is
pivoted at B and CDE links pivoted at D.
The link system provides moment to control the turbine valve with the
variation in the speed.
Continued
4. SPEED CONTROL MECHANISM
• Speed control mechanism consists of various equipment like levers,
linkages servo-motor and relay.
• These are placed b/w speed governor and governor control valves.
5. SPEED CHANGER
• It allows the speed governor system adjust the speed of the turbo
generator in operation.
SPEED GOVERNOR DEADBAND
• The effect of the speed governor dead-band is
that for a given position of the governor
control valves, an increase/decrease in speed
can occur before the position of the valve
changes.
• The governor dead-band can materially affect
the system response. In AGC studies, the dead-
band effect indeed can be significant, since
relatively small signals are unde
• Mechanical friction and backlash and also
valve overlaps in hydraulic relays cause the
governor dead-band. Due to this, though the
input signal increases, the speed governor may
not immediately react until the input reaches a
particular value.
• Similar action takes place when the input
signal decreases. Thus the governor dead-band
is defined as the total magnitude of sustained
speed change within which there is no change
in valve position. The limiting value of dead-
band is specified as 0.06%.
SINGLE AREA LFC
• In electrical grid all synchronous generators operate in synchronism and deliver
the power to the load. When load on the generator increases, the rotor of
synchronous generator slows down resulting in reduction in the frequency of the
grid.
• However, the governors associated with the generators will act and tries to bring
back the frequency to the normal value. The control of frequency by the action
of governors associated with turbine-generators is called “primary frequency
control“.
TWO AREA LFC
• Modern control theory is applied in this section to design an optimal
load frequency controller for a two-area system. In accordance with
modem control terminology ΔPc1 and ΔPC2 will be referred to as
control inputs u1 and u2.
• In the conventional approach u1 and u2 were provided by the integral
of ACEs. In modern control theory approach u1 and u2 will be created
by a linear combination of all the system states (full state feedback).
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE CONTROL
• It basically consists of a main exciter which excites the alternator field to control the
output voltage. The exciter field is automatically controlled through error e=Vref-
VT suitably amplified through voltage and power amplifiers.
• It is a type-0 system which requires a constant error e for a specified voltage at generator
terminals. The block diagram of the system is given above.
• Potential transformer: It gives a sample of terminal voltage VT.
• Differencing device: It gives the actuating error
• The error initiates the corrective action of adjusting the alternator excitation. Error
wave form is suppressed carrier modulated, the carrier frequency being the system
frequency of 50 Hz.
• Error amplifier: It demodulates and amplifies the error signal. Its gain is Ka. SCR
power amplifier and exciter field: It provides the necessary power amplification to the
signal for controlling the exciter field. Assuming the amplifier time constant to be small
enough to be neglected, the overall transfer function of these two is
where Tef is the exciter field time constant
• Alternator: Its field is excited by the main exciter voltage vE. Under no load it
produces a voltage proportional to field current. The no load transfer function is
Where Tgf = generator field time constant.
• The load causes a voltage drop which is a complex function of direct and
quadrature axis currents. The effect is only schematically represented by block
GL.
Stabilizing transformer:
• Tef and Tgf are large enough time constants to impair the system’s dynamic
response. The derivative feedback in this system is provided by means of a
stabilizing transformer excited by the exciter output voltage vE.
• The output of the stabilizing transformer is fed negatively at the input terminals of
the SCR power amplifier. The transfer function of the stabilizing transformer is
derived below. Since the secondary is connected at the input terminals of an
amplifier, it can be assumed to draw zero current. Now
LAPLACE
TRANSFORM
Decentralized Control
• In current scenario, it difficult to control the power system by using
conventional load frequency control with centralized approach.
• To overcome this problem, decentralized control method is used as
shown in figure.
System
u1 u2
x1 x2
Controller 1 Controller 2
• Here x1 is used to get vector u1 while x2 is used to get vector u2.
x=(x1 x2)T
u1 = -k1x1
u2 = -k2x2
• As real load disturbances are more problematic, decentralized controls
are more preferred.
Load Frequency Control with GRC
• In steam power plants, power generation can varied only at a particular
maximum rate. incase of reheat units, generation rates are very small
nearly around 4% per winsome have a generation rate between 5 to 8%
per min.
• if these constrains are not modeled in the system then it will get
momentary disturbance in the system. this cause wear and tear of the
controller.
• to reduce this limiters are added to the governors of GRC for both Ares
as shown in fig .which are used to control rate of value opening or
closings aped. Tsg gmax is the power rate limit given by value or gate
control. Here we are taking care that I
• The limit values both upper and lower are given by the limiters ,which are
used to have the generation rate of 10-15% per minute.
• Actually GRC gives larger changes in ACEs as the rate at which
generation can change in the area is controlled by the limits.
• Due to this duration of imported power increase considerably as
compared to the case where generation rate is not limited.
• In GRCs , R should have proper value to get the dynamic
response.
Digital LF Controller
Now a days digital LF controllers are more commonly used due to following
reasons
It is more accurate and reliable
It is sensitive to variation in noise and drift
It is compact in size
It is more flexible
It can be used by computers in load dispatch center in time based manner
It provide error signal in district form
Continued.
• Digital LF controller are discontinuous process and operator have to
decide the use.
• District time control i.e. Continuous time dynamic system is given as
X= xA + uB + pC
Where
x, u and p are state vector, control vector and disturbance vector, while
A ,B,C are constant matrices related to the vectors respectively.
X(K+1)= Øx(k) + αu(k) + βp(k)
Where k=0,1,2,3……etc
Ø,α,β are state, control and disturbance matrices and they are given as
• Ø= eAT
• α= (eAT-1)A-1 B
• β= (eAT-1)A-1 C
• Where t= KT
• The matrix eAT can be calculated by various methods like
series expansion method, Sylvester’s expansion theorem
LOAD Frequency Control And Economic
Load Despatch
• All generators of power plant are connected together to form a group so
they can respond to changes in load to change in speed changer setting in
control area.
• Here frequency is assumed as a constant for both static and dynamic
conditions .
• In a power system any sudden load change will cause the deviations of
tie-line power exchanges and frequency variations.
• Therefore load frequency control (LFC) and automatic generation control
(AGC) are playing important role in reliable power system operation.
• The AGC system keeps frequency with in tolerable limit for each area
and tie-line power.
• AGC in a multi area interconnected power system has four
basis functions while operating in normal or preventive
operating states.
Keep system electrical frequency error to zero.
Distributing generation amongst area generation sources so that the area
operating costs became less
Matching total system generation to total system load.
Distributing system generation among control areas.
• Power system loads and losses are sensitive to frequency.
• After frequency disturbance a generating unit is tripped or a block of
load is added to the system.
• The power mismatch is reduced by extraction of kinetic energy from
system inertial storage, which is actually responsible for declining in the
system frequency.
• As frequency reduces the power taken by load reduces so stable
equilibrium is reached.
