Non-Destructive Testing Methods in Civil Engineering

Raja Babu
www.therajababu.com

Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur

Kalyanpur, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh 208016, India

Abstract
The ability to analyze various construction materials, components, existing structures without causing
permanent damage to them is of paramount importance. This review article provides the earlier, recent
advances and research about Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) methods in Civil Engineering, such as Visual
Inspection (VI), Liquid Penetration Testing (LPT), Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI), Ultrasonic Testing (UT),
Radiographic Testing (RT), Acoustic Emission Testing (AET), etc. This article mainly focuses on the details of NDT
methods, their scope, and their potential, limitations, inspections techniques, and interpretation.

Keywords: Non-Destructive Testing, Non-Destructive Examination, Non-Destructive Evaluation.

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1. INTRODUCTION effective means for testing a sample or the whole

structure.
Civil Engineering mainly consists of construction
and maintenance of Bridges, Buildings, Roads &
Railways, Dams & Reservoirs, Water Supply &
Waste Disposal Schemes, Tunnels & Power Houses, 2. Non-Destructive Testing Methods
Runways & Airports, Harbors & Coastal Structures,
2.1 Visual Inspection
Major & Minor Irrigation Schemes, etc. Testing is a
vital process that allows inspectors and builders to Visual Testing is the most common technique based
identify potential raw material problems. It also on visible defects on the surface, such as damage,
helps to check quality at intermediate stages in corrosion, cracks, misalignment, and more. The
production processes before committing resources accuracy of inspection can be aided using optical
to the project. It checks finished products by instruments such as magnifying glasses or
performing an actual stress test for legal computer-assisted systems. This method is
requirements, including occupational safety and inherent in most other types of NDT techniques. It
environmental regulations. is rapid and economical to perform, but expertise is
required, and the outcome depends on the viewer's
Based on the usefulness of the specimen after the
skill.
test is performed, testing methods can be broadly
categorized into two groups- Destructive Testing & 2.2 Ultrasonic Testing
Non-Destructive Testing. Destructive Testing
performs failure mechanisms to determine the Ultrasonic Testing utilizes high-frequency sound
mechanical properties of materials such as ductility, waves for examination and measurements on the
tensile strength, compressive strength, yield test area. It is broadly divided into Pulse-Echo (PE),
strength, fracture toughness, which render the part Through Transmission (TT) Testing, Time of Flight
unusable for its intended purpose. In contrast, Non- Diffraction (ToFD). The setup mainly consists of
Destructive Testing (NDT) is a form of testing and three units, ultrasonic transducer, receiver, and
analysis technique used in civil engineering to display unit. An ultrasonic transducer is used to
evaluate various construction materials, convert the given energy into an ultrasonic
components, existing structures, etc. without vibration, i.e., high-frequency ultrasonic sound
causing permanent damage. It provides a cost- energy, which is induced into the testing material.
The pulse wave undergoes multiple reflections at
the boundaries of the different material phases,
and the velocity of the pulses is almost independent Eddy Current utilizes an alternating current coil to
of the geometry of the material. If the material is induce an electromagnetic field into the testing
good in terms of density, homogeneity, and piece. While Remote Field & Alternating Current
uniformity, then high velocities are obtained, and if Field Measurement, use a probe to introduce a
the material is of poorer quality, low velocities are magnetic field.
obtained. If void, crack, flaw inside the material
Mostly, a 110V AC handheld electromagnetic yoke
comes in the way of transmission of the pulses; the
magnet is used, with a white strippable paint as
pulse strength is attenuated. The reflected sound
contrast background and iron powder particles in a
wave signals received are transformed back into
liquid carrier base as a "magnetic ink." Yoke magnet
electric signals, and its intensity is shown on the
is used to magnetize the area. If a defect in surface
display unit. The time traveled by sound waves is
or slightly subsurface is detected, the magnetic
directly linked to the distance that the signal has
force lines will be deformed around the defect. The
traveled. Combining all the data, information about
iron powder particle will bridge the gap formed by
reflector location, size, orientation, and other
the defect when magnetic ink is applied and gives a
features is determined.
visual indication against the white contrast
According to the guidelines given in the table, the background.
quality of concrete in terms of cracks, segregation,
uniformity, etc. can be assessed using Ultrasonic
Pulse Velocity.

Pulse Velocity by Cross Concrete Quality

Probing (km/sec) Grading
Above 4.5 Excellent
3.5 - 4.5 Good
3.0 – 3.5 Medium
Below 3.0 Doubtful (Schematic of flux lines flowing past both a perpendicular and
(Velocity Criterion for Concrete Quality Grading) parallel defect and flux leakage occurring around the
perpendicular flaw.)
The Dynamic Young's Modulus of Elasticity (E) of
the concrete can be determined from obtained This NDT method is useful as it detects both surface
Pulse Velocity (V) and the Dynamic Poisson's Ratio and near sub-surface defects. It is incredibly
(m), using the relationship: portable & low cost, provides immediate results
with rapid inspections, can detect faults that have
been smeared over, inspect parts with irregular
shapes such as connecting rods, etc.

2.4 Liquid Penetration Test

E = Young's Modulus of Elasticity in MPa
r = Density in kg/m3 Liquid Penetration Testing involves the use of a fluid
V = Pulse Velocity in m/sec with low viscosity to the test material. The fluid
seeps into any faults such a crack or porosity before
a developer is applied, which allows penetrant
2.3 Magnetic Particle Testing
liquid to seep upwards and create a visual
Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT) is a standard indication of the flaw. It can be conducted using
technique to detect flaws in ferromagnetic solvent removable penetrants, water washable
materials such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, along with penetrants, or post-emulsifiable penetrants. It is
some of their alloys. It is used to identify linear mostly used in the detection of several types of
faults located at the surface or subsurface of cracks in concrete, such as quench cracks, fatigue
ferromagnetic materials such as cracking, cold lap, cracks, overload cracks, grinding cracks, impact
pores, lack of sidewall fusion in welds, etc. fractures, and porosity cracks.
Electromagnetic Testing is of three types, Eddy
This NDT method is affordable, flexible, easy to use,
Current Testing, Remote Field Testing (RFT),
and considered when visual inspection is not
Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM).
sufficient to detect the cracks in concrete, mainly in
the case of liquid retention structures. It works on In Radiography, several imaging techniques are
the Capillary Action principle, i.e., the ability of a available to display the final images, i.e., Film
fluid to flow in the narrow cracks without any Radiography, Computed Tomography (CT), Real-
external help, even in opposition to the forces such Time Radiography (RTR), Computed Radiography
as gravity, to detect any concrete surface (CR), and Digital Radiography (DR). As Radioactivity
discontinuities. is involved in this test, paramount importance must
be given to ensure that the local rules are strictly
adhered to during the testing process. Computer
Tomography (CT) provides both cross-sectional and
3D volume images of the object under inspection. It
allows a detailed analysis of the internal structure
of a wide range of components. CT uses digital
radiography equipment such as Nikon 450kV micro-
focus, X-Tek Industrial 450kV broad-focus, X-Tek
225kV micro-focus, etc.

Radiographic Testing has many benefits over other

NTD methods: -

LPT is cost-effective, requires a minimal amount of • Can inspect assembled components

training, and can be easily tested on complicated • Detects both surface and subsurface
geometric shapes. It has a high sensitivity to small defects
surface discontinuities. On the other hand, it • Minimum surface preparation is required
requires pre-cleaning & post-cleaning, and • Provides a permanent record of the
extensive surface contamination may appear as inspection
defects. This method works only on materials with • Verify internal flaws on complex structures
a relatively nonporous surface. • Isolate and inspect internal components
• Automatically detect and measures
2.5 Radiographic Testing
internal flaws
Radiographic Testing (RT) uses x-rays or gamma • Measures dimensions and angles within
rays to examine the internal structure for any flaws the sample without sectioning
or defects. These radiation sources use higher • Sensitive to changes in thickness,
energy levels, i.e., shorter wavelength versions of corrosion, flaws, and material density.
electromagnetic waves. In RT, the test material is
placed between the radiation source and a film. The
2.6 Acoustic Emission Testing
test material density and thickness differences will
attenuate the penetrating radiation through Acoustic Emission (AE) Testing detects and
interaction processes involving scattering and/or monitors the release of ultrasonic stress waves
absorption. The differences in absorption are from localized sources when a material deforms
recorded on film(s) or through an electronic means. under stress. It works by mounting small sensors
on the component(s) under test. The sensors
convert the stress waves into electric signals, which
are used for further analysis. The waves are
captured when the component experience external
stimuli, such as high pressure, load, or temperature.
As the intensity of the damage grows in the
component, there is a higher release of energy. The
rate at which acoustic emission is detected, the
intensity of acoustic emission, and the loudness are
monitored and used to assess structural integrity
and for the health monitoring of the components.
The acoustic emission source, i.e., the damage
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_radiography) location, can be determined by using multiple
sensors. It is used to monitor the health of concrete 4. Mass Spectrometer Leak Testing use
structures such as bridges and buildings. helium or helium-air mix inside the test
chamber with a 'sniffer' to detect any
Acoustic emission has many advantages over other
change in the concentration of air sample,
methods; these include:
which would indicate a leak.
• Ability to detect a range of damage 2.9 Thermal/Infrared Testing
mechanism before they become
significant issues Infrared testing or Thermography is used to
• Can locate damage sources and can determine the wavelengths of infrared light
differentiate them based on acoustic emitted from the surface of an object, with the use
signatures of sensors, which can be used to assess its
• Global monitoring of a structure condition.
• Assesses the structure under real
2.10 Vibration Analysis
operational conditions
• Operational in hazardous environments, This process makes use of sensors to measure the
including high pressure, high vibration signatures from rotating parts to assess
temperatures, and corrosive & nuclear the condition of the component. The types of
environment sensors usually include displacement sensors,
• Can be conducted remotely velocity sensors, and accelerometers.
• Can detect damages that are difficult to
access with conventional non-destructive 3. Future of Non-Destructive Testing
testing techniques The development and use of new sensors,
However, this method cannot detect defects that equipment, and miniaturization of devices are all
may be present, but that does not move or grow. It paving ways to make effective use of NDT methods.
is slower than other NDT techniques. Data Fusion techniques are developed to integrate
several NDT methods and to enable effective data-
acquisition, processing, and interpretation of test
parameters with material integrity.
2.7 Ground Penetrating Radar
In the Digital Era, with more sophisticated
This NDT method sends radar pulses through the
equipment and extremely high computing power
surface of the structure such as rock, ice, water, or
with faster processing time, data collected by
soil. When it encounters any material boundaries
various NDT methods can be used to develop
with varying electromagnetic properties, the waves
software architecture to automate the process with
are reflected or refracted.
accepted accuracy. Computer crunches large data
2.8 Leak Testing sets in less time, which saves the workforce and
reduce the occurrence of human errors. Data
Leak Testing (LT) is used to detect leaks using one Centers and Cloud Computing are becoming the
of the four primary LT techniques: future of the digital world. The NDT datasets can be
1. Bubble Leak Testing uses liquid or a soap shared and monitored globally in the real-time
solution for larger parts and look for the scenario.
visual detection of gas, air, leaking from a
4. Conclusion
pressurized system.
2. Pressure Change Testing can be used only This article reviewed various NDT methods, and
on a closed system, to monitor the loss of some with more significant details along with their
pressure or vacuum over a set period. benefits and limitations. Mostly, the component or
3. Halogen Diode Leak Testing is done by structure under test is costly; So non-destructive
pressurizing a system with a mixture of air testing has become more crucial and demanding.
along with halogen-based tracer gas. A Factors such as efficiency, safety should be used in
halogen diode detection unit is used to analyzing the best method for any particular
sniff/locate any leaks. purpose. Furthermore, the method chosen should
minimize the costs incurred in operation.
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